What types of atmospheric vortices exist. Atmospheric vortices

Classification of any phenomena is an important element of the system of knowledge about them. Every researcher talks about certain vortex phenomena. A lot of them. What eddy flows are currently named and analyzed?

In terms of scale, this is:

Etheric vortices at the microcosm level

On a human-tangible level

On a cosmic level.

According to the degree of relationship with material particles.

Not related to them at this point in time.

To one degree or another, they have the properties of material particles, since they are carried along with them.

They have the properties of material particles that move them.

According to the criterion of the relationship between the ether and other structures of the surrounding world

Ethereal vortices that penetrate through solid objects, the Earth, and space objects and remain invisible to our senses.

Ethereal vortices that carry along air, water masses and even solid rocks. Like spirons.

“...the entire geosphere has been in the grip of this chiral spiral vortex field (SVP) for billions of years, which in reality is the force agent of the solar atmosphere with all the complications in connection with the manifestations of solar activity. The speed of propagation of a spiral vortex field (SVP) depends on the density, structure and mass of matter overcome (from 3-1010 cm s-1 in the solar core to (2 ^10)-107 cm-s-1 in terrestrial conditions). In the solar atmosphere, the SVP velocity with the primary one is the earth's interior, since, for example, the biosphere is located directly above this source. The temperature in the earth's core is not high enough (~ 6140K) for the generation of primary vortex quanta (spirons), however, the Earth, constantly irradiated by SVIR flows (104 erg-cm-2s-1), continuously receives a flow of solar vortex energy (~ 1.3-1015 W ). Observations indicate that the geoid is a low-Q resonator for SVVI; ~ 0.3-1015 W is retained in it.”

According to the criterion of using gravitational energy

Ethereal vortices are relatively independent of gravitational ones

Etheric vortices that convert gravispin energy into electromagnetic energy. And vice versa.

Ethereal vortex domains that pump energy from gravitational waves.

According to the criterion of influence on the person as a whole

Etheric vortices that give psychophysiological strength to people.

Etheric vortices, neutral to human psychophysiological activity.

Etheric vortices that reduce the psychophysiological activity of people. Such a field can also be a background vortex field. “Apparently, there is no protection from the influence of the background vortex field, except for the thickness of crystalline rocks” A.G. Nikolsky

According to the time criterion

Rapidly flowing ethereal vortices.

Long-lasting ethereal vortices

According to the degree of constancy and stability of presence

- “First of all”... “a background field that is uniform in space, with wave characteristics such as quasi-stationary noise with a random superposition of sinusoidal oscillations of various frequencies (0.1-20 Hz), amplitudes and durations.” Nikolsky G. A. Latent solar emission and radiation balance of the Earth.

Present depending on cosmic and other factors extended over time

Ethereal vortices in the form of a single-type, single-plane vortex

Aetheric vortices in the shape of a torus (a vortex in one plane intersects with a vortex in another plane)

Aether vortices in the form of a vacuum domain

According to the degree of homogeneity of vortex density

Relatively homogeneous

With ether sleeves of different densities

According to the degree of manifestation

Measured and documented

Indirectly measured

Alleged, hypothetical

By origin

From split, disintegrated particles

From objects, from particles, material objects that had linear motion

From wave energy

By energy source

From electromagnetic energy

From gravispin energy

Pulsating (from gravispin to electromagnetic, and vice versa)

By fractality to the rotation of various geometric shapes

The most complex, but promising classification of ethereal vortices is proposed in David Wilcock’s book “The Science of Unity”. He believes that all vortices, to one degree or another, approach different geometric shapes. And these forms do not arise by chance, but according to the laws of volumetric propagation of vibration. From here we can talk about vortices, fractal to the rotation of various geometric figures. Geometric shapes can be conditionally combined with each other.

As a result, such combinations and rotations with different angles of inclination to the plane give rise to the following figures. http://www.ligis.ru/librari/670.htm

The basis of such figures, as well as the basis of the vortices that arise during their rotation, are the Harmonic proportions of the Platonic Solids. D. Wilcock classified these forms as:

This approach is an elegant combination of basic crystal shapes and vortices. As will be shown later, “there is something in this.” http://www. 16pi2.com/joomla/

By cosmic origin

Ethereal vortices coming from underground

Introduction

1. Formation of atmospheric vortices

1.1 Atmospheric fronts. Cyclone and anticyclone

2. Study of atmospheric vortices at school

2.1 Studying atmospheric vortices in geography lessons

2.2 Study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena from 6th grade

Conclusion.

Bibliography.

Introduction

Atmospheric vortices - tropical cyclones, tornadoes, storms, squalls and hurricanes.

Tropical cyclones- these are vortices with low pressure in the center; they happen in summer and winter. T Tropical cyclones occur only at low latitudes near the equator. In terms of destruction, cyclones can be compared with earthquakes or a volcano ami.

The speed of cyclones exceeds 120 m/s, with heavy cloudiness, showers, thunderstorms and hail. A hurricane can destroy entire villages. The amount of precipitation seems incredible in comparison with the intensity of rainfall during the most severe cyclones in mid-latitudes.

Tornado- destructive atmospheric phenomenon. This is a huge vertical vortex several tens of meters high.

People cannot yet actively fight tropical cyclones, but it is important to prepare in time, whether on land or at sea. For this purpose, meteorological satellites are kept on watch around the clock, which provide great assistance in forecasting the paths of tropical cyclones. They photograph the vortices, and from the photograph they can quite accurately determine the position of the center of the cyclone and trace its movement. Therefore, in recent times it has been possible to warn the population about the approach of typhoons that could not be detected by ordinary meteorological observations.

Despite the fact that a tornado has a destructive effect, at the same time it is a spectacular atmospheric phenomenon. It is concentrated in a small area and seems to be all there before your eyes. On the shore you can see a funnel stretching out from the center of a powerful cloud, and another funnel rising towards it from the surface of the sea. Once closed, a huge, moving column is formed, which rotates counterclockwise. Tornadoes

are formed when the air in the lower layers is very warm, and in the upper layers it is cold. A very intense air exchange begins, which

accompanied by a vortex with high speed - several tens of meters per second. The diameter of a tornado can reach several hundred meters, and the speed can be 150-200 km/h. Low pressure forms inside, so the tornado draws in everything it encounters along the way. Known, for example, "fish"

rains, when a tornado from a pond or lake, along with the water, sucked in the fish located there.

Storm- this is a strong wind, with the help of which the sea can become very rough. A storm can be observed during the passage of a cyclone or tornado.

The wind speed of the storm exceeds 20 m/s and can reach 100 m/s, and when the wind speed is more than 30 m/s, it begins Hurricane, and wind increases up to speeds of 20-30 m/s are called squalls.

If in geography lessons they study only the phenomena of atmospheric vortices, then during life safety lessons they learn ways to protect against these phenomena, and this is very important, because knowing the methods of protection, today’s students will be able to protect not only themselves but their friends and loved ones from atmospheric vortices.

1. Formation of atmospheric vortices.

The struggle between warm and cold currents, trying to equalize the temperature difference between north and south, occurs with varying degrees of success. Then the warm masses take over and penetrate in the form of a warm tongue far to the north, sometimes to Greenland, Novaya Zemlya and even to Franz Josef Land; then masses of Arctic air in the form of a giant “drop” break through to the south and, sweeping away warm air on their way, fall on the Crimea and the republics of Central Asia. This struggle is especially pronounced in winter, when the temperature difference between north and south increases. On synoptic maps of the northern hemisphere you can always see several tongues of warm and cold air penetrating to different depths to the north and south.

The arena in which the struggle of air currents unfolds occurs precisely in the most populated parts of the globe - the temperate latitudes. These latitudes experience the vagaries of the weather.

The most turbulent areas in our atmosphere are the boundaries of air masses. Huge whirlwinds often appear on them, which bring us continuous changes in the weather. Let's get to know them in more detail.

1.1Atmospheric fronts. Cyclone and anticyclone

What is the reason for the constant movement of air masses? How are pressure belts distributed in Eurasia? Which air masses in winter are more similar in their properties: sea and continental air of temperate latitudes (mWUS and kWUS) or continental air of temperate latitudes (kWUS) and continental arctic air (kAW)? Why?

Huge masses of air move over the Earth and carry water vapor with them. Some move from land, others from sea. Some - from warm to cold areas, others - from cold to warm. Some carry a lot of water, others carry little. Often flows meet and collide.

In the strip separating air masses with different properties, peculiar transition zones arise - atmospheric fronts. The width of these zones usually reaches several tens of kilometers. Here, at the contact of different air masses, when they interact, a fairly rapid change in temperature, humidity, pressure and other characteristics of the air masses occurs. The passage of a front through any area is accompanied by cloudiness, precipitation, changes in air masses and associated weather types. In cases where air masses that are similar in their properties come into contact (in winter, AB and KVUS - over Eastern Siberia), an atmospheric front does not arise and no significant change in weather occurs.

Arctic and polar atmospheric fronts are often located over the territory of Russia. The Arctic front separates the Arctic air from the air of temperate latitudes. In the zone of separation of air masses of temperate latitudes and tropical air, a polar front is formed.

The position of atmospheric fronts changes with the seasons of the year.

According to the drawing(Fig. 1 ) can you determine whereArctic and polar fronts are located in summer.

(Fig. 1)

Along the atmospheric front, warm air comes into contact with colder air. Depending on what air enters the territory, displacing what was in it, fronts are divided into warm and cold.

Warm frontis formed when warm air moves towards cold air, pushing it away.

In this case, the warm air, being lighter, rises above the cold air smoothly, as if on a ladder (Fig. 2).

(Fig. 2)

As it rises, it gradually cools, the water vapor contained in it collects into drops (condenses), the sky becomes cloudy, and precipitation falls. A warm front brings warmer temperatures and lingering drizzles.

Cold front formed when moving cold air spirit towards the warm side. Cold air is heavy, so it squeezes under the warm air in a flurry, sharply, with one stroke, lifts it and pushes it up (see Fig. 3).

(Fig. 3)

Warm air cools quickly. Storm clouds gather above the ground. Rainfall occurs, often accompanied by thunderstorms. Strong winds and squalls often occur. When a cold front passes, clearing occurs quickly and cooling occurs.. From Figure 3 you can see in what sequence the types of clouds replace each other during the passage of warm and cold fronts.The development of cyclones is associated with atmospheric fronts, which bring the bulk of precipitation, cloudy and rainy weather to the territory of Russia.

Cyclones and anticyclones.

Cyclones and anticyclones are large atmospheric eddies that transport air masses. On maps they are distinguished by closed concentric isobars (lines of equal pressure).

Cyclones - These are vortices with low pressure in the center. Towards the outskirts, the pressure increases, so in the cyclone the air moves towards the center, slightly deviating counterclockwise. In the central part, the air rises and spreads to the outskirts .

As the air rises, it cools, moisture condenses, clouds form, and precipitation occurs. Cyclones reach a diameter of 2-3 thousand km and usually move at a speed of 30-40 km/h. Since the western transfer of air masses dominates in temperate latitudes, cyclones move across the territory of Russia from the west toEast. At the same time, air from more southern regions, i.e., usually warmer, is drawn into the eastern and southern parts of the cyclone, and colder air from the north is drawn into the northern and western parts. Due to the rapid change of air masses during the passage of a cyclone, the weather also changes dramatically.

Anticyclone has the highest pressure in the center of the vortex. From here the air spreads to the outskirts, deviating slightly clockwise. The nature of the weather (partly cloudy or dry - in the warm period, clear, frosty - in the cold period) is maintained throughout the entire duration of the anticyclone, since the air masses spreading from the center of the anticyclone have the same properties. Due to the outflow of air in the surface part, air from the upper layers of the troposphere constantly enters the center of the anticyclone. As it descends, this air warms up and moves away from the saturation state. The weather in the anticyclone is clear, cloudless, with large daily

temperature fluctuations. Basic the paths of cyclones are associated with atmospheric mifronts. In winter they develop over the Barents, Kara and

Okhotskseas. To the regions intensive winter cyclones applies north-west Russian plains, where is the atlantic cart spirit interacts with continent tal temperate air latitude and Arctic.

In summer, cyclones are most intense intensively are developing in the Far East and in the western regions Russian plains. Some strengthening of cyclonic activity sti observed in the north of Siberia. Anticyclonic weather is most typical in both winter and summer for the south of the Russian Plain. Stable anticyclones are characteristic of Eastern Siberia in winter.

Synoptic maps, weather forecast. Synoptic car you contain weather information big territories. Composing there are they are for a certain period of time based weather observations, carried out network of meteorologists ical stations. On the weather forecast skies maps show pressure air, atmospheric fronts, region high and low pressure and the direction of their movement, areas with precipitation and the nature of precipitation, wind speed and direction, air temperature. Currently, satellite images are increasingly used to compile synoptic maps. Cloud zones are clearly visible on them, allowing one to judge the position of cyclones and atmospheric fronts. Synoptic maps are the basis for weather forecasting. For this purpose, maps compiled for several periods are usually compared and changes in the position of fronts, the displacement of cyclones and anticyclones are determined, and the most likely direction of their development in the near future is determined. Based on these data, a weather forecast map is compiled, that is, a synoptic map for the upcoming period (for the next observation period, for a day, two). Small-scale maps provide a forecast for a large area. Weather forecasting is especially important for aviation. In a particular area, the forecast can be refined based on the use of local weather cues.

1.2 Approach and passage of a cyclone

The first signs of an approaching cyclone appear in the sky. Even the day before, at sunrise and sunset, the sky turns a bright red-orange color. Gradually, as the cyclone approaches, it becomes copper-red and acquires a metallic tint. An ominous dark streak appears on the horizon. The wind freezes. There is a startling silence in the stuffy hot air. There's still about a day left until it hits

the first furious gust of wind. Seabirds quickly gather in flocks and fly away from the sea. Over the sea they will inevitably die. With sharp cries, flying from place to place, the feathered world expresses its anxiety. Animals hide in holes.

But of all the harbingers of a storm, the most reliable is the barometer. Already 24 hours, and sometimes 48 hours before the storm begins, air pressure begins to drop.

The faster the barometer “falls”, the sooner and the stronger the storm will be. The barometer stops falling only when it is close to the center of the cyclone. Now the barometer begins to fluctuate without any order, rising and falling until it passes the center of the cyclone.

Red or black wisps of torn clouds rush across the sky. A huge black cloud is approaching with terrible speed; it covers the entire sky. Every minute there are sharp gusts of howling wind, like a blow. Thunder rumbles incessantly; dazzling lightning pierces the ensuing darkness. In the roar and noise of the approaching hurricane, there is no way to hear each other. As the center of the hurricane passes, the noise begins to sound like artillery fire.

Of course, a tropical hurricane does not destroy everything in its path; he encounters many insurmountable obstacles. But how much destruction does such a cyclone bring with it? All the fragile, light buildings of the southern countries are sometimes destroyed to the ground and carried away by the wind. The water of the rivers, driven by the wind, flows backward. Individual trees are uprooted and dragged along the ground over long distances. Branches and leaves of trees are carried in the air in clouds. Centuries-old forests bend like reeds. Even grass is often swept from the ground by a hurricane like rubbish. The tropical cyclone rages most of all on the sea coasts. Here the storm passes without encountering any major obstacles.

moving from warm regions to colder ones, cyclones gradually expand and weaken.

Some tropical hurricanes sometimes travel very far. Thus, the coasts of Europe are sometimes reached, however, by greatly weakened tropical cyclones of the West Indies.

How do people now fight such formidable natural phenomena?

Man is not yet able to stop the hurricane, to direct it along a different path. But to warn about a storm, to inform ships at sea and the population on land about it - this task is successfully performed by the meteorological service in our time. Such a service daily produces special weather maps, according to which

successfully predicts where, when and how strong a storm is expected in the coming days. Having received such a warning by radio, ships either do not leave the port, or rush to take refuge in the nearest reliable port, or try to move away from the hurricane.

Anticyclone We already know that when the front line between two air currents sags, a warm tongue is squeezed into the cold mass, and thus a cyclone is born. But the front line can also bend towards warm air. In this case, a vortex appears with completely different properties than a cyclone. It is called an anticyclone. This is no longer a basin, but an airy mountain.

The pressure in the center of such a vortex is higher than at the edges, and the air spreads from the center to the outskirts of the vortex. Air from higher layers descends in its place. As it descends, it contracts, heats up, and the cloudiness in it gradually dissipates. Therefore, the weather in an anticyclone is usually partly cloudy and dry; on the plains it is hot in summer and cold in winter. Fogs and low stratus clouds can occur only on the outskirts of the anticyclone. Since in an anticyclone there is not such a big difference in pressure as in a cyclone, the winds here are much weaker. They move clockwise (Fig. 4).

Fig.4

As the vortex develops, its upper layers warm up. This is especially noticeable when the cold tongue is cut off and the vortex stops “feeding” on the cold or when the anticyclone stagnates in one place. Then the weather there becomes more stable.

In general, anticyclones are calmer vortices than cyclones. They move more slowly, about 500 kilometers per day; they often stop and stand in one area for weeks, and then continue on their way again. Their sizes are huge. An anticyclone often, especially in winter, covers all of Europe and part of Asia. But in individual series of cyclones, small, mobile and short-lived anticyclones can also appear.

These whirlwinds usually come to us from the northwest, less often from the west. On weather maps, the centers of anticyclones are designated by the letter B (Fig. 4).

On our map we can find the anticyclone and see how the isobars are located around its center.

These are atmospheric vortices. Every day they pass over our country. They can be found on any weather map.

2. Study of atmospheric vortices at school

In the school curriculum, atmospheric vortices and air masses are taught in geography lessons.

In lessons they study c circulation air masses in summer and winter, TtransformationYuair masses, and whenresearchatmosphericvorticesstudycyclones and anticyclones, classification of fronts according to the characteristics of movement, etc.

2.1 Studying atmospheric vortices in geography lessons

Sample lesson plan on the topic<< Air masses and their types. Circulation of air masses >> and<< Atmospheric fronts. Atmospheric vortices: cyclones and anticyclones >>.

Air masses and their types. Air circulation

Target:familiarize yourself with the different types of air masses, the areas of their formation, and the types of weather determined by them.

Equipment:climate maps of Russia and the world, atlases, stencils with the contours of Russia.

(Working with contour maps.)

1. Determine the types of air masses dominating the territory of our country.

2. Identify the basic properties of air masses (temperature, humidity, direction of movement).

3. Establish the areas of action of air masses and the possible impact on climate.

(The results of the work can be entered into a table.)

WHO stuffy mass	Formation area	Basic properties		Areas of coverage	Manifestation of transformation	Impact on climate
		Tempera tour	humidity

Comments

1. Students should pay attention to the transformation of air masses when moving over a particular territory.

2. When checking students' work, it is necessary to emphasize that depending on the geographic latitude, arctic, temperate or tropical air masses are formed, and depending on the underlying surface they can be continental or maritime.

Large masses of the troposphere, differing in their properties (temperature, humidity, transparency), are called air masses.

Three types of air masses move over Russia: arctic (AVM), temperate (UVM), tropical (TVM).

AVMform over the Arctic Ocean (cold, dry).

UVMare formed in temperate latitudes. Over land - continental (KVUSH): dry, warm in summer and cold in winter. Over the ocean - sea (MKVUSH): wet.

Moderate air masses dominate in our country, since Russia is located mostly in temperate latitudes.

- How do the properties of air masses depend on the underlying surface? (Air masses that form over the sea surface are marine, humid, over land - continental, dry.)

- Are air masses moving? (Yes.)

Provide evidence of their movement. (Changeweather.)

- What makes them move? (Difference in pressure.)

- Are the areas with different pressures the same throughout the year? (No.)

Let's consider the movement of air masses throughout the year.

If the movement of masses depends on the difference in pressure, then this diagram should first depict areas with high and low pressure. In summer, areas of high pressure are located over the Pacific and Arctic oceans.

Summer

- What air masses form in these areas?(INArctic - continental arctic air masses (CAW).)

- What kind of weather do they bring? (They bring cold and clear weather.)

If this air mass passes over the continent, it heats up and transforms into a continental temperate air mass (CTMA). Which already differs in properties from KAV (warm and dry). Then KVUSH turns into KTV (hot and dry, bringing dry winds and drought).

Transformation of air masses- this is a change in the properties of air masses in the troposphere when moving to other latitudes and to another underlying surface (for example, from sea to land or from land to sea). At the same time, the air mass heats up or cools down, the content of water vapor and dust in it increases or decreases, the nature of cloudiness changes, etc. Under conditions of a radical change in the properties of the air

its masses belong to a different geographical type. For example, masses of cold Arctic air, penetrating into the south of Russia in the summer, become very warm, dry and dusty, acquiring the properties of continental tropical air, which often causes droughts.

A marine moderate mass (MBM) comes from the Pacific Ocean; like the air mass from the Atlantic Ocean, it brings relatively cool weather and precipitation in summer.

Winter

(On this diagram, students also mark areas of high pressure (where there are areas of low temperature).)

Areas of high pressure are forming in the Arctic Ocean and Siberia. From there, cold and dry air masses are sent to Russian territory. Continental temperate masses come from Siberia, bringing frosty, clear weather. Marine air masses in winter come from the Atlantic Ocean, which at this time is warmer than the mainland. Consequently, this air mass brings precipitation in the form of snow, thaws and snowfalls are possible.

Answer the question: “How do you explain the type of weather today? Where did he come from, what signs did you use to determine this?”

Atmospheric fronts. Atmospheric vortices: cyclones and anticyclones

Goals:form an idea of ​​atmospheric vortices and fronts; show the connection between weather changes and processes in the atmosphere; introduce the reasons for the formation of cyclones and anticyclones.

Equipment:maps of Russia (physical, climatic), demonstration tables “Atmospheric fronts” and “Atmospheric vortices”, cards with points.

1. Frontal survey

- What are air masses? (Large volumes of air that differ in their properties: temperature, humidity and transparency.)

- Air masses are divided into types. Name them, how are they different? ( Sample answer. Arctic air is formed over the Arctic - it is always cold and dry, transparent, because there is no dust in the Arctic. Over most of Russia in temperate latitudes, a moderate air mass is formed - cold in winter and warm in summer. In summer, tropical air masses arrive in Russia, which form over the deserts of Central Asia and bring hot and dry weather with air temperatures up to 40 ° C.)

- What is air mass transformation? ( Sample answer. Changes in the properties of air masses as they move over the territory of Russia. For example, temperate sea air coming from the Atlantic Ocean loses moisture, warms up in the summer and becomes continental - warm and dry. In winter, the temperate sea air loses moisture, but cools and becomes dry and cold.)

- Which ocean and why has a greater influence on the climate of Russia? ( Sample answer. Atlantic. Firstly, most of Russia

is located in the dominant westerly wind transfer; secondly, there are virtually no obstacles to the penetration of westerly winds from the Atlantic, since in the west of Russia there are plains. The low Ural Mountains are not an obstacle.)

2. Test

1. The total amount of radiation reaching the Earth’s surface is called:

a) solar radiation;

b) radiation balance;

c) total radiation.

2.The largest indicator of reflected radiation is:

a) sand; c) black soil;

b) forest; d) snow.

3.Move over Russia in winter:

a) Arctic air masses;

b) moderate air masses;

c) tropical air masses;

d) equatorial air masses.

4. The role of the western transfer of air masses is increasing in most of Russia:

in the summer; c) in autumn.

b) in winter;

5. The largest indicator of total radiation in Russia has:

a) south of Siberia; c) the south of the Far East.

b) North Caucasus;

6. The difference between total radiation and reflected radiation and thermal radiation is called:

a) absorbed radiation;

b) radiation balance.

7.When moving towards the equator, the amount of total radiation:

a) decreases; c) does not change.

b) increases;

Answers:1 - in; 3 - g; 3 - a, b; 4 - a; 5 B; 6 - b; 7 - b.

3. Working with cards And

Determine what type of weather is described.

1. At dawn the frost is below 35 °C, and the snow is barely visible through the fog. The creaking can be heard for several kilometers. Smoke from the chimneys rises vertically. The sun is red like hot metal. During the day both sun and snow sparkle. The fog has already melted. The sky is blue, permeated with light, if you look up, it feels like summer. And it’s cold outside, severe frost, the air is dry, there is no wind.

The frost is getting stronger. A rumble from the sounds of cracking trees can be heard throughout the taiga. In Yakutsk, the average January temperature is -43 °C, and from December to March an average of 18 mm of precipitation falls. (Continental temperate.)

2. The summer of 1915 was very stormy. It rained all the time with great consistency. One day it rained very heavily for two days in a row. He did not allow people to leave their houses. Fearing that the boats would be carried away by the water, they pulled them further ashore. Several times in one day

they knocked them over and poured out the water. Towards the end of the second day, water suddenly came from above and immediately flooded all the banks. (Monsoon moderate.)

III. Learning new material

Comments.The teacher offers to listen to a lecture, during which students define terms, fill out tables, and make diagrams in their notebooks. Then the teacher, with the help of consultants, checks the work. Each student receives three score cards. If within

lesson, the student gave a score card to the consultant, which means he needs more work with the teacher or consultant.

You already know that three types of air masses move across our country: arctic, temperate and tropical. They differ quite strongly from each other in the main indicators: temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. When air masses with

different characteristics, in the zone between them the difference in air temperature, humidity, pressure increases, and wind speed increases. Transition zones in the troposphere, in which air masses with different characteristics converge, are called fronts.

In the horizontal direction, the length of fronts, like air masses, is thousands of kilometers, vertically - about 5 km, the width of the frontal zone at the Earth's surface is about hundreds of kilometers, at altitudes - several hundred kilometers.

The lifetime of atmospheric fronts is more than two days.

Fronts together with air masses move at an average speed of 30-50 km/h, and the speed of cold fronts often reaches 60-70 km/h (and sometimes 80-90 km/h).

Classification of fronts according to their movement characteristics

1. Fronts that move towards colder air are called warm fronts. Behind the warm front, a warm air mass enters the region.

2. Cold fronts are those that move towards a warmer air mass. Behind the cold front, a cold air mass enters the region.

IV. Consolidating new material

1. Working with the map

1. Determine where the Arctic and polar fronts are located over Russian territory in the summer. (Sample answer). Arctic fronts in summer are located in the northern part of the Barents Sea, over the northern part of Eastern Siberia and the Laptev Sea and over the Chukotka Peninsula. Polar fronts: the first in summer stretches from the Black Sea coast over the Central Russian Upland to the Cis-Urals, the second is located in the south

Eastern Siberia, the third - over the southern part of the Far East and the fourth - over the Sea of ​​Japan.)

2 . Determine where arctic fronts are located in winter. (In winter, Arctic fronts move south, but remainsfront over the central part of the Barents Sea and over the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Koryak Plateau.)

3. Determine in which direction the fronts shift in winter.

(Sample answer).In winter, fronts move south, because all air masses, winds, and pressure belts shift south following the apparent movement

Sun.

2. Independent work

Filling out tables.

	Cold front
1. Warm air moves towards cold air. 2. Warm, light air rises. 3. Lingering rains. 4. Slow warming	1. Cold air moves towards warm air. 2. Pushes light warm air upward. 3. Showers, thunderstorms. 4. Rapid cooling, clear weather

Atmospheric fronts

Cyclones and anticyclones

Signs	Cyclone	Anticyclone
What is this?	Atmospheric vortices carrying air masses
How are they shown on the maps?	Concentric isobars
Atmospheres new pressure	Vortex with low pressure at the center	High pressure in the center
Air movement	From the periphery to the center	From the center to the outskirts
Phenomena	Air cooling, condensation, cloud formation, precipitation	Warming and drying the air
Dimensions	2-3 thousand km in diameter
Transfer speed displacement	30-40 km/h, mobile	Sedentary
Direction movement	From west to east
Place of birth	North Atlantic, Barents Sea, Sea of ​​Okhotsk	In winter - Siberian anticyclone
Weather	Cloudy with precipitation	Partly cloudy, warm in summer, frosty in winter

3. Working with synoptic maps (weather maps)

Thanks to synoptic maps, you can judge the progress of cyclones, fronts, cloudiness, and make a forecast for the coming hours and days. Synoptic maps have their own symbols, by which you can find out about the weather in any area. Isolines connecting points with the same atmospheric pressure (they are called isobars) show cyclones and anticyclones. In the center of concentric isobars there is the letter H (low pressure, cyclone) or IN(high pressure, anticyclone). Isobars also indicate air pressure in hectopascals (1000 hPa = 750 mmHg). The arrows indicate the direction of movement of the cyclone or anticyclone.

The teacher shows how a synoptic map reflects various information: air pressure, atmospheric fronts, anticyclones and cyclones and their pressure, areas with precipitation, the nature of precipitation, wind speed and direction, air temperature.)

From the suggested signs, select what is characteristic of

cyclone, anticyclone, atmospheric front:

1) atmospheric vortex with high pressure in the center;

2) atmospheric vortex with low pressure in the center;

3) brings cloudy weather;

4) stable, inactive;

5) established over Eastern Siberia;

6) zone of collision of warm and cold air masses;

7) rising air currents in the center;

8) downward air movement in the center;

9) movement from center to periphery;

10) movement counterclockwise to the center;

11) can be warm or cold.

(Cyclone - 2, 3, 1, 10; anticyclone - 1, 4, 5, 8, 9; atmospheric front - 3,6, 11.)

Homework

2.2 Study of the atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena from 6th grade

The study of atmosphere and atmospheric phenomena in school begins in sixth grade in geography lessons.

From the sixth grade, students studying the geography section<< Атмосфера – воздушная оболочка земли>> they begin to study the composition and structure of the atmosphere, in particular, the fact that the force of gravity of the earth holds this air shell around itself and does not allow it to dissipate in space, and students also begin to understand that clean air is the most important condition for human life. They begin to distinguish the composition of air, gain knowledge about oxygen and learn how important it is for humans in its pure form. They gain knowledge about the layers of the atmosphere, and how important it is for the globe, from which it protects us.

Continuing the study of this section, schoolchildren will understand that the air at the surface of the earth is warmer than at altitude, and this is due to the fact that the sun's rays, passing through the atmosphere, almost do not heat it, only the surface of the earth heats up, and if there was no atmosphere, then the surface of the earth

would quickly give off the heat received from the sun, taking into account this phenomenon, children imagine that our earth is protected by its air shell, in particular the air, retains part of the heat leaving the surface of the earth and at the same time heats up. And if you rise higher, then the layer of the atmosphere becomes thinner and, therefore, it cannot retain more heat.

Already having an idea of ​​the atmosphere, children continue their research and learn that there is such a thing as the average daily temperature, and it is found using a very simple method - they measure the temperature during the day for a certain period of time, then find the arithmetic average from the collected indicators.

Now schoolchildren, moving on to the next paragraph of the section, begin to study the morning and evening cold, and this is so because during the day the sun rises to its maximum height, and at this moment the maximum heating of the earth's surface occurs. And as a result, the difference between air temperatures can vary during the day, in particular over oceans and seas by 1-2 degrees, and over steppes and deserts it can reach up to 20 degrees. This takes into account the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, terrain, vegetation and weather.

Continuing to consider this paragraph, schoolchildren learn that why it is warmer in the tropics than at the pole, and this is so, because the further from the equator, the lower the sun is above the horizon, and therefore the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the earth is less, and there is less solar energy per unit of earth's surface.

Moving on to the next paragraph, students begin to study pressure and wind, consider issues such as atmospheric pressure, what air pressure depends on, why the wind blows and what it is like.

Air has mass; according to scientists, a column of air presses on the surface of the earth with a force of 1.03 kg/cm 2 . Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer, and the unit of measurement is millimeters of mercury.

A normal pressure is considered to be 760 mm Hg. Art., therefore, if the pressure is higher than normal, it is called high, and if it is lower, it is called low.

There is an interesting pattern here: atmospheric pressure is in balance with the pressure inside the human body, so we do not experience discomfort, despite the fact that such a volume of air presses on us.

Now let’s look at what air pressure depends on, and so, as the altitude of the area increases, the pressure decreases, and this, because there is less air column pressing on the ground, the air density also decreases, therefore, the higher you are from the surface, the more difficult it is to breathe.

Warm air is lighter than cold air, its density is lower, the pressure on the surface is weak, and when heated, warm masses rise upward, and the reverse process occurs if the air is cooled.

Analyzing the above, it follows that atmospheric pressure is closely related to air temperature and terrain altitude.

Now let's move on to the next question, and find out why the wind blows?

In the middle of the day, sand or stone heats up in the sun, but the water is still quite cool - it heats up more slowly. And in the evening or at night it can be the other way around: the sand is already cold, but the water is still warm. This happens because land and water heat up and cool down differently.

During the day, the sun's rays heat the coastal land. At this time: land, buildings on it, and from them the air heats up faster than water, warm air above land rises, pressure above land decreases, air above water does not have time to heat up, its pressure is still higher than above land, air from the region higher pressure above the water tends to take place above the land and begins to move, equalizing the pressure - it blew from the sea to the land wind.

At night, the surface of the earth begins to cool. The land and the air above it cool faster, and the pressure over the land becomes higher than over the water. Water cools more slowly, and the air above it remains warm longer. It rises and the pressure over the sea decreases. The wind starts to blow from

sushi at sea. Such a wind, changing direction twice a day, is called a breeze (translated from French as a light wind).

Now the students already know that WIND ARISES DUE TO DIFFERENCES IN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE.

And after that, students can already explore the next question. What kind of wind is there? Wind has two main characteristics: speed And direction. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows, and the wind speed is the number of meters the air travels per second (m/s).

For each area, it is important to know which winds blow more often and which winds blow less often. This is essential for building designers, pilots and even doctors. Therefore, experts build a drawing that is called a wind rose. Initially, a wind rose was a sign in the shape of a star, the rays of which pointed to the sides of the horizon - 4 main and 8 intermediate. The top beam always pointed north. The compass rose was present on ancient maps and compass dials. She showed the direction to sailors and travelers.

Moving on to the next paragraph, students begin to explore moisture in the atmosphere.

Water is present in all the earth's shells, including the atmosphere. She gets there evaporating from the water and solid surface of the earth and even from the surface of plants. Along with nitrogen, oxygen and other gases, the air always contains water vapor - water in a gaseous state. Like other gases, it is invisible. When the air cools, the water vapor it contains turns into droplets - condenses. Fine water particles condensed from water vapor can be observed as clouds high in the sky or as fog low above the earth's surface.

At subzero temperatures, the droplets freeze and turn into snowflakes or pieces of ice.Now let's considerWhich air is humid and which is dry?The amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air depends on its temperature. For example, 1 m 3 of cold air at a temperature of about -10 ° C can contain a maximum of 2.5 g of water vapor. However, 1 m 3 of equatorial air at a temperature of +30 ° C can contain up to 30 g of water vapor. How higher air temperature, the higher water vapor may be contained in it.

Relative humidity shows the ratio of the amount of moisture in the air to the amount it can contain at a given temperature.

How do clouds form and why does it rain?

What happens if air saturated with moisture cools? Some of it will turn into liquid water, because colder air can hold less water vapor. On a hot summer day, you can observe how first a few, and then more and more large clouds appear in the cloudless sky in the morning. It is the sun's rays that heat the earth more and more, and from it the air heats up. The heated air rises, cools, and the water vapor in it turns into a liquid state. At first these are very small droplets of water (hundredths of a millimeter in size). Such drops do not fall to the ground, but “float” in the air. This is how they are formed clouds. As more droplets become available, they can become larger and eventually fall to the ground as rain or fall as snow or hail.

"Puffy" clouds that form when air rises as a result of heating the surface are called cumulus. Torrential rain comes from powerful cumulonimbus clouds There are other types of clouds - low

layered, taller and lighter feathery. Precipitation falls from nimbostratus clouds.

Cloudiness- an important characteristic of the weather. This is the portion of the sky occupied by clouds. Cloudiness determines how much light and heat will not reach the surface of the earth and how much precipitation will fall. Cloudiness at night prevents the air temperature from decreasing, and during the day it reduces the heating of the earth by the sun.

Now let's consider the question - what kind of precipitation is there? We know that precipitation falls from clouds. Precipitation can be liquid (rain, drizzle), solid (snow, hail) and mixed - wet snow (snow and rain). An important characteristic of precipitation is its intensity, i.e. the amount of precipitation that fell over a certain period of time, in millimeters. The amount of precipitation falling on the earth's surface is determined using a precipitation gauge. Based on the nature of the precipitation, rainfall, heavy precipitation and drizzle are distinguished. Stormwater precipitation is intense, short-lived, and falls from cumulonimbus clouds. Covers Precipitation falling from nimbostratus clouds is moderately intense and long-lasting. drizzling precipitation falls from stratus clouds. They are small droplets, as if suspended in the air.

Having studied the above, students move on to consider the question - What types of air masses are there? In nature, almost always “everything is connected to everything,” so the elements of the weather do not change arbitrarily, but in relation to each other. Their stable combinations characterize various types air masses. The properties of air masses, firstly, depend on geographic latitude, and secondly, on the nature of the earth's surface. The higher the latitude, the less heat, the lower the air temperature.

Finally, students will learn thatclimate - long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area.

Mainclimate factors: geographic latitude, proximity of seas and oceans, direction of prevailing winds, relief and altitude above sea level, sea currents.

Further study by schoolchildren of climatic phenomena continues at the level of continents separately, they consider separately which phenomena occur on which particular continent, and having studied by continent, in high school they continue to consider individual countries

Conclusion

The atmosphere is a shell of air that surrounds the earth and rotates with it. The atmosphere protects life on the planet. It retains solar heat and protects the earth from overheating, harmful radiation, and meteorites. It is where the weather is formed.

The air of the atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases; it always contains water vapor. The main gases in the air are nitrogen and oxygen. The main characteristics of the atmosphere are air temperature, atmospheric pressure, air humidity, wind, clouds, and precipitation. The air shell is connected with other shells of the Earth primarily through the global water cycle. The bulk of the atmospheric air is concentrated in its lower layer - the troposphere.

Solar heat reaches the spherical surface of the earth unequally, therefore different climates are formed at different latitudes.

Bibliography

1. Theoretical foundations of methods of teaching geography. Ed. A. E. Bibik and

Dr., M., “Enlightenment”, 1968

2. Geography. Nature and people. 6th grade_Alekseev A.I. and others_2010 -192s

3. Geography. Beginner course. 6th grade. Gerasimova T.P., Neklyukova

N.P. (2010, 176 pp.)

4. Geography. 7th grade At 2 o'clock Part 1._Domogatskikh, Alekseevsky_2012 -280s

5. Geography. 7th grade At 2 o'clock Part 2._Domogatskikh E.M_2011 -256s

6. Geography. 8th grade_Domogatskikh, Alekseevsky_2012 -336sChanging of the climate. A manual for high school teachers. Kokorin

Whirlwinds in the air. A number of methods for creating vortex movements are known experimentally. The method described above for obtaining smoke rings from a box makes it possible to obtain vortices whose radius and speed are of the order of 10-20 cm and 10 m/sec, respectively, depending on the diameter of the hole and the impact force. Such vortices travel distances of 15-20 m.

Vortexes of a much larger size (with a radius of up to 2 m) and higher speed (up to 100 m/sec) are obtained using explosives. In a pipe, closed at one end and filled with smoke, an explosive charge located at the bottom is detonated. A vortex obtained from a cylinder with a radius of 2 m with a charge weighing about 1 kg travels a distance of about 500 m. Over most of the distance, the vortices obtained in this way are turbulent in nature and are well described by the law of motion, which is set out in § 35.

The mechanism of formation of such vortices is qualitatively clear. When air moves in a cylinder caused by an explosion, a boundary layer forms on the walls. At the edge of the cylinder, the boundary layer breaks off,

As a result, a thin layer of air with significant vorticity is created. Then this layer is folded. A qualitative picture of the successive stages is shown in Fig. 127, which shows one edge of the cylinder and the vortex layer breaking off from it. Other schemes for the formation of vortices are also possible.

At low Reynolds numbers, the spiral structure of the vortex is maintained for quite a long time. At high Reynolds numbers, as a result of instability, the spiral structure is destroyed immediately and turbulent mixing of the layers occurs. As a result, a vortex core is formed, the vorticity distribution in which can be found if we solve the problem posed in § 35, described by the system of equations (16).

However, at the moment there is no calculation scheme that would allow the given parameters of the pipe and the weight of the explosive to determine the initial parameters of the formed turbulent vortex (i.e., its initial radius and speed). The experiment shows that for a pipe with given parameters there is a maximum and minimum charge weight at which a vortex is formed; its formation is strongly influenced by the location of the charge.

Vortexes in the water. We have already said that vortices in water can be obtained in a similar way, by pushing out a certain volume of liquid, tinted with ink, from a cylinder with a piston.

Unlike air vortices, the initial speed of which can reach 100 m/sec or more, in water at an initial speed of 10-15 m/sec, a cavitation ring appears due to the strong rotation of the liquid moving with the vortex. It occurs at the moment of formation of a vortex when the boundary layer is removed from the edge of the Cylinder. If you try to get vortices with speed

more than 20 m/sec, then the cavitation cavity becomes so large that instability occurs and the vortex is destroyed. The above applies to cylinder diameters of the order of 10 cm; it is possible that with an increase in diameter it will be possible to obtain stable vortices moving at high speed.

An interesting phenomenon occurs when a vortex moves vertically upward in water towards a free surface. Part of the liquid, forming the so-called vortex body, flies up above the surface, at first almost without changing shape - the water ring jumps out of the water. Sometimes the speed of the ejected mass in the air increases. This can be explained by the ejection of air that occurs at the boundary of the rotating fluid. Subsequently, the emitted vortex is destroyed under the influence of centrifugal forces.

Drops falling. It is easy to observe the vortices that form when ink drops fall into water. When an ink drop falls into water, a ring of ink is formed and moves downward. A certain volume of liquid moves along with the ring, forming the body of the vortex, which is also colored with ink, but much weaker. The nature of the movement strongly depends on the ratio of the densities of water and ink. In this case, differences in density of tenths of a percent turn out to be significant.

The density of pure water is less than that of ink. Therefore, when the vortex moves, it is acted upon by a force directed downward along the direction of the vortex. The action of this force leads to an increase in the momentum of the vortex. Vortex momentum

where Г is the circulation or intensity of the vortex, and R is the radius of the vortex ring, and the speed of the vortex

If we neglect the change in circulation, then from these formulas we can draw a paradoxical conclusion: the action of a force in the direction of movement of the vortex leads to a decrease in its speed. Indeed, from (1) it follows that with increasing momentum at a constant

circulation, the radius R of the vortex should increase, but from (2) it is clear that with constant circulation, the speed decreases with increasing R.

At the end of the vortex movement, the ink ring breaks up into 4-6 separate clumps, which in turn turn into vortices with small spiral rings inside. In some cases, these secondary rings break apart again.

The mechanism of this phenomenon is not very clear, and there are several explanations for it. In one scheme, the main role is played by gravity and instability of the so-called Taylor type, which occurs when, in a gravitational field, a denser fluid is located above a less dense one, and both fluids are initially at rest. The flat boundary separating two such liquids is unstable - it is deformed, and individual clots of a denser liquid penetrate into the less dense one.

As the ink ring moves, the circulation actually decreases and this causes the vortex to stop completely. But the force of gravity continues to act on the ring, and in principle it should fall further as a whole. However, Taylor instability occurs, and as a result, the ring breaks up into separate clumps, which descend under the influence of gravity and in turn form small vortex rings.

Another explanation for this phenomenon is possible. An increase in the radius of the ink ring leads to the fact that part of the liquid moving with the vortex takes the shape shown in Fig. 127 (p. 352). As a result of the action on the rotating torus, consisting of stream lines, of forces similar to the Magnus force, the elements of the ring acquire a speed directed perpendicular to the speed of movement of the ring as a whole. This movement is unstable and disintegrates into separate clumps, which again turn into small vortex rings.

The mechanism for the formation of a vortex when drops fall into water can have a different character. If a drop falls from a height of 1-3 cm, then its entry into the water is not accompanied by a splash and the free surface is slightly deformed. At the boundary between a drop and water

a vortex layer is formed, the folding of which leads to the formation of a ring of ink surrounded by water captured by the vortex. The successive stages of vortex formation in this case are qualitatively depicted in Fig. 128.

When drops fall from a great height, the mechanism of vortex formation is different. Here, a falling drop, deformed, spreads on the surface of the water, imparting an impulse with maximum intensity in the center over an area much larger than its diameter. As a result, a depression forms on the surface of the water, it expands by inertia, and then collapses and a cumulative splash appears - a plume (see Chapter VII).

The mass of this plume is several times greater than the mass of a drop. Falling under the influence of gravity into the water, the plume forms a vortex according to the already disassembled pattern (Fig. 128); in Fig. 129 shows the first stage of a drop falling, leading to the formation of a plume.

According to this scheme, vortices are formed when rare rain with large drops falls on the water - the surface of the water is then covered with a network of small plumes. Due to the formation of such plumes, each

the drop significantly increases its mass, and therefore the vortices caused by its fall penetrate to a fairly large depth.

Apparently, this circumstance can be used as the basis for explaining the well-known effect of dampening surface waves in water bodies by rain. It is known that in the presence of waves, the horizontal components of particle velocity on the surface and at some depth have opposite directions. During rain, a significant amount of liquid penetrating into the depths dampens the wave speed, and currents rising from the depths dampen the speed at the surface. It would be interesting to develop this effect in more detail and build its mathematical model.

Vortex cloud of an atomic explosion. A phenomenon very similar to the formation of a vortex cloud during an atomic explosion can be observed during explosions of conventional explosives, for example, during the detonation of a flat round explosive plate located on dense soil or on a steel plate. You can also arrange the explosive in the form of a spherical layer or glass, as shown in Fig. 130.

A ground-based atomic explosion differs from a conventional explosion primarily in the significantly greater concentration of energy (kinetic and thermal) with a very small mass of gas thrown upward. In such explosions, the formation of a vortex cloud occurs due to the buoyancy force, which appears due to the fact that the mass of hot air formed during the explosion is lighter than the environment. The buoyancy force also plays a significant role during the further movement of the vortex cloud. Just as when an ink vortex moves in water, the action of this force leads to an increase in the radius of the vortex cloud and a decrease in speed. The phenomenon is complicated by the fact that air density changes with altitude. An approximate calculation scheme for this phenomenon is available in the work.

Vortex model of turbulence. Let a flow of liquid or gas flow around a surface that is a plane with indentations limited by spherical segments (Fig. 131, a). In ch. V we showed that in the area of ​​dents zones with constant vorticity naturally arise.

Let us now assume that the vortex zone separates from the surface and begins to move in the main flow (Fig.

131.6). Due to the swirl, this zone, in addition to the speed V of the main flow, will also have a velocity component perpendicular to V. As a result, such a moving vortex zone will cause turbulent mixing in a layer of liquid, the size of which is tens of times larger than the size of the dent.

This phenomenon, apparently, can be used to explain and calculate the movement of large masses of water in the oceans, as well as the movement of air masses in mountainous areas during strong winds.

Reduced resistance. At the beginning of the chapter, we talked about the fact that air or water masses without shells that move with the vortex, despite their poorly streamlined shape, experience significantly less resistance than the same masses in shells. We also indicated the reason for this decrease in resistance - it is explained by the continuity of the velocity field.

A natural question arises: is it possible to give a streamlined body such a shape (with a moving boundary) and impart to it such a movement that the resulting flow would be similar to the flow during the movement of a vortex, and thereby try to reduce the resistance?

We will give here an example belonging to B. A. Lugovtsov, which shows that such a formulation of the question makes sense. Let us consider a plane potential flow of an incompressible inviscid fluid symmetrical with respect to the x axis, the upper half of which is shown in Fig. 132. At infinity, the flow has a speed directed along the x axis, in Fig. 132 the hatching indicates a cavity in which such pressure is maintained that at its boundary the velocity value is constant and equal to

It is easy to see that if, instead of a cavity, a solid body with a moving boundary is placed in the flow, the speed of which is also equal, then our flow can be considered as an exact solution to the problem of a viscous fluid flowing around this body. In fact, the potential flow satisfies the Navier-Stokes equation, and the no-slip condition at the body boundary is satisfied due to the fact that the velocities of the fluid and the boundary coincide. Thus, thanks to the moving boundary, the flow will remain potential, despite the viscosity, a trace will not appear and the total force acting on the body will be equal to zero.

In principle, such a design of a body with a moving boundary can be implemented in practice. To maintain the described motion, a constant supply of energy is required, which must compensate for the dissipation of energy due to viscosity. Below we will calculate the power required for this.

The nature of the flow under consideration is such that its complex potential must be a multivalued function. To isolate its unambiguous branch, we

Let's make a cut along the segment in the flow area (Fig. 132). It is clear that the complex potential maps this region with a cut to the region shown in Fig. 133, a (the corresponding points are marked with the same letters), images of streamlines are also indicated on it (the corresponding points are marked with the same numbers). The potential break on the line does not violate the continuity of the velocity field, because the derivative of the complex potential remains continuous on this line.

In Fig. 133b shows an image of the flow area when displayed, this is a circle of radius with a cut along the real axis from the point to the branching point of the flow B, at which the speed is zero, goes to the center of the circle

So, in the plane, the image of the flow region and the position of the points are completely defined. In the plane opposite, you can arbitrarily set the dimensions of the rectangle. Having specified them, you can find by

Riemann's theorem (Chapter I) is the only conformal mapping of the left half of the region in Fig. 133, and on the lower semicircle Fig. 133, b, in which the points in both figures correspond to each other. Due to symmetry, then the entire region of Fig. 133, and will be displayed on a circle with a cut in Fig. 133, b. If you choose the position of point B in Fig. 133, a (i.e., the length of the cut), then it will go to the center of the circle and the display will be completely determined.

It is convenient to express this mapping in terms of the parameter , which varies in the upper half-plane (Fig. 133, c). The conformal mapping of this half-plane onto a circle with a cut in Fig. 133, b with the required correspondence of points can be written out simply.

Some time ago, before the advent of meteorological satellites, scientists could not even think that about one hundred and fifty cyclones and sixty anticyclones form in the Earth’s atmosphere every year. Previously, many cyclones were unknown because they occurred in places where there were no meteorological stations that could record their occurrence.

In the troposphere, the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere, vortices constantly appear, develop and disappear. Some of them are so small and unnoticeable that they pass by our attention, others are so large-scale and have such a strong influence on the Earth’s climate that they cannot be ignored (primarily this applies to cyclones and anticyclones).

Cyclones are areas of low pressure in the Earth's atmosphere, in the center of which the pressure is much lower than at the periphery. An anticyclone, on the contrary, is an area of ​​high pressure that reaches its highest levels in the center. While over the northern hemisphere, cyclones move counterclockwise and, obeying the Coriolis force, try to move to the right. While the anticyclone moves clockwise in the atmosphere and deviates to the left (in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth everything happens the other way around).

Despite the fact that cyclones and anticyclones are absolutely opposite vortices in their essence, they are strongly interconnected with each other: when pressure decreases in one region of the Earth, its increase is necessarily recorded in another. Also, cyclones and anticyclones have a common mechanism that causes air currents to move: non-uniform heating of different parts of the surface and the rotation of our planet around its axis.

Cyclones are characterized by cloudy, rainy weather with strong gusts of wind that arise due to the difference in atmospheric pressure between the center of the cyclone and its edges. An anticyclone, on the contrary, in summer is characterized by hot, windless, partly cloudy weather with very little precipitation, while in winter it causes clear but very cold weather.

Snake Ring

Cyclones (gr. “snake ring”) are huge vortices, the diameter of which can often reach several thousand kilometers. They are formed in temperate and polar latitudes, when warm air masses from the equator collide with dry, cold currents moving towards them from the Arctic (Antarctica) and form a boundary between themselves, which is called an atmospheric front.

Cold air, trying to overcome the warm air flow remaining below, in some area pushes part of its layer back - and it comes into collision with the masses following it. As a result of the collision, the pressure between them increases and part of the warm air turned back, yielding to the pressure, is deflected to the side, beginning an ellipsoidal rotation.

This vortex begins to capture the layers of air adjacent to it, draws them into rotation and begins to move at a speed of 30 to 50 km/h, while the center of the cyclone moves at a lower speed than its periphery. As a result, after some time the diameter of the cyclone ranges from 1 to 3 thousand km, and the height – from 2 to 20 km.

Where it moves, the weather changes sharply, since the center of the cyclone has low pressure, there is a lack of air inside it, and cold air masses begin to flow in to make up for it. They displace warm air upward, where it cools, and the water droplets in it condense and form clouds, from which precipitation falls.

The lifespan of a vortex is usually from several days to weeks, but in some regions it can last about a year: usually these are areas of low pressure (for example, the Icelandic or Aleutian cyclones).

It is worth noting that such vortices are not typical for the equatorial zone, since the deflecting force of the planet’s rotation, necessary for the vortex-like movement of air masses, does not act here.

The southernmost, tropical cyclone, forms no closer to the equator than five degrees and is characterized by a smaller diameter, but higher wind speed, often transforming into a hurricane. According to their origin, there are such types of cyclones as the temperate cyclone and the tropical cyclone, which generates deadly hurricanes.

Vortexes of tropical latitudes

In the 1970s, tropical cyclone Bhola hit Bangladesh. Although the wind speed and strength were low and it was assigned only the third (out of five) hurricane category, due to the huge amount of precipitation that fell on the ground, the Ganges River overflowed its banks and flooded almost all the islands, washing away all settlements from the face of the earth.

The consequences were catastrophic: during the rampant disaster, from three hundred to five hundred thousand people died.

A tropical cyclone is much more dangerous than a vortex from temperate latitudes: it forms where the temperature of the ocean surface is not lower than 26°, and the difference between air temperatures exceeds two degrees, as a result of which evaporation increases, air humidity increases, which contributes to the vertical rise of air masses.

Thus, a very strong draft appears, capturing new volumes of air that have heated up and gained moisture above the ocean surface. The rotation of our planet around its axis gives the rise of air the vortex-like movement of a cyclone, which begins to rotate at enormous speed, often transforming into hurricanes of terrifying force.

A tropical cyclone is formed only over the ocean surface between 5-20 degrees north and south latitudes, and once on land, it fades out quite quickly. Its dimensions are usually small: the diameter rarely exceeds 250 km, but the pressure at the center of the cyclone is extremely low (the lower, the faster the wind moves, so the movement of cyclones is usually from 10 to 30 m/s, and wind gusts exceed 100 m/s) . Naturally, not every tropical cyclone brings death with it.

There are four types of this vortex:

• Disturbance – moves at a speed not exceeding 17 m/s;
• Depression - the movement of the cyclone is from 17 to 20 m/s;
• Storm - the center of the cyclone moves at a speed of up to 38 m/s;
• Hurricane - a tropical cyclone moves at a speed exceeding 39 m/s.

The center of this type of cyclone is characterized by a phenomenon called the “eye of the storm” - an area of ​​calm weather. Its diameter is usually about 30 km, but if a tropical cyclone is destructive, it can reach up to seventy. Inside the eye of the storm, the air masses have a warmer temperature and less humidity than in the rest of the vortex.

Calm often reigns here; at the border, precipitation abruptly stops, the sky clears, the wind weakens, thereby deceiving people who, deciding that the danger has passed, relax and forget about precautions. Since a tropical cyclone always moves from the ocean, it drives huge waves in front of it, which, when they hit the coast, sweep everything out of the way.

Scientists are increasingly recording the fact that every year the tropical cyclone becomes more dangerous and its activity is constantly increasing (this is due to global warming). Therefore, these cyclones are found not only in tropical latitudes, but also reach Europe at an atypical time of year for them: they usually form in late summer/early autumn and never occur in spring.

Thus, in December 1999, France, Switzerland, Germany, and the UK were hit by Hurricane Lothar, so powerful that meteorologists could not even predict its appearance due to the fact that the sensors either went off scale or did not work. “Lotar” turned out to be the cause of the death of more than seventy people (they were mainly victims of road accidents and falling trees), and in Germany alone, about 40 thousand hectares of forest were destroyed in a few minutes.

Anticyclones

An anticyclone is a vortex in the center of which there is high pressure and low pressure at the periphery. It is formed in the lower layers of the Earth's atmosphere when cold air masses invade warmer ones. An anticyclone occurs in subtropical and subpolar latitudes, and its movement speed is about 30 km/h.

An anticyclone is the opposite of a cyclone: ​​the air in it does not rise, but descends. It is characterized by the absence of humidity. An anticyclone is characterized by dry, clear, and windless weather, hot in summer and frosty in winter. Significant temperature fluctuations during the day are also characteristic (the difference is especially strong on the continents: for example, in Siberia it is about 25 degrees). This is explained by the lack of precipitation, which usually makes the temperature difference less noticeable.

Names of vortices

In the middle of the last century, anticyclones and cyclones began to be given names: this turned out to be much more convenient when exchanging information about hurricanes and cyclone movements in the atmosphere, since it made it possible to avoid confusion and reduce the number of errors. Behind each name of a cyclone and anticyclone there was hidden data about the vortex, down to its coordinates in the lower layer of the atmosphere.

Before making a final decision on the name of this or that cyclone and anticyclone, a sufficient number of proposals were considered: they were proposed to be designated by numbers, letters of the alphabets, names of birds, animals, etc. This turned out to be so convenient and effective that after a while Over time, all cyclones and anticyclones received names (at first they were female, and in the late seventies tropical vortices began to be called by male names).

Since 2002, a service has appeared that offers anyone who wants to name a cyclone or anticyclone by their name. The pleasure is not cheap: the standard price for a cyclone to be named after a customer is 199 euros, and an anticyclone costs 299 euros, since anticyclones occur less frequently.

Tropical cyclones are vortices with low pressure at their center; They are formed in summer and autumn over the warm surface of the ocean.
Typically, tropical cyclones occur only at low latitudes near the equator, between 5 and 20° of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
From here, a vortex with a diameter of approximately 500-1000 km and a height of 10-12 km begins its run.

Tropical cyclones are widespread on Earth, and in different parts of the world they are called differently: in China and Japan - typhoons, in the Philippines - bagwhiz, in Australia - willy-willy, near the coast of North America - hurricanes.
The destructive power of tropical cyclones can rival earthquakes or volcanic eruptions.
In one hour, one such vortex with a diameter of 700 km releases energy equal to 36 hydrogen bombs of average power. In the center of a cyclone there is often the so-called eye of the storm - a small area of ​​calm with a diameter of 10-30 km.
Here the weather is partly cloudy, the wind speed is low, the air temperature is high and the pressure is very low, and hurricane-force winds are blowing around, rotating clockwise. Their speed can exceed 120 m/s, and heavy clouds occur, accompanied by heavy showers, thunderstorms and hail.

For example, Hurricane Flora, which swept over the islands of Tobago, Haiti and Cuba in October 1963, caused such mischief. The wind speed reached 70-90 m/s. Flooding has begun in Tobago. In Haiti, the hurricane destroyed entire villages, killing 5 thousand people and leaving 100 thousand homeless. The amount of rainfall that accompanies tropical cyclones seems incredible in comparison with the intensity of rainfall from the most severe cyclones in temperate latitudes. Thus, when one hurricane passed through Puerto Rico, 26 billion tons of water fell in 6 hours.
If you divide this amount per unit area, there will be much more precipitation than what falls in a year, for example, in Batumi (on average 2700 mm).

A tornado is one of the most destructive atmospheric phenomena - a huge vertical whirlwind several tens of meters high.

Of course, people cannot yet actively fight tropical cyclones, but it is important to prepare in time for a hurricane, whether on land or at sea. To do this, meteorological satellites maintain a 24-hour watch over the vast expanses of the World Ocean, providing great assistance in forecasting the paths of tropical cyclones.
They photograph these vortices even at the moment of their formation, and from the photograph they can quite accurately determine the position of the center of the cyclone and trace its movement. Therefore, in recent years, it has been possible to warn the population of vast areas of the Earth about the approach of typhoons that could not be detected by ordinary meteorological observations.
A tornado observed in Tampa Bay, Florida in 1964.

A tornado is one of the most destructive and at the same time spectacular atmospheric phenomena.
This is a huge vortex with a vertical axis several hundred meters long.
Unlike a tropical cyclone, it is concentrated in a small area: it’s all there, as if before your eyes.

On the shores of the Black Sea, you can see how a giant dark trunk stretches out from the central part of a powerful cumulonimbus cloud, the lower base of which takes the shape of an overturned funnel, and another funnel rises towards it from the surface of the sea.
If they close together, a huge, rapidly moving column will form, rotating counterclockwise.

Tornadoes are formed when the atmosphere is in an unstable state, when the air in its lower layers is very warm and in the upper layers it is cold.
In this case, a very intense air exchange occurs, accompanied by a vortex of enormous speed - several tens of meters per second.
The diameter of a tornado can reach several hundred meters, and it sometimes moves even at a speed of 150-200 km/h.
A very low pressure is formed inside the vortex, so the tornado draws in everything it encounters on the way: it can carry water, soil, stones, parts of buildings, etc. over a long distance.
For example, “fish” rains are known, when a tornado from a pond or lake, along with the water, pulled in the fish located there.

A ship thrown ashore by the waves.

Tornadoes on land in the USA and Mexico are called tornadoes, in Western Europe - thrombus. Tornadoes are quite common in North America, with an average of more than 250 per year. A tornado is the strongest of the tornadoes observed on the globe, with wind speeds of up to 220 m/s.

Tornado at sea. The diameter of a tornado can reach several hundred meters and move at a speed of 150-200 km/h.

The worst tornado in its consequences swept through the states of Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee in March 1925, where 689 people died. In the temperate latitudes of our country, tornadoes occur once every few years. An exceptionally strong tornado with a wind speed of 80 m/s swept through the city of Rostov, Yaroslavl region in August 1953. The tornado passed through the city in 8 minutes; leaving a strip of destruction 500 m wide.
He threw two wagons weighing 16 tons off the railway tracks.

Signs of worsening weather.

Hook-shaped cirrus clouds move from the west or southwest.

The wind does not subside in the evening, but intensifies.

The moon is surrounded by a small corolla (halo).

After the appearance of fast-moving cirrus clouds, the sky becomes covered with a transparent (veil-like) layer of cirrostratus clouds. They are visible in the form of circles near the Sun or Moon.

Clouds of all tiers are simultaneously visible in the sky: cumulus, “lamb”, wavy and cirrus.

If a developed cumulus cloud turns into a thunderstorm and an “anvil” forms in its upper part, then hail should be expected.

In the morning, cumulus clouds appear, which grow and by midday take the form of tall towers or mountains.

Smoke goes down or spreads along the ground.

It is difficult to predict the formation and path of a tornado over land: it moves at enormous speed and is very short-lived. However, a network of observation posts notifies the Weather Bureau of the occurrence of a tornado and its location. There, this data is analyzed and appropriate warnings are transmitted.

Squalls. There was a clap of thunder, a solid black-gray shaft of clouds became even closer - and it was as if everything was mixed up. Hurricane winds broke and uprooted trees and tore roofs off houses. It was a squall.

A squall occurs mainly before cold atmospheric fronts or near the centers of small moving cyclones when cold air masses invade warm ones. When cold air invades, it displaces warm air, causing it to rise quickly, and the greater the temperature difference between the encountered cold and warm air (and it can exceed 10-15 °), the greater the strength of the squall. The wind speed during a squall reaches 50-60 m/s, and it can last up to one hour; it is often accompanied by rain or hail. After the squall, a noticeable cooling occurs. A squall can occur in all seasons of the year and at any time of the day, but more often in the summer, when the earth's surface warms up more.

Squalls are a formidable natural phenomenon, especially due to the suddenness of their appearance. Here is a description of one squall. On March 24, 1878, in England, the frigate Eurydice, arriving from a long voyage, was met on the seashore. "Eurydice" has already appeared on the horizon. There were only 2-3 km left to the shore. Suddenly a terrifying squall of snow came. The sea was covered with huge waves. The phenomenon lasted only two minutes. When the squall ended, there were no traces of the frigate left. It was capsized and sank. Winds of more than 29 m/s are called hurricanes.

Hurricane winds are most often observed in the zone of convergence of a cyclone and an anticyclone, that is, in areas with a sharp pressure drop. Such winds are most typical for coastal areas where marine and continental air masses meet, or in the mountains. But they also happen on the plains. At the beginning of January 1969, a cold anticyclone from the north of Western Siberia quickly moved to the south of the European territory of the USSR, where it met a cyclone, the center of which was located over the Black Sea, while very large pressure differences arose in the zone of convergence of the anticyclone and the cyclone: ​​up to 15 mb per 100 km. A cold wind rose at a speed of 40-45 m/s. On the night of January 2-3, a hurricane hit Western Georgia. He destroyed residential buildings in Kutaisi, Tkibuli, Samtredia, uprooted trees, and tore out wires. Trains stopped, transport stopped working, and fires broke out in some places. Huge waves of a force twelve storm hit the shore near Sukhumi, and the buildings of the sanatoriums of the Pitsunda resort were damaged. In the Rostov region, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories, hurricane winds lifted a lot of earth into the air along with snow. The wind tore roofs off houses, destroyed the top layer of soil, and blew out winter crops. Snow storms covered the roads. Having spread to the Sea of ​​Azov, the hurricane drove water from the eastern coast of the sea to the western. From the cities of Primorsko-Akhtarsk and Azov, the sea retreated 500 m, and in Genichensk, located on the opposite bank, the streets were flooded. The hurricane also hit the south of Ukraine. On the Crimean coast, piers, cranes and beach facilities were damaged. These are the consequences of just one hurricane.

Thunderstorms often accompany volcanic eruptions.

Hurricane winds are frequent on the coasts of the Arctic and Far Eastern seas, especially in winter and autumn during the passage of cyclones. In our country, at the Pestraya Dresva station - on the western shore of Shelikhov Bay - winds of 21 m/s or more are observed sixty times a year. This station is located at the entrance to a narrow valley. Once in it, the weak eastern wind from the bay, due to the narrowing of the flow, intensifies to a hurricane.

When snow falls with strong winds, blizzards or blizzards occur. A blizzard is the movement of snow by wind. The latter is often accompanied by whirlwind movements of snowflakes. The formation of blizzards depends not so much on the strength of the wind, but on the fact that snow is a loose and light material that is easily lifted from the ground by the wind. Hence, snowstorms occur at different wind speeds, sometimes starting from 4-6 m/s. Blizzards cover roads and airfield runways with snow and create huge snowdrifts.