Petrovsky introduction to psychology read online. Introduction to Psychology
M.: Academy, 1996 - 496 p.
The book is based on the textbook “General Psychology,” which was reprinted many times from 1970 to 1986 and translated into German, Finnish, Danish, Chinese, Spanish and many other languages. The textbook has been radically revised and supplemented with new materials that meet the modern level of development of psychological science.
Despite all the content and completeness, the textbook retains the features of propaedeutics in relation to subsequent basic and practice-oriented academic disciplines. In fact, each chapter of this book is the basis of a corresponding textbook for a specific psychological discipline. For example, the chapters “Communication” and “Personality” are a kind of preamble for the course (program and textbook) “Social Psychology”. Chapters devoted to cognitive processes: “Memory”, “Perception”, “Thinking”, “Imagination” are introduced into the course “Educational Psychology” or “Psychology of Education”.
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Size: 2.7 2 MB
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CONTENT
Part I. SUBJECT AND HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1. Historical path of development of psychology (M.G, Yaroshevsky).................. S
1. Ancient psychology.................................................. ........................... 6
2. Psychological thought of the New Age.................................................... 18
3. The origins of psychology as a science................................................... ......... 28
4. Development of experimental and differential psychology.... 38
5. Main psychological schools.................................................... ....... 44
6. Evolution of schools and directions................................................. ............. 57
Chapter 2. Modern psychology. Its subject and place in the system of sciences (A.V. Petrovsky). 70
1. Subject of psychology......................................................... ........................... 70
2. Psychology and natural science.................................................. ............... 73
3. Psychology and scientific and technological progress.................................................... 76
4. Psychology and pedagogy................................................... ........................ 77
5. The place of psychology in the system of sciences.................................................... .......... 80
6. Structure of modern psychology.................................................. ...... 80
7. The concept of general psychology................................................... ................ 85
Chapter 3. Methods of psychology (LA. Karpenko)............................................ ............... 88
1. Subjective method.................................................... ........................... 88
2. Objective method.................................................... ........................... 91
3. Objective research methods................................................................. ...... 92
4. Experimental method......................................................... ........................... 96
5. Measurements in psychology.................................................... ........................ 100
6. Survey method......................................................... ........................................... 106
7. Projective methods.................................................. ........................... 111
8. Method of reflected subjectivity.................................................... .......... 112
9. Organization of a specific psychological study............ 113
Part II. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND STATES
Chapter 4. Sensations (T.P. Zinchenko)..................................................... ........................... 117
1. The concept of sensation.................................................... ................................... 117
2. General patterns of sensations.................................................... ........ 126
Chapter 5. Perception (V.L. Zinchenko, T.P. Zinchenko).................................. .......... 137
1. Characteristics of perception and its features.................................... 137
2. Perception as action................................................... ........................ 146
3. Perception of space................................................... ........................... 149
4. Perception of time and motion................................................. .......... 159
Chapter 6. Memory (G.K. Sereda).................................................... ........................................ 164
1. General concept of memory................................................... ........................... 164
2. Types of memory........................................................ ........................................... 172
3. General characteristics of memory processes.................................................... 177
4. Memorization................................................... ........................................... 179
5. Playback................................................... ................................... 187
6. Forgetting and storing.................................................... ........................... 190
7. Individual differences in memory.................................................... ........ 194
Chapter 7. Thinking (A.V. Brushlinsky).................................................... ........................ 196
1. General characteristics of thinking................................................... ......... 196
2- Thinking and problem solving.................................................... .................... 209
3. Types of thinking............................................................. .................................... 217
Chapter 8. Imagination (A.V. Petrovsky).................................................... .................... 222
1. The concept of imagination, its main types and processes.................... 222
2. Physiological foundations of imagination processes.................................... 230
3. The role of fantasy in children’s play and adults’ creativity.................................. 233
Chapter 9. Feelings (AL Petrovsky)................................................... ............................ 239
1. Definition of feelings and their physiological basis.................................... 239
2. Forms of experiencing feelings................................................... ................... 243
3. Feelings and personality................................................. ................................... 252
Part III. INTERDISCIPLINARY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 10. Activity (L.I. Petrovsky, V.L. Petrovsky).................................259
1. Internal organization of human activity.................................................259
2. External organization of activity................................................... .......267
3. Painful actions.................................................. ................................276
Chapter 11. Communication (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ........................280
1. The concept of communication.................................................... ...............................280
2. Communication as the exchange of information................................................... .........283
3. Communication as interpersonal interaction.................................................292
4. Communication as people’s understanding of each other.................................................. 301
Chapter 12. Groups (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ...............................310
1. Groups and their classification................................................... ...............310
2. The highest form of group development.................................................. ............312
3. Differentiation between groups of different levels of development...................................320
4. Integration of groups of different levels of development....................................331
5. Student groups: psychological features of the work of a teacher (MAO. Kondraty:i).337
6. Structure of relationships in the family.................................................. .....350
Chapter 13. Consciousness (B.S. Mukhina, L.V. PstroiskiP)................................................. ....362
1. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis.................................................... .............362
2. The emergence of consciousness.................................................... ...........................366
3. The structure of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche........................372
Chapter 14. Personality (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ...........................385
1. The concept of personality in psychology.................................................... .........385
2. Personality structure.................................................... ...............................390
3. Basic theories of personality in foreign psychology...................................397
4. Personality orientation............................................................. .................... 401
5. Personal self-awareness................................................................. ........................ 407
6. Personal development.................................................. ................................... 417
Part IV. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A PERSON
Chapter 15. Temperament (N.S. Leites)................................................. ............................... 432
1. General concept of temperament.................................................... ............... 432
2. The role of temperament in work and educational activities.....,............ 442
3. Temperament and parenting problems.................................................. ... 447
Chapter 16. Character (A.V. Petrovsky)................................................. ........................... 451
1. The concept of character................................................... ................................ 451
2. Character structure.................................................... ........................... 452
3. Nature and manifestations of character................................................. .......... 458
Chapter 17. Abilities (A.V. Petrovsky^...................................... .................... 468
1. The concept of abilities................................................... ........................... 468
2. Structure of abilities.................................................... ........................... 474
3. Talent, its origin and structure.................................................... .. 476
4. Natural prerequisites for abilities and talent.................................... 480
5. Formation of abilities................................................... ................ 486
Application. Glossary of terms................................................... ........................... 489
Recommended reading................................................... ............... 491
M.: Academy, 1996 - 496 p.
The book is based on the textbook “General Psychology,” which was reprinted many times from 1970 to 1986 and translated into German, Finnish, Danish, Chinese, Spanish and many other languages. The textbook has been radically revised and supplemented with new materials that meet the modern level of development of psychological science.
Despite all the content and completeness, the textbook retains the features of propaedeutics in relation to subsequent basic and practice-oriented academic disciplines. In fact, each chapter of this book is the basis of a corresponding textbook for a specific psychological discipline. For example, the chapters “Communication” and “Personality” are a kind of preamble for the course (program and textbook) “Social Psychology”. Chapters devoted to cognitive processes: “Memory”, “Perception”, “Thinking”, “Imagination” are introduced into the course “Educational Psychology” or “Psychology of Education”.
Format: pdf/zip
Size: 2.7 2 MB
/Download file
Format: doc/zip
Size: 733 KB
/Download file
CONTENT
Part I. SUBJECT AND HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1. Historical path of development of psychology (M.G, Yaroshevsky).................. S
1. Ancient psychology.................................................. ........................... 6
2. Psychological thought of the New Age.................................................... 18
3. The origins of psychology as a science................................................... ......... 28
4. Development of experimental and differential psychology.... 38
5. Main psychological schools.................................................... ....... 44
6. Evolution of schools and directions................................................. ............. 57
Chapter 2. Modern psychology. Its subject and place in the system of sciences (A.V. Petrovsky). 70
1. Subject of psychology......................................................... ........................... 70
2. Psychology and natural science.................................................. ............... 73
3. Psychology and scientific and technological progress.................................................... 76
4. Psychology and pedagogy................................................... ........................ 77
5. The place of psychology in the system of sciences.................................................... .......... 80
6. Structure of modern psychology.................................................. ...... 80
7. The concept of general psychology................................................... ................ 85
Chapter 3. Methods of psychology (LA. Karpenko)............................................ ............... 88
1. Subjective method.................................................... ........................... 88
2. Objective method.................................................... ........................... 91
3. Objective research methods................................................................. ...... 92
4. Experimental method......................................................... ........................... 96
5. Measurements in psychology.................................................... ........................ 100
6. Survey method......................................................... ........................................... 106
7. Projective methods.................................................. ........................... 111
8. Method of reflected subjectivity.................................................... .......... 112
9. Organization of a specific psychological study............ 113
Part II. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND STATES
Chapter 4. Sensations (T.P. Zinchenko)..................................................... ........................... 117
1. The concept of sensation.................................................... ................................... 117
2. General patterns of sensations.................................................... ........ 126
Chapter 5. Perception (V.L. Zinchenko, T.P. Zinchenko).................................. .......... 137
1. Characteristics of perception and its features.................................... 137
2. Perception as action................................................... ........................ 146
3. Perception of space................................................... ........................... 149
4. Perception of time and motion................................................. .......... 159
Chapter 6. Memory (G.K. Sereda).................................................... ........................................ 164
1. General concept of memory................................................... ........................... 164
2. Types of memory........................................................ ........................................... 172
3. General characteristics of memory processes.................................................... 177
4. Memorization................................................... ........................................... 179
5. Playback................................................... ................................... 187
6. Forgetting and storing.................................................... ........................... 190
7. Individual differences in memory.................................................... ........ 194
Chapter 7. Thinking (A.V. Brushlinsky).................................................... ........................ 196
1. General characteristics of thinking................................................... ......... 196
2- Thinking and problem solving.................................................... .................... 209
3. Types of thinking............................................................. .................................... 217
Chapter 8. Imagination (A.V. Petrovsky).................................................... .................... 222
1. The concept of imagination, its main types and processes.................... 222
2. Physiological foundations of imagination processes.................................... 230
3. The role of fantasy in children’s play and adults’ creativity.................................. 233
Chapter 9. Feelings (AL Petrovsky)................................................... ............................ 239
1. Definition of feelings and their physiological basis.................................... 239
2. Forms of experiencing feelings................................................... ................... 243
3. Feelings and personality................................................. ................................... 252
Part III. INTERDISCIPLINARY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 10. Activity (L.I. Petrovsky, V.L. Petrovsky).................................259
1. Internal organization of human activity.................................................259
2. External organization of activity................................................... .......267
3. Painful actions.................................................. ................................276
Chapter 11. Communication (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ........................280
1. The concept of communication.................................................... ...............................280
2. Communication as the exchange of information................................................... .........283
3. Communication as interpersonal interaction.................................................292
4. Communication as people’s understanding of each other.................................................. 301
Chapter 12. Groups (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ...............................310
1. Groups and their classification................................................... ...............310
2. The highest form of group development.................................................. ............312
3. Differentiation between groups of different levels of development...................................320
4. Integration of groups of different levels of development....................................331
5. Student groups: psychological features of the work of a teacher (MAO. Kondraty:i).337
6. Structure of relationships in the family.................................................. .....350
Chapter 13. Consciousness (B.S. Mukhina, L.V. PstroiskiP)................................................. ....362
1. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis.................................................... .............362
2. The emergence of consciousness.................................................... ...........................366
3. The structure of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche........................372
Chapter 14. Personality (L.V. Petrovsky).................................................... ...........................385
1. The concept of personality in psychology.................................................... .........385
2. Personality structure.................................................... ...............................390
3. Basic theories of personality in foreign psychology...................................397
4. Personality orientation............................................................. .................... 401
5. Personal self-awareness................................................................. ........................ 407
6. Personal development.................................................. ................................... 417
Part IV. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A PERSON
Chapter 15. Temperament (N.S. Leites)................................................. ............................... 432
1. General concept of temperament.................................................... ............... 432
2. The role of temperament in work and educational activities.....,............ 442
3. Temperament and parenting problems.................................................. ... 447
Chapter 16. Character (A.V. Petrovsky)................................................. ........................... 451
1. The concept of character................................................... ................................ 451
2. Character structure.................................................... ........................... 452
3. Nature and manifestations of character................................................. .......... 458
Chapter 17. Abilities (A.V. Petrovsky^...................................... .................... 468
1. The concept of abilities................................................... ........................... 468
2. Structure of abilities.................................................... ........................... 474
3. Talent, its origin and structure.................................................... .. 476
4. Natural prerequisites for abilities and talent.................................... 480
5. Formation of abilities................................................... ................ 486
Application. Glossary of terms................................................... ........................... 489
Recommended reading................................................... ............... 491
to PSYCHOLOGY
Doctor of Psychology:
A. V. Brushlinsky, V. P. Zinchenko,
T. P. Zinchenko, M. Yu. Kondratiev, I. B. Kotova,
N. S. Leites.V. S. Mukhina, A. V. Petrovsky,
V. A. Petrovsky, G. K. Sereda, M. G. Yaroshevsky;
Candidate of Psychological Sciences L. A. Karpenko.
A researcher took part in the work on the book
Psychological Institute RAO E. Yu. Uvarin
In 24 Introduction to Psychology / Ed. ed. prof.
A. V. Petrovsky. - Moscow: Publishing Center "Academy", 1996. - 496 p. - ISBN 5-7695-0084-0
The book is based on the younger textbook “General Psychology,” which was reprinted many times from 1970 to 1986 and translated into German, Finnish, Danish, Chinese, Spanish and many other languages. The textbook has been radically revised and supplemented with new materials that meet the modern level of development of psychological science.
For all its content and completeness, the textbook retains the features of propaedeutics in relation to subsequent basic and practice-oriented academic disciplines. In fact, each chapter of this book is the basis of a corresponding textbook for a specific psychological discipline. For example, the chapters “Communication” and “Personality” are a kind of preamble for the course (program and textbook) “Social Psychology”. Chapters devoted to cognitive processes: “Memory”, “Perception”, “Thinking”, “Imagination” are introduced into the course “Educational Psychology” or “Psychology of Education”.
The textbook was prepared at the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education.
ISBN 5-7695-0084-0 BBK 88ya73
©A. V. Petrovsky, 1996
© Publishing center "Academy", 1996
INTRODUCTION
to PSYCHOLOGY
under general editorship
Russian Federation
in higher education
as a textbook
for higher education
SUBJECT AND HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
HISTORICAL PATH OF DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
The word “psychology” appeared in the 16th century in Western European texts. At that time the language of learning was Latin. They made it up from two ancient Greek words: “psyche” (soul) and “logia” (understanding, knowledge). These ancient Greek terms contain meanings transformed by two thousand years of work by a great many minds. Gradually, the word “psychologist” entered everyday life. In Pushkin’s “Scene from Faust,” Mephistopheles says: “I am a psychologist... oh, that’s science!”
Introduction to Psychology - Petrovsky A.V. - 1996
The basis books the textbook is laid out " General psychology”, reprinted many times from 1970 to 1986 and translated into German, Finnish, Danish, Chinese, Spanish and many other languages. The textbook has been radically revised and supplemented with new materials that meet the modern level of development of psychological science. Despite all the content and completeness, the textbook retains the features of propaedeutics in relation to subsequent basic and practice-oriented academic disciplines. In fact, each chapter of this book is the basis of a corresponding textbook for a specific psychological discipline. For example, the chapters “Communication” and “Personality” are a kind of preamble for the course (program and textbook) “Social Psychology”.
Chapters devoted to cognitive processes: “Memory”, “Perception”, “Thinking”, “Imagination” are introduced into the course “Educational Psychology” or “Psychology of Education”.
ISBN 5-7695-0084-0
Download the e-book for free in a convenient format, watch and read:
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Part I SUBJECT AND HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 1. Historical path of development of psychology
1. Ancient psychology
2. Psychological thought of the New Age
3. The origins of psychology as a science
4. Development of experimental and differential psychology
5. Basic psychological schools
6. Evolution of schools and directions
Chapter 2. Modern psychology. Its subject and place in the system of sciences
1. Subject of psychology
2. Psychology and natural science
3. Psychology and scientific and technological progress
4. Psychology and pedagogy
5. The place of psychology in the system of sciences
6. Structure of modern psychology
7. The concept of general psychology
Chapter 3. Methods of psychology
1. Subjective method
2. Objective method
3. Objective research methods
4. Experimental method
5. Measurements in psychology
6. Survey method
7. Projective methods
8. Method of reflected subjectivity
9. Organization of specific psychological research
Part 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND STATES
Chapter 4. Feel
1. The concept of sensation
2. General patterns of sensations
Chapter 5. Perception
1. Characteristics of perception and its features
2. Perception as action
3. Perception of space
4. Perception of time and motion
Chapter 6. Memory
1. General concept of memory
2. Types of memory
3. General characteristics of memory processes
4. Memorization
5. Playback
6. Forgetting and storing
7. Individual differences in memory
Chapter 7. Thinking
1. General characteristics of thinking
2. Thinking and problem solving
3. Types of thinking
Chapter 8. Imagination
1. The concept of imagination, its main types and processes
2. Physiological basis of imagination processes
3. The role of fantasy in children’s play and adults’ creativity
Chapter 9 Feelings
1. Definition of feelings and their physiological basis
2. Forms of experiencing feelings
3. Feelings and personality
Part 3. INTERDISCIPLINARY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 10. Activity
1. Internal organization of human activity
2. External organization of activity
3. Volitional actions
Chapter 11. Communication
1. The concept of communication
2. Communication as information exchange
3. Communication as interpersonal interaction
4. Communication as people understanding each other
Chapter 12. Groups
1. Groups and their classification
2. The highest form of group development
3. Differentiation in groups of different levels of development
4. Integration in groups of different levels of development
5. Student groups: psychological features of the work of a teacher (M.Yu. Kondratyev)
6. Structure of family relationships
Chapter 13. Consciousness
1. Development of the psyche in phylogenesis
2. The emergence of consciousness
3. The structure of consciousness and the unconscious in the human psyche
Chapter 14. Personality
1. The concept of personality in psychology
2. Personality structure
3. Basic theories of personality in foreign psychology
4. Personality orientation
5. Personal self-awareness
6. Personal development
Part 4. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS PERSON
Chapter 15. Temperament
1. General concept of temperament
2. The role of temperament in work and educational activities
3. Temperament and parenting problems
Chapter 16. Character
1. The concept of character
2. Character structure
3. Nature and manifestations of character
Chapter 17. Capabilities
1. The concept of abilities
2. Ability structure
3. Talent, its origin and structure
4. Natural prerequisites for abilities and talent
5. Formation of abilities
Download the book Introduction to Psychology - Petrovsky A.V. - 1996
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Doctor of Psychology:
A. V. Brushlinsky, V. P. Zinchenko,
T. P. Zinchenko, M. Yu. Kondratyev, I. B. Kotova,
N. S. Leites, V. S. Mukhina, A. V. Petrovsky,
IN. A. Petrovsky, G. K. Sereda, M. G. Yaroshevsky;
Candidate of Psychological Sciences L. A. Karpenko.
Researcher at the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education E. Yu. Uvarina took part in the work on the book
IN 24 Introduction to psychology / Under general. ed. prof.
A. V. Petrovsky. - Moscow: Publishing center "Akademiya", 1996. - 496 p. - ISBN 5-7695-0084-0
IN The book is based on the textbook “General Psychology,” which was reprinted many times from 1970 to 1986 and translated into German, Finnish, Danish, Chinese, Spanish and many other languages. The textbook has been radically revised and supplemented with new materials that meet the modern level of development of psychological science.
Despite all the content and completeness, the textbook retains the features of propaedeutics in relation to subsequent basic and practice-oriented academic disciplines. In fact, each chapter of this book is the basis of a corresponding textbook for a specific psychological discipline. For example, the chapters “Communication” and “Personality” are a kind of preamble for the course (program and textbook) “Social Psychology”. Chapters devoted to cognitive processes: “Memory,” “Perception,” “Thinking,” “Imagination” are introduced into the course “Educational Psychology” or “Psychology of Learning.”
The textbook was prepared at the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education.
ISBN 5-7695-0084-0 |
©A. V. Petrovsky, 1996 © Publishing center "Academy", 1996
SUBJECT AND HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
HISTORICAL PATH OF DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
The word “psychology” appeared in the 16th century in Western European texts. At that time the language of learning was Latin. They made it up from two ancient Greek words: “psyche” (soul) and “logia” (understanding, knowledge). These ancient Greek terms contain meanings transformed by two thousand years of work by a great many minds. Gradually, the word “psychologist” entered everyday life. In Pushkin’s “Scene from Faust,” Mephistopheles says: “I am a psychologist... oh, that’s science!”
But in those days there was no psychology as a separate science. Experts in the soul, human passions and characters were called psychologists. Scientific knowledge differs from everyday knowledge in that, relying on the power of abstraction and universal human experience, it discovers the laws that rule the world. For the natural sciences this is obvious. Relying on the laws they have studied allows them to anticipate future events - from solar eclipses not made by man to the effects of human-controlled nuclear explosions.
Of course, psychology, in its theoretical achievements and practice of changing life, is much farther from, for example, physics. Its phenomena immeasurably surpass physical ones in complexity and possibility of knowledge. The great physicist Einstein, getting acquainted with the experiments of the great psychologist Piaget, noticed that
the study of physical problems is a child's game compared to the riddles of a child's game.
Only by the middle of the 19th century did psychology become an independent science from fragmented knowledge. This does not mean at all that in previous eras, ideas about the psyche (soul, consciousness, behavior) were devoid of signs of scientific character. They emerged in the depths of natural science and philosophy, pedagogy and medicine, in various phenomena of social practice.
For centuries, problems were recognized, hypotheses were invented, concepts were built that prepared the ground for modern science about the mental organization of man. In this eternal search, scientific-psychological thought outlined the boundaries of its subject.
(384-322 BC). This ancient Greek philosopher and natural scientist laid the first stones in the foundation of many disciplines. He should rightfully be considered the father of psychology as a science. He wrote the first course of general psychology, “On the Soul.” First, he outlined the history of the issue, the opinions of his predecessors
And explained the attitude towards them, and then, using their achievements
And miscalculations, offered his solutions. Let us note that, regarding the subject of psychology, we follow Aristotle in our approach to this issue.
No matter how high Aristotle’s thought rose, immortalizing his name, it is impossible to discount generations of ancient Greek sages, and not only theoretical philosophers, but also natural scientists, naturalists, and physicians. Their works are the foothills of a peak that has risen over the centuries: Aristotle’s teaching on the soul, which was preceded by revolutionary events in the history of ideas about the surrounding world.
Animism. The emergence of ancient ideas about the surrounding world is associated with animism (from Latan, “anima” - soul, spirit) - the belief in a host of spirits (souls) hidden behind visible things as special “agents” or “ghosts” that leave the human body with the last breathing, and according to some teachings (for example, the famous philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras), being immortal, they eternally wander through the bodies of animals and plants. The ancient Greeks called the soul the word "psyche". It gave our science its name.
The name preserves traces of the original understanding of the connection between life and its physical and organic basis (compare the Russian words: “soul, spirit” and “breathe”, “air”). It's interesting that already
in that ancient era, speaking about the soul (“psyche”), people seemed to combine into a single complex the inherent elements of external nature (air), the body (breath) and the psyche (in its subsequent understanding). Of course, in their everyday practice they distinguished all this perfectly. Getting acquainted with their myths, one cannot help but admire the subtlety of understanding the style of behavior of their gods, distinguished by cunning, wisdom, vindictiveness, envy and other qualities that the creator of the myths endowed the celestials - a people who learned psychology in the earthly practice of their communication with their neighbors.
The mythological picture of the world, where bodies are inhabited by souls (their “doubles” or ghosts), and life depends on the arbitrariness of the gods, has reigned in the public consciousness for centuries.
Hylozoism. A revolution in minds was the transition from animism to hylozoism (from the Greek word “hyle”, meaning substance, matter and “zoe” - life). The whole world is a universe, the cosmos was now thought to be initially alive. No boundaries were drawn between living, nonliving and mental. All this was considered as the generation of a single primary matter (primordial matter), and, nevertheless, the new philosophical teaching became a great step towards understanding the nature of the psyche. It put an end to animism (although even after that, for centuries, right up to the present day, it found many adherents who consider the soul external to
Body essence). Hylozoism was the first to place the soul (psyche) under the general laws of nature. An immutable postulate for modern science was affirmed about the initial involvement of mental phenomena in the cycle of nature.
Heraclitus and the idea of development as a law (logos). To the hylozoist Heraclitus, the cosmos appeared in the form of “ever-living fire,” and the soul (“psyche”) in the form of its spark. Everything that exists is subject to eternal change: “Our bodies and souls flow like streams.” Another aphorism of Heraclitus read: "Know yourself". But in the words of the philosopher, this did not mean at all that to know oneself means to go deep into one’s own thoughts and experiences, abstracting from everything external. “No matter what roads you follow, you will not find the boundaries of the soul, so deep is its Logos,” Heraclitus taught.
This term "logo c", coined by Heraclitus but still in use today, has acquired a great variety of meanings. But for him, it meant the law according to which “everything flows,” according to which phenomena pass into each other. The small world (microcosm) of an individual soul is similar to the macrocosm of the entire world order. Therefore, to comprehend oneself (one’s psyche) means to delve into the law (Logos), which gives the universal course of things a dynamic harmony woven from contradictions and cataclysms.
After Heraclitus (he was called “dark” because of the difficulty of understanding, and “crying”, since he considered the future of humanity even more terrible than the present), the stock of means allowing one to read the “book of nature” with meaning included the idea of the natural development of all things.
Democritus and the idea of causality. The teaching of Heraclitus that the course of things depends on the law (and not on the arbitrariness of the gods - the rulers of heaven and earth) passed on to Democritus. The gods themselves, in his depiction, are nothing more than spherical clusters of fiery atoms. Man is also created from different kinds of atoms. The most mobile of them are the atoms of fire. They form the soul.
He recognized the same law for both the soul and the cosmos, according to which there are no causeless phenomena, but they are all the inevitable result of the collision of continuously moving atoms. Events whose causes we do not know seem to be random.
Democritus said that at least one causal explanation of things would be preferable to royal power over the Persians. (Persia was then a fabulously rich country.) Subsequently, the principle of causality was called determinism. And we will see how it was thanks to it that scientific knowledge about the psyche was obtained, grain by grain.
Hippocrates and the doctrine of temperaments. Democritus was friends with the famous physician Hippocrates. For a physician, it was important to know the structure of a living organism, the reasons on which health and illness depend. Hippocrates considered this cause to be the proportion in which various “juices” (blood, bile, mucus) are mixed in the body. The proportion in the mixture was called temperament. The names of four temperaments that have survived to this day are associated with the name of Hippocrates: sanguine (blood predominates), choleric (yellow bile), melancholic(black bile), phlegmatic (mucus). For future psychology, this explanatory principle, despite its naivety, was important. It is not for nothing that the names of temperaments have been preserved to this day. First, the hypothesis was brought to the fore that all the countless differences between people could be contained in a few general patterns of behavior. Thus, Hippocrates laid the foundation for scientific typology, without which modern teachings about individual differences between people would not have arisen. Secondly, Hippocrates looked for the source and cause of differences
inside the body. Mental qualities were made dependent on physical qualities.
The role of the nervous system was not yet known in that era. Therefore, the typology was, in modern language, humoural (from the Latin “humor” - liquid). It should, however, be replaced
It should be noted that the latest theories recognize the closest connection between nervous processes and the fluids of the body, its hormones (a Greek word meaning that which excites). From now on, both doctors and psychologists talk about unified neurohumoral regulation of behavior.
Anaxagoras and the idea of organization. The Athenian philosopher Anaxagoras did not accept Heraclitus’s view of the world as a fiery stream, nor the Democritus’ picture of atomic vortices. Considering nature to consist of many tiny particles, he I looked for the beginning in it, thanks to which integral things arise from the disorderly accumulation and movement of these particles. From chaos - organized space. He recognized as such a beginning the “subtle thing,” to which he gave the name “nous” (mind). Their perfection depends on the degree of its representation in various bodies. However, “man,” said Anaxagoras, “is the most intelligent of animals due to the fact that he has hands.” It turned out that it is not the mind, but the physical organization of a person that determines him. advantages.
Thus, all three principles approved by Heraclitus, Democritus, Anaxagoras created the main vital nerve of the future scientific way of understanding the world, including the scientific knowledge of mental phenomena. No matter what tortuous paths this knowledge took in subsequent centuries, it had its regulators three ideas: natural development, causality and organization (systematicity). The explanatory principles discovered by the ancient Greek mind two and a half thousand years ago became the basis for the explanation of mental phenomena for all times.
Sophists: a turn from nature to man. A new feature of these phenomena was discovered by the activities of philosophers called fists (“teachers of wisdom”). They were not interested in nature with its laws independent of man, but the man himself, whom the sophist Protagoras called “the measure of all things.” Subsequently, sophists began to be called false sages who, using various tricks, present imaginary evidence as true. But in the history of psychological knowledge, the activity of the sophists discovered a new object: relationships between people, which were explained using means designed to prove and inspire any position, regardless of its reliability.
In this regard, methods of logical reasoning, the structure of speech, and the nature of the relationship between words, thoughts and perceived objects were subjected to detailed discussion. How can anything be conveyed through language, asked the sophist Gorgias, if its sounds have nothing in common with the things they denote? And this is not sophistry in the sense
a logical trick, but a real problem. She, like other issues discussed by the sophists, prepared the development of a new direction in the understanding of the soul. The search for its natural “matter” (fiery, atomic, etc.) was abandoned. Speech and thinking came to the fore as a means of manipulating people.
From ideas about the soul, signs of its subordination to strict laws and inevitable causes operating in physical nature disappeared. Language and thought are devoid of such inevitability. They are full of conventions and dependence on human interests and preferences. Thus, the actions of the soul acquired instability and uncertainty. Socrates sought to restore them to strength and reliability, but rooted not in the eternal laws of the universe, but in its own internal structure.
Socrates and the new concept of the soul. We know about this philosopher, who has become the ideal of selflessness, honesty and independence of thought for all centuries, from the words of his students. He himself never wrote anything and considered himself not a teacher of wisdom, but a person who awakens in others the desire for truth through a special technique of dialogue, the originality of which was later called Socratic met. about home. By selecting certain questions, Socrates helped his interlocutor “give birth” to clear and distinct knowledge. He liked to say that he was continuing the work of his mother, the midwife, in the field of logic and morality.
The formula of Heraclitus, already familiar to us, “know yourself,” meant for Socrates an appeal not to the universal law (Logos), but to the inner world of the subject, his beliefs and values, his ability to act as a rational being in accordance with the understanding of the best.
Socrates was a master of oral communication. He started a conversation with every person he met with the goal of making him think about his carelessly applied concepts. Subsequently they began to say that by doing so he became pioneer of psychotherapy, the purpose of which, with the help of words, is to expose what is hidden behind the veil of consciousness. His methodology contained ideas that played a key role in psychological studies of thinking many centuries later. Firstly, the work of thought was made dependent on a task that created an obstacle in its usual flow. It was precisely this task that confronted the questions that Socrates hurled at his interlocutor, thereby forcing him to think in search of an answer. Secondly, the work of the mind was originally in the nature of dialogue. Both signs: a) determining tendency,
created by the task, and b) dialogism, which assumes that cognition
initially social, since it is rooted in the communication of subjects, - became in the 20th century the main guidelines for the experimental psychology of thinking.
After Socrates, whose center of interest was the mental activity of the individual subject (its products and values), the concept of the soul was filled with new substantive content. It consisted of completely special realities that physical nature does not know. The world of these realities became the core of the philosophy of Socrates' main student, Plato.
Plato: the soul as a contemplator of ideas. He created his own scientific and educational center in Athens, called the Academy, at the entrance to which it was written: “He who does not know geometry, let him not enter here.”
Geometric figures, general concepts, mathematical formulas, logical constructions were intelligible objects, endowed, in contrast to the kaleidoscope of sensory impressions, with inviolability and bindingness for any individual mind. Having elevated these objects to a special reality, Plato saw in them the sphere of eternal ideal forms, hidden behind the sky in the form of the kingdom of ideas.
Everything sensually perceived, from the fixed stars to directly tangible objects, are only obscure ideas, their imperfect weak copies. Affirming the principle of the primacy of super-strong general ideas in relation to everything that happens in the corruptible physical world, Plato became the founder of the philosophy of idealism.
How does a soul settled in mortal flesh become involved with eternal ideas? All knowledge, according to Plato, is memory. The soul remembers (this requires special efforts) what it happened to contemplate before its earthly birth.
Discovery of inner speech as dialogue. Based on the experience of Socrates, who proved the inseparability of thinking and communication (dialogue), Plato took the next step. From a new angle, he assessed the process of thinking, which does not receive expression in the Socratic external dialogue. In this case, according to Plato, it is replaced by internal dialogue. “The soul, when thinking, does nothing else but talk, asking itself, answering, affirming and denying.”
The phenomenon described by Plato is known to modern psychology as internal speech, and the process of its generation from external (social) speech received the name “interiorization” (from the Latin “interior” - internal ).
Plato himself does not have these terms. However, before
we are a phenomenon that has firmly become part of the current scientific knowledge about the human mental structure.
Personality as a conflicting structure. Further development of the concept of the soul proceeded through the identification of various “parts” and functions in it. In Plato, their distinction took on an ethical meaning. This was explained by Plato’s myth about a charioteer driving a chariot harnessed to two horses: a wild one, eager to go its own way at any cost, and a thoroughbred, noble one, amenable to control. The driver symbolized the rational part of the soul, the horses symbolized two types of motives: lower and higher motives. Reason, called upon to reconcile these two motives, experiences, according to Plato, great difficulties due to the incompatibility of base and noble inclinations.
Such important aspects as conflict of motives, having different moral values, and the role of reason in overcoming it. After many centuries
version about the interaction of three components, forming the personality as a dynamic organization, torn by conflicts and full of contradictions, will come to life in Freud's psychoanalysis.
Nature, culture and organism. Knowledge about the soul - from its first beginnings in ancient times to modern systems - grew depending on the level of knowledge about external nature, on the one hand, and on communication with cultural values, on the other.
Philosophers before Socrates, thinking about mental phenomena, focused on nature. They sought as an equivalent of these phenomena one of its elements, forming a single world governed by natural laws. The great explosive power of this line of thought is that it dealt a crushing blow to the ancient belief in the soul as a special counterpart to the body.
After the Sophists and Socrates, there was a turn in explanations of the soul towards understanding its activity as a cultural phenomenon. For the abstract concepts and moral ideals that make up the soul cannot be derived from the substance of nature. They are products of spiritual culture.
For both orientations - both to nature and to culture - the soul acted as a reality external to the body, either material (fire, air, etc.) or incorporeal (the focus of concepts, generally valid norms, etc.). Whether we were talking about atoms (Democritus) or ideal forms (Plato), it was assumed that both were introduced into the body from the outside, from the outside.
Aristotle: the soul as the form of the body. Aristotle overcame this way of thinking, opening a new era in understanding of the soul as a subject of psychological knowledge. It was not physical bodies or incorporeal ideas that became the source of this knowledge for him, but organic
