Roman archers. Equipment of Roman legionnaires

This issue is made on the basis of the three-volume “Military History” by Razin and the book “On Seven Hills” by M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdalsky. The issue is not a special historical study and is intended to help those who are engaged in the production of military miniatures.

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would die. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.

The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 – Weapons.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

Fig 12 – Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchina; Moscow, 1981.

Publication:
Library of the Military Historical Commission - 44, 1989

MUNICIPAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"POLITICAL DEPARTMENT SECONDARY SCHOOL"

NIKOLAEVSKY MUNICIPAL DISTRICT OF VOLGOGRAD REGION

Research

on this topic:"Clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire"

Ancient world history

Completed:

5th grade student

Volkov Evgeniy

Supervisor:

Volkova L.N.,

history and social studies teacher

With. Political Department - 2016

Content

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..2

1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”……………………………………………………4

2. Composition of the Roman army…………………………………………………….....5

2.1. Legionnaires……………………………………………………………………………….5

2.2. Command staff…………………………………………………………...8

3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires……………………………………………………………10

4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army……………………………...16

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….20

List of sources and literature……………………………………………………………22

Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………24

Introduction

In the history lessons of the Ancient World, we became acquainted with the conquests of the Roman state. Thanks to these conquests, the state inIV. BC. and the beginningIAD turned into a huge Roman Empire, which included the entire Mediterranean coast, the modern territory of Western Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor. There is evidence that the Romans more than once tried to conquer the first Slavs, whom they called “Vends”.

The “great” empire was able to achieve fame and status only thanks to its loyal and brave warriors, who bore on their shoulders all the burdens of long, distant and dangerous campaigns.

Hiking means leaving families for a long time, living in the field, eating what grew and lived in these territories. What about clothes? After all, according to the territory, the climate changed, which means that the clothing of a Roman soldier should be:

Convenient for long hikes;

Have means of protection in case of cold weather or, if exposed to the rays of the hot sun, protect from the scorching heat;

- and the most important thing - reliable protection against enemy attacks.

In addition, I was interested in the question of the armament of legionnaires. The ancient world knew the capabilities of metal processing, but did not know firearms. This means that the weapons of the Romans were iron products.

Relevance of the work: The points that interested me in the organization of the Roman army made me want to learn more about the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaires, since the history textbook only talks about campaigns and conquests. Having collected information, I can introduce my classmates to these interesting facts and visualize to them what a Roman legionnaire looked like.

Research problem is the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the conquests of the Roman army, but also with the appearance of Roman soldiers and the types of weapons with which they achieved victories for the empire.

An object of this work: Roman legionnaire, his appearance.

Item of this work: clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.

Purpose of the study: learn about the appearance of a Roman legionnaire and his weapons.

To achieve the goal, a number oftasks:

Define the concept of “Roman legionnaire”;

Consider the composition of the Roman army;

Study the clothing and weapons of a Roman legionnaire.

Research methods:

theoretical: literature analysisand sourceson the research problem;

practical: collection andregistration of the received information in a folder - portfolio.

Stages of work on the project:

Studying the literature and collecting the necessary information on the chosen topic;

Analysis and structuring;

Folder design - portfolio;

Presentation of the finished work.

Practical significance: This work can be presented as additional information in Ancient History lessons, as well as in a school design competition.

Project product: newspaper "Roman Legionnaire".

1. The concept of “Roman legionnaire”

The Roman legionnaire takes its name from the name of the branch of troops in Ancient Rome.

Legion (lat. legio, gen. legionis), (lat. legio, gen. legionis, from lego - collecting, recruiting) - the main organizational unit in the army . The number of the legion at different times was about 3-8 thousand people. Initially, the legion was the name given to the entire Roman army, which was a collection of armed citizens of Rome. This Roman "militia" (this is the original meaning of the word) was assembled only in times of war and for military training. The legion was assembled according to the curiat principle, each clan ( ) fielded 100 warriors ( ) and 10 horsemen, so the total number of the legion was 3,300 people. A warrior who joined the army was called -legionnaire (Fig. 1).

Fig.1

Roman horseman of the 1st century AD e.
He sits in the saddle without stirrups, since they haven’t been invented yet

2. Composition of the Roman army

2.1. Legionnaires

At the beginning of its existence, Rome was a city in which every man was a warrior. Citizens served either as infantry or cavalry. Everything depended on the financial situation. Wealthier people mounted horses, and poor people became heavily armed foot soldiers.

Subsequently, the military organization of the republic began to be based on universal conscription. Citizens from 17 to 46 years of age were obliged, according to their centuries list, to attend parades or go on a campaign; sometimes, in wartime and for senior officers, service was extended to 50 years. After 45 to 60, they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

Physical defects, as well as the performance of magistrate and priestly positions, were exempted from military service. An attempt to avoid military service without legitimate reasons led in the early days to sale into slavery, and later to large fines and confiscation of property. Desertion, flight from the battlefield, etc. constituted special military crimes and were almost always punished by exile or death.

At the beginning of the conquests, Rome collected troops by rank based on the qualifications presented (i.e., the presence of property and monetary status).

But, pafter the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decuria (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads (Fig. 2).

Fig.2

Handle structure:

Rice. 3

Light Infantry -velites (literally - fast, agile) walked ahead of the legion in loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

First line of the legion -hastati (from the Latin “hasta” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple.

Second line -principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula.

Third line -triarii (third) – 60 people in a manipula. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Rice. 4

1 – Roman triarium, 2 – Roman hastat, 3 – Roman velite.

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

2.2. Command staff

During the republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately (Fig. 5). If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes (Fig. 5). There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right to punish a soldier for misconduct.

In tsarist times, the commander was the king.

Fig.5

1 – Roman tribune, 2 – Roman standard bearer, 3 – Roman consul.

So, having examined the composition of the Roman army, I learned that the Roman army was numerous with a complex military organization. Each category of troops had its own specific type of activity. And having become acquainted with the illustration, we can confidently believe that the type of their clothing and weapons were also different. We'll explore this in the next chapter.

3. Clothes of Roman legionnaires

The military affiliation of the soldiers was determined not by the uniform - the soldier's tunic and cloak differed little from civilian clothing - but by the military belt ("balteus") and shoes ("kaligi").

"Balteus" could take the form of a simple belt worn at the waist and decorated with silver or bronze overlays, or two crossed belts tied at the hips. The time of appearance of such crossed belts is unknown. They may have appeared closer to the reign of Augustus, when additional protection appeared in the form of leather stripes on the sleeves and waist ("pterugs") (metal plates for such strips were found near Kalkriese, where Varus was defeated). Probably, during the reign of Tiberius, blackening on silver, lead or copper began to be widely used in the manufacture of decorative belt overlays with a complex mosaic pattern. Such a belt was evidence of military status. The sources describe the soldiers as “armed and belted people.” Deprivation of "balteus" meant exclusion from the military class for a soldier. The belt was taken from the soldier who had dishonored himself. In Rome in 69 AD. There was a case when some jokers, using sharply sharpened knives, cut off the belts of several soldiers in the crowd. When the soldiers realized what had happened, they flew into an indescribable rage and killed several civilians, including the father of one of the legionnaires.

Military shoes"kaligi" was another important attribute of belonging to the soldier class (Fig. 6). The exact time of their introduction is unknown. They were the standard footwear for Roman soldiers from the reign of Augustus until the beginning of the 2nd century. AD These were strong sandals. The creaking of nailed soles indicated the presence of soldiers as well as the jingling of their belts. Archaeological finds throughout the empire indicate a high degree of standardization in the form of "kalig". This suggests that the models for them, and possibly other items of military equipment, were approved by the emperors themselves.

About the color of the militarytunic there was a lot of controversy (Fig. 7). Mentions of centurions paraded in white robes may indicate the use of canvas tunics. It is also likely that in this case the color of the ridges and “pterugs” was indicated. It is likely that centurions also wore woolen tunics dyed red, while lower-ranking officers wore white tunics.

Most legionnaires of the Empire period wore heavyarmor , although some types of troops did not use armor at all. Caesar used legionnaires without armor ("expediti") fighting as "anti-signani". These were lightly armed legionnaires who began skirmishing at the beginning of the battle or served as reinforcements for the cavalry. The relief from the Legionnaires' headquarters building in Mainz shows two legionnaires fighting in close formation. They are armed with shields and spears, but have no protective armor - even heavily armed legionnaires could fight "expediti".

Rice. 6 "Kaligi" and leggings (greaves)Fig.7 Roman toga and tunic.

The sandals had no socks and the leather was red.

Having looked at Fig. 9 where showncenturion, we see that he is wearing what at first glance appears to be a tunic. However, the cuts at the arms and hips indicate that this is a chain mail shirt (“lorica hamata”), the cuts of which are necessary in order to facilitate the movement of the warrior. Many of these monuments depict details in the form of rings. Chain mail was probably the type of armor that was widely used by the Romans. In the period we are considering, chain mail shirts had short sleeves or no sleeves at all and could fall much lower than the hips. Most legionnaires wore chain mail with additional chain mail pads on the shoulders. Depending on the length and number of rings (up to 30,000), such chain mail weighed 9-15 kg. Chain mail with shoulder pads could weigh up to 16 kg. Usually chain mail was made of iron, but there are cases when bronze was used to make rings. Scale armor (“lorica squamata”) was another common type, cheaper and easier to manufacture, but inferior to chain mail in strength and elasticity.

Such scale armor was worn over a shirt with sleeves, probably made of canvas lined with wool. Such clothing helped soften blows and prevented metal armor from being pressed into the legionnaire’s body. To such clothing they often added “pterugs” - canvas or leather protective strips that covered the upper parts of the arms and legs. Such stripes could not protect against serious injuries. Until the end of the 1st century. AD centurions could wear greaves, and even then, probably not in all cases (Fig. 6).

Rice. 8 Fig.9

Helmet

Legionnaires used various types of helmets. During the Republic, bronze and sometimes iron helmets of the “Montefortino” type became widespread, which became the traditional helmets of legionnaires from the 4th century. BC. They consisted of a single cup-shaped piece with a very small rear visor and side plates that covered the ears and sides of the face. Later versions of helmets, including the so-called “Kulus” type, were used until the end of the 1st century. AD They were equipped with large plates to protect the neck.

The legionnaires' helmets were quite massive. The wall thickness reached 1.5 - 2 mm, and the weight was about 2 - 2.3 kg. The helmets and their side plates had felt pads, and some helmets were designed to leave a small space between the head and the canopy to soften the impact. The Montefortino helmets were equipped with wide side plates that completely covered the ears, but the new Gallic Imperial type helmets already had cutouts for the ears. True, with the exception of those cases where helmets were custom-made for a soldier, the side plates could partially cover the legionnaire’s ears. The side plates covered the sides of the face well, but could limit peripheral vision, and the open front of the face became a target for the enemy.

Fig.10 Fig.11

To attach the comb to the helmets, two holes were provided in which special holders were fixed. The crests were most likely worn only for parades and were rarely used in battle. The helmet itself was worn only before battle, but during the campaign it was hung on leather straps on the warrior’s chest.

Fig.12

Of all the uniforms of Roman soldiers, I would like to highlight the clothing of the Roman velite (Fig. 12). These warriors walked ahead of the entire Roman army and brought the fight to themselves. The goal of the velites was to throw darts at the enemy and quickly retreat behind the backs of well-protected infantry. They did not wear armor or chain mail; for protection they had a simple helmet and a round light . Some sources mention velites wearing wolf skins over their helmets so that their centurions could identify their soldiers as they retreated back.Probably, from the head of a wolf was a symbol of veneration of the god Mars. This god in Ancient Rome was not only the god of war, but was also considered the guardian of fields and herds from pests and wolves.

As for long campaigns with climate change, in cold weather the legionary wore a cloak-cape with a hood.It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, soldiers wore heavy military raincoats in winter, but wore light raincoats in summer. The soldiers did not take off their raincoats during lunch, so as not to expose their legs. INAll legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

There were also pants.They were worn tucked into boots.The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown.

In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.

Thus, having examined the clothing of a Roman legionnaire, we can conclude that the warrior’s clothing on a campaign consisted of a tunic, armor or chain mail, a special belt and leather sandals. In winter, a cloak with a hood was thrown on, trousers or gaiters were put on, and boots were put on the feet. The legionnaire's head was protected by a helmet during the battle. Such a small amount of clothing was of strategic importance - a warrior must move quickly and easily during battle. But still, the bulk of them were weapons; they were always with the soldiers.

4. Types of weapons used in the Roman army

From time immemorialshield The legionnaire had an oval curved scutum. Its origin is not entirely known; some researchers attributed its appearance to the Sabines, others to the Samnites. Be that as it may, at the beginning of the 1st century. the outlines of the scutum change somewhat: it becomes rectangular, but with rounded corners. Later, apparently in the last quarter of the 1st century, the corners of the shield become straight.

The scutum was made from light aspen or poplar boards and covered first with linen and then with cowhide, the edges were upholstered with copper or iron, and in the middle on the outside it had a metal convex plate - umbo. In the recess of this lining on the inside of the shield, a warrior could store small items, such as money, etc. The outer side of the lining could be decorated with chasing or applied silver. Sometimes it depicted the personal emblem (amulet) of the owner of the shield. On the inside, there are records concerning the identity of the owner of the shield: his name, legion number, maybe century, etc.The weight of the shield was no less than 5.5 kg.
The surface of the shield was decorated with drawings. Zodiac signs could be found among the images. Most likely, this sign denoted the astrological cycle in which the legion or auxiliary cohort was formed or the emperor who created them was born. The most famous image - lightning and spindles of Jupiter - most likely belongs to the Praetorian cohorts.

During the campaign and in the camp, to cover the shields from moisture, which had a destructive effect on the skin and wood, they used leather covers that were removed before the battle. Josephus describes how, under the walls of besieged Jerusalem, the future Emperor Titus staged a ceremony for distributing salaries and food to soldiers: “According to the custom accepted in such cases, the army marched out with open shields, which were usually covered with covers, and in full armor. The surroundings of the city sparkled with a bright shine of gold and silver.” The ceremony lasted four whole days and made quite a strong impression on the besieged.

It must be said that the shield was used not only as cover from enemy attacks, but also as an offensive weapon. When training soldiers, they practiced direct strikes with the central convex pad of the shield, designed to throw the enemy off balance, as well as strikes with the edge of the shield.

TOoffensive weapons infantry included swords, pilums and throwing spears.

Roman sword of the imperial period (gladius) originates from a slightly longer Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis) than the Roman one. After the Punic Wars, when the Iberian Peninsula was conquered, the Romans took advantage of the secrets of local gunsmiths, as a result of which their legions received these excellent weapons.

Gladius sword , the name of which in our time has passed on to the gladiolus flower, similar in shape, in the first half of the 1st century still had a long (50–56 cm) tapering blade. Later, the shape of the sword underwent some changes: both edges of its blade became parallel, and its pointed part became shorter. The total length of the blade decreased to 44–55 cm.

At the beginning of the 1st century. Legionnaires wore a sling over their left shoulder, on which the sheath of the sword was attached. Thus, the sword was located on the right, and the legionnaire could grab it without changing the position of the shield, which should always cover it as completely as possible.

In addition to the sword, the legionnaire hadcombat dagger (pugio). It was worn on the belt on the left side. Judging by the figures depicted on Trajan's Column, by the end of the 1st century. The dagger was most likely no longer used by the legionnaires. But officers could wear it.

From about the 4th century. BC e. Legionnaires served as throwing weaponspilums (pilum) - a type of throwing spear. Each legionnaire had two of them. Initially, one of them was lighter and intended for throwing over a longer distance. After the 80s I century n. e. Only heavy pilums began to be used.

The impact force of a skillfully thrown heavy pilum was quite strong: it could pierce the enemy’s shield. Therefore, the tactics of the legionnaires were based on the fact that they threw pilums at the enemy’s shields. The heavy tip got stuck, became bent from the force of the blow (soft metal was used), and the shaft pulled the enemy’s shield down. Then the Romans, with swords in their hands, attacked the opponents, who could no longer take full advantage of the shields with pilums stuck into them and most often threw the shield to the side, remaining without cover.

Traditionalthrowing weapon : sling, bow, dart - were the weapons of foreign warriors who served Rome.

The slingers, usually recruited in the Balearic Islands, had weaponsPrasha - double folded belt. Stones or lead bullets cast in the shape of an acorn were used for throwing.

The armament of the triarii, hastati and principles was the same: a shield, a sword, and only instead of pilums they used long spears - hasts.

The velites had a sword, javelins and a round shield (parma) about 90 cm in diameter. The darts, "hasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25 - 30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (approx. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick.

Thus, one can imagine the weight of combat equipment that a Roman legionnaire had to carry.

On the march, this weight also increased due to his luggage, which included cooking utensils, a bag of provisions, and spare clothes. All this property, the weight of which could exceed 13 kg, was placed in a leather bag with ropes and carried using a T-shaped pole on the shoulder. If necessary, the legionnaire also had to carry all the equipment for excavation work. This included a pickaxe, an axe, a saw, a chain, a leather belt and a basket for carrying earth. During the time of Julius Caesar, he made sure that a certain part of the legionnaires during the campaign were not burdened with a load and could quickly react in the event of an enemy attack.

So, the weapons of a Roman warrior are not only military weapons, but also everything that a warrior needs to protect his body, and everything that he needs to survive on a long, long march (Appendix).

Conclusion

For many centuries, the Roman army was rightfully considered one of the strongest in the world. Moreover, its combat effectiveness did not decline, despite any political conflicts. The main role, of course, was played by soldiers - legionnaires who were ready to sacrifice themselves in the interests of the state. But a good warrior must correspond to his position, i.e. his military organization, weapons and clothing should be his assistants in military affairs.

The problem of this study was getting to know not only the Roman warrior as a conqueror, but also getting to know his appearance and the weapons with which he achieved victory for the empire.

Based on the goals and objectives, it was determined that the legionnaire received his name from the name of the organization of the Roman army - the legion.

The legion was divided into maniples (handfuls), centuries (hundreds), decurii (tens). It was also divided into warriors - legionnaires and command staff. The legionnaires' troops consisted of velites, who went first and invited the battle to themselves, hastati - spearmen, principles and, the most experienced warriors, triarii.

But the main objective of the study was to study the clothing and weapons of the Roman legionnaire. Expanding this problem, it was found that:

The main everyday clothing was the tunic;

A military belt - "balteus" - was worn around the waist;

The appearance of the first armor occurred long before the advent of war and military affairs. Armor is often associated with metal, but leather and cloth were much more common materials for its manufacture. Stone Age people first learned to make simple armor from animal skins, which became the prototype for the first leather and fabric armor. Animal skins protected people not only from the cold, but also from the sharp claws and teeth of predators that attacked during the hunt. Of course, such armor could not save the hunter from serious wounds, but people learned to sew durable clothing from animal skin that covered the entire body. With the advent of the first melee weapons - a sharp knife, dagger, battle ax, and ranged weapons - a throwing spear, arrows with metal tips, it was necessary to take care of more reliable protection for the warrior. First of all, the warrior needed a reliable helmet, shield, and leather chest armor.

Ancient warriors of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization

The period of the first civilizations marked the beginning of an era of wars between new states, an army appeared and weapons were improved.
In ancient times warriors of the Minoan civilization of the island of Crete wore bone horned helmets and were armed with spears and shields. Bronze double-edged short swords of this period had thin blade about 80 cm long, around the 9th century BC Iron began to be used to make swords, and the blade began to be made wider and shorter.

People learned to process not only fabric, skin and bones of animals, but also metal; in the Bronze Age, opportunities arose to create military armor that gave the warrior real protection. Leather armor, as well as fabric armor, were considered light armor, but they were not abandoned in the era of heavy knightly armor. They learned to process metal a long time ago, but truly strong and heavy armor appeared only in the late Middle Ages.

Ancient Hellas, successor of the Crete-Mycenaean civilization , greatly improved methods of war and military weapons. The duty of a citizen of any free ancient Greek city was to perform military service; they had to take care of their own weapons.

Ancient Greek warriors hoplites (ancient Greek ὁπλίτης) were heavy infantry, armed with heavy (about 8 kg.) round "Argive" shields - hoplon (ancient Greek ὅπλον), which protected the warrior from the neck to the knees. The first hoplite warriors appeared in the Spartan army. Hoplites During the war, citizens with average incomes became citizens; they could provide themselves with weapons and equipment at their own expense. The best armies of the Greek city-states consisted of wealthy citizens, heavily armed hoplite infantrymen, united in phalanxes.

Light infantry in ancient Greece were called – peltasts (ancient Greek πελταστής), who were the skirmishers of the battle, they threw darts at the enemy. Peltasts were called by the name of the shield - pelta (ancient Greek πελτα) - a light leather shield used by Thracian velite infantrymen (peltasts), shaped like a crescent. The pelta shield was made from light wood, or wickerwork from reeds or wicker.

Sling - throwing edged weapons, used by the slinger-warriors of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and Carthage. The sling consisted of a rope or belt, with a loop at the end through which the slinger's hand was threaded. A stone or metal projectile was placed in the center of the sling.

Lead sling bullets with the inscription - “Catch”. 4th century BC

The slinger rotated the sling with the projectile in a horizontal or vertical plane, intensifying the circular movements, and at the moment of the strongest swing, he released the free end of the sling and the projectile flew out of the sling at high speed. Although the bow was a more accurate weapon, slingers with metal projectiles were valued over archers, since the lead bullets retained greater killing power.

Xiphos (ancient Greek ξίφος) a straight, double-edged short sword with a leaf-shaped blade about 60 cm long, borrowed by the Hellenes from the Scythians. The Scythian method of burial was borrowed by the Greeks. (McPherson's book "Antiquities of Kertch", 1857)

Scythian warriors.

In the Northern Black Sea region before the arrival of the ancient Greeks There lived many tribes, related in language, religion, culture, who had a common style of fine art, which modern art historians call “animal style.” Ancient Greeks who founded on the shores (Black Sea) their colonies encountered local tribes and did not at all distinguish the characteristics of these tribes, and therefore, they called all foreigners who did not speak Greek and lived outside of Greece barbarians. The Greeks called the nomads and farmers of the Northern Black Sea region Scythians, and their vast territories of residence - Scythia.

The name "Scythian" comes from the Greek about words "xiphos" - ξιφωζ - thorn - that's what the Greeks called short Scythian sword 60 cm long.- a formidable Scythian weapon in hand-to-hand combat. Scythian blade, short sword, the Scythians called akinak, and in Greek blade -σπαθί - “save.”

Scythian warriors were armed with powerful new type of bow , made from several layers of wood and sinew. Scythian bow was much more powerful than a regular wooden bow, as the different layers of wood increased the power and striking force released from Scythian arrow bow with a triangular tip.

In mounted combat, the Scythians used squads of archers who simultaneously fired hundreds of deadly arrows within a few minutes. At the end of the 6th century AD. e. Byzantine writer described the deadly power of mounted Scythian archers who did not stop fighting until the enemy was completely destroyed.

The weapon of the Scythians who fought on foot was a battle ax with a narrow, long, sharp blade - an ax (labrys). In hand-to-hand combat, the Scythian infantry fought as bravely and fiercely as the Scythian horsemen.

Despite the fact that in these times bronze processing had reached a very high level, bronze armor was not as popular as fabric armor; it cost a lot of money.

Included in the armor The Scythian warrior included a shield with an armor covering. The width of the Scythian shield is 93 cm, in the lower part (in the middle) it is divided by a cutout 17 cm long and 10 cm wide. Such a shield was very convenient for the rider late 5th - early 4th centuries. BC.

Scythian helmet of a round shape with a small bump on the top, the prototype of the Old Russian helmet.

Scythian armor represents sleeveless leather shirt, fastening on the right side (kosovorotka). The front part of the armor is tailored so that the shoulder parts, separated by a collar cutout, extend forward in the form long stripes-shoulders with a plate set. The mantles covered not only the shoulder, but also the forearm, and were attached to the back of the armor using iron collars and laces. The iron plates of the set are sewn onto a leather base in horizontal rows from bottom to top. in such a way that the right edge of each plate was pushed onto the left edge of the adjacent one, resulting in a continuous coating that did not give any clearance when the base was stretched at the bends. The armor left room for body movements, providing the warrior with the maximum possible mobility. The front part of the armor reaches only to the waist, that is, it is cut for the rider. In the lower part of the hem of the armor there are two ruffles, to which they were attached with laces. trousers that served as leggings and leggings (length 60 cm, width 30 cm), the trousers were rectangular pieces of leather with a plate set. They were wrapped around the legs and connected on the inside. There was no plate set in the knee area for ease of control of the horse.

Ancient Greek warriors.

In addition to the shield, Greek hoplite wore a helmet, There are two types of ancient Greek helmets known. Corinthian helmet completely closed with slits for eyes and mouth, T-shaped. The helmet was often decorated with a short horse's mane.

Illyrian helmet did not cover the warrior’s face, and did not have protection for the nose, the warrior’s ears were also open, the warrior received a better view, and this made it lighter and more comfortable than the Corinthian one. Subsequently, the Corinthian helmet changed and became more similar to the Illyrian one.

Linnothorax - battle armor made of several layers of dense fabric, most often used by hoplites, as well as light infantry and cavalry. Linnothorax did not restrict the movement of a warrior who relied in battle on his strength, dexterity and speed of movement. Bronze armor was called hippothorax , they repeated the anatomical pattern of the muscles. Ancient warriors wore bracers and leggings, protecting arms and legs from injury. Scale armor never gained a foothold in the ancient Greek army, apparently due to its heaviness, the war that hampered movement, and the very hot climate; the metal of the armor became hot because of the heat.

In ancient Egypt Due to the unbearable heat and the high cost of making even fabric armor, ordinary soldiers almost never wore armor. The Egyptians used a shield and wore traditional Egyptian wigs, which were made of hard leather and decorated with bone or bronze overlays. A helmet and skillful use of a shield softened the blow of an ax, mace or club. Bronze axes and swords were the weapons of wealthy warriors and military leaders; ordinary soldiers were armed with a shield, a spear and a short blade. Over many years of excavations in Egypt, almost not a single metal shell was found, which indicates the high cost of its production and, possibly, low efficiency. The Egyptian army, and many armies of the ancient era, had cavalry and chariots. All noble, well-trained warriors fought with arrows and chariots, acting as mobile cavalry. Accuracy of archery during the rapid movement of the chariot required considerable skill; such noble chariot warriors were valued and they wore fabric or leather armor.

Roman army is a kind of continuation and development of the ideas of the phalanx. At this time the Iron Age begins. Battle armor made of bronze and fabric is replaced by iron, the Roman legionaries are armed with short swords, helmets and massive shields, allowing them to come close to the enemy, strike and break formations. In the Iron Age, the sword became more durable and longer, and there was a need for armor that could effectively stop slashing blows. The spear was the weapon of the hoplite and many armies of this time.

So the heavy armor of the hoplite is replaced chain mail – lorica hamata. Chain mail is not very effective against a spear, but can stop a slash from a sword or axe. Legions often fought with tribes that did not have a formation , many barbarians from the north were armed with axes; a reliable shield was needed to protect against slashing weapons.

Large growth (tower) ancient Roman shield with a central handle and umbo, called scutum (lat. scutum), was widespread in Italy back in the Bronze Age. Roman shield had only one horizontal handle in the center.

SCUTUM - is the predecessor of the oval shieldauxilium *, which began to supplant the scutum around the 2nd century. Auxilium (lat. auxilia) - an auxiliary unit of the ancient Roman army, recruited from foreigners.

scutum among the Etruscans. In Etruria , near Vetulonia, in one of the graves of the Poggio alla Tuardia necropolis, 8th century BC. e., a sculptural image of a shield-scutum was found. Around the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. began to be used by Roman legionaries instead of the Argive hoplite shield
Later, this type of shield was adopted by the Celts, Iberians and Illyrians from the Romans.

A loss shield For Roman a warrior was considered a disgrace no less than the loss of a sword.

The Roman scutum from the time of the Republic measured about 75 cm wide, about 120 cm high, and weighs 8-10 kg. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden boards, covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. The Roman Scutum was found in the Fayum oasis, the height of the shield is 128 cm, width 63.5 cm, made of birch boards.

During the battle, Roman soldiers held the shield along their left side and pressed the enemy, leaning on the shield with their shoulders and helping themselves with a short sword.

Later scutums decreased in width, but somewhat lengthened, which made it possible to almost completely close the shield from the enemy.

The ancient Roman shield-scutum served as reliable protection for legionnaires, and in combination with formation battle tactics, scutums created an insurmountable wall that reliably protected Roman soldiers; the enemy could not break through the Roman formation.

Roman military ammunition and weapons were produced during the expansion of the empire in large quantities according to established patterns, and they were used depending on the category of troops. These standard models were called res militares. Constant improvement of the protective properties of armor and the quality of weapons, and the regular practice of its use led the Roman Empire to military superiority and numerous victories.

The equipment gave the Romans a clear advantage over their enemies, especially in the strength and quality of their "armor". This does not mean that the common soldier had better equipment than the rich men among his opponents. According to Edward Luttwak, their military equipment was no better quality than that used by most of the Empire's opponents, but the armor significantly reduced the number of deaths among Romans on the battlefield.

Military features

Initially, the Romans produced weapons based on the experience and samples of Greek and Etruscan craftsmen. They learned a lot from their opponents, for example, when faced with the Celts, they adopted some types of their equipment, “borrowed” a helmet model from the Gauls, and an anatomical shell from the ancient Greeks.

As soon as Roman armor and weapons were officially adopted by the state, they became the standard for almost the entire imperial world. Standard weapons and ammunition changed several times during the long Roman history, but they were never individual, although each soldier decorated his armor at his own discretion and “pocket”. However, the evolution of the weapons and armor of the warriors of Rome was quite long and complex.

Pugio daggers

The pugio was a dagger that was borrowed from the Spanish and used as a weapon by Roman soldiers. Like other pieces of legionary equipment, it underwent some changes during the 1st century. Typically, it had a large leaf-shaped blade, 18 to 28 cm long and 5 cm or more wide. The middle “vein” (groove) ran along the entire length of each side of its cutting part, or simply protruded only from the front. The main changes: the blade became thinner, approximately 3 mm, the handle was made of metal and inlaid with silver. A distinctive feature of the pugio was that it could be used both for piercing blows and from top to bottom.

Story

Around 50 AD a rod version of the dagger was introduced. This in itself did not lead to significant changes in the appearance of the pugio, but some of the later blades were narrow (less than 3.5 cm wide) and had little or no "waist", although they remained double-edged.

Throughout the entire period of their use as part of ammunition, the handles remained approximately the same. They were made from either two layers of horn, a combination of wood and bone, or covered with a thin metal plate. Often the handle was decorated with silver inlay. It was 10–12 cm long, but quite narrow. A flare or small circle in the middle of the handle made the grip more secure.

Gladius

This was the customary name for any type of sword, although during the Roman Republic the term gladius Hispaniensis (Spanish sword) referred (and still refers) specifically to the medium-length weapon (60 cm-69 cm) that was used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC.

Several different models are known. Among collectors and historical reenactors, two main types of sword are known as gladius (from the places where they were found during excavations) - Mainz (short version with a blade length of 40-56 cm, width 8 cm and weight 1.6 kg) and Pompeii (length from 42 up to 55 cm, width 5 cm, weight 1 kg). Later archaeological finds confirmed the use of an earlier version of this weapon: a long sword used by the Celts and adopted by the Romans after the Battle of Cannae. Legionnaires wore their swords on their right hip. Based on the changes that occurred with the gladius, one can trace the evolution of the weapons and armor of the soldiers of Rome.

Spata

This was the name for any sword in late Latin (spatha), but most often one of the long versions characteristic of the middle era of the Roman Empire. In the 1st century, Roman cavalry began to use longer double-edged swords (75 to 100 cm), and in the late 2nd or early 3rd century infantry also used them for a time, gradually moving to carrying spears.

Gasta

This is a Latin word meaning “piercing spear.” Gasts (in some variants hastas) were in service with the Roman legionnaires; later these soldiers began to be called hastati. However, in Republican times they were rearmed with the pilum and gladius, and only the triarii still used these spears.

They were about 1.8 meters (six feet) long. The shaft was usually made of wood, while the “head” was made of iron, although early versions had bronze tips.

There were lighter and shorter spears, such as those used by the velites (quick reaction troops) and legions of the early Republic.

Pilum

The pilum (plural of pila) was a heavy throwing spear two meters long and consisted of a shaft from which protruded an iron shank with a diameter of about 7 mm and a length of 60-100 cm with a pyramidal head. Pilum usually weighed between two and four kilograms.

The spears were designed to pierce both shields and armor from a distance, but if they simply stuck they were difficult to remove. The iron tang flexed upon impact, weighing down the enemy's shield and preventing immediate reuse of the pilum. If hit very hard, the shaft could break, leaving the opponent with a bent shaft in the shield.

Roman Sagittarius (Saggitaria)

Archers were armed with complex bows (arcus) that shot arrows (sagitta). This type of “long-range” weapon was made from horn, wood and animal tendons, held together with glue. As a rule, sagittarii (a type of gladiator) took part exclusively in large-scale battles, when an additional massive blow to the enemy at a distance was required. This weapon was later used to train new recruits on the arcubus ligneis with wooden inserts. Reinforcing bars have been found in many excavations, even in the western provinces where wooden bows were traditional.

Hiroballista

Also known as manuballista. It was a crossbow that was sometimes used by the Romans. The ancient world knew many variants of mechanical hand weapons, similar to the late medieval crossbow. The exact terminology is the subject of ongoing scientific debate. Roman authors, such as Vegetius, repeatedly note the use of small arms, for example, arcuballista and manuballista, respectively cheiroballista.

Although most scholars agree that one or more of these terms referred to hand-thrown weapons, there is disagreement as to whether they were recurve or mechanized bows.

The Roman commander Arrian (c. 86 - after 146) describes in his treatise on Roman cavalry "Tactics" shooting from a mechanical hand weapon from a horse. Sculpted bas-reliefs in Roman Gaul depict the use of crossbows in hunting scenes. They are remarkably similar to a late medieval crossbow.

Infantrymen serving the chiroballista carried dozens of lead throwing darts called plumbatae (from plumbum, meaning "lead"), with an effective range of up to 30 m, much longer than a javelin. The darts were attached to the back of the shield.

Digging tools

Ancient writers and politicians, including Julius Caesar, documented the use of shovels and other digging tools as important tools of war. The Roman legion, while on the march, dug a ditch and rampart around their camps every night. They were also useful as improvised weapons.

Armor

Not all troops wore reinforced Roman armor. Light infantry, especially in the early Republic, used little or no armor. This made it possible to move faster and reduce the cost of army equipment.

Legionnaire soldiers of the 1st and 2nd centuries used various types of protection. Some wore chain mail, while others wore Roman scale armor or a segmented lorica, or a cuirass with metal plates.

This latter type was a complex piece of armament that, in certain circumstances, provided superior protection for chain mail (lorica hamata) and scale armor (lorica squamata). Modern spear testing has shown that this species was impervious to most direct hits.

However, without the padding it was uncomfortable: reenactors confirmed that wearing the linen, known as subarmalis, freed the wearer from the bruises that appear both from prolonged wearing of the armor and from a blow inflicted by a weapon on the armor.

Auxilia

In the 3rd century, troops are shown wearing Roman mail armor (mostly) or the standard 2nd century auxilia. The artistic account confirms that most soldiers of the late Empire wore metal armor, despite Vegetius' claims to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the treatise Notitia show that armorers were producing mail armor in the late 4th century. They also produced the armor of gladiators of Ancient Rome.

Roman armor Lorica segmentata

It was an ancient form of body armor and was primarily used in the early Empire, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). The Roman armor itself consisted of wide iron strips (hoops) attached to the back and chest with leather straps.

The stripes were placed horizontally on the body, overlapping each other, they surrounded the torso, fastened at the front and back with copper hooks, which were connected with leather laces. The upper body and shoulders were protected by additional stripes ("shoulder protectors") and chest and back plates.

The uniform of the Roman legionnaire's armor could be folded very compactly, since it was divided into four parts. It has been modified several times during its use: the currently recognized types are Kalkriese (c. 20 BC to 50 AD), Corbridge (c. 40 AD to 120) and Newstead (c. 120, possibly early 4th century).

There is a fourth type, known only from a statue found at Alba Giulia in Romania, where a "hybrid" variant appears to have existed: the shoulders are protected by scale armor and the torso hoops are smaller and deeper.

The earliest evidence of wearing Lorica segmantata dates to around 9 BC. e. (Dangstetten). Roman legionnaire armor was used for quite a long time: until the 2nd century AD, judging by the number of finds from that period (more than 100 sites are known, many of them in Britain).

However, even in the 2nd century AD, the segmentata never replaced the lorica hamata, as it was still the standard uniform for both heavy infantry and cavalry. The last recorded use of this armor dates back to the late 3rd century AD (Leon, Spain).

There are two opinions as to who used this form of armor in Ancient Rome. One of them states that only legionnaires (heavy infantry of the Roman legions) and praetorians were issued lorica segmenta. Auxiliaries more often wore lorica hamata or squamata.

The second view is that both legionnaires and auxiliaries used segmentate type Roman warrior armor, and this is supported to some extent by archaeological finds.

Lorica segmentation provided more protection than hamata, but was also more difficult to produce and repair. The costs associated with making the segments for this type of Roman armor may explain the return to regular chainmail after the 3rd–4th century. At that time, trends in the development of military power were changing. Alternatively, all types of Roman warrior armor may have fallen out of use as the need for heavy infantry diminished in favor of fast mounted troops.

Lorica hamata

It was one of the types of chain mail used in the Roman Republic and spread throughout the Empire as standard Roman armor and weapons for primary heavy infantry and secondary troops (auxilia). It was mainly made of iron, although sometimes bronze was used instead.

The rings were tied together, alternating closed elements in the form of washers and rivets. This resulted in very flexible, reliable and durable armor. Each ring had an internal diameter from 5 to 7 mm and an external diameter from 7 to 9 mm. The shoulders of the lorica hamata had flaps similar to the shoulders of the Greek linothorax. They started from the middle of the back, went to the front of the body and were connected by copper or iron hooks, which were attached to pins riveted through the ends of the flaps. Several thousand rings made up one lorica hamatu.

Although labor intensive to produce, it is believed that with good maintenance they could be used continuously for several decades. The usefulness of the armor was such that the later appearance of the famous lorica segment, which provided greater protection, did not lead to the complete disappearance of the hamata.

Lorica squamata

Lorica squamata was a type of scale armor used during the Roman Republic and later periods. It was made of small metal scales sewn to a fabric base. It was worn, and this can be seen in ancient images, by ordinary musicians, centurions, cavalry troops and even auxiliary infantry, but legionnaires could also wear it. The shirt of the armor was formed in the same way as the lorica hamata: from the middle of the thigh with reinforced shoulders or equipped with a cape.

The individual flakes were either iron or bronze, or even alternating metals on the same shirt. The plates were not very thick, ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 mm (0.02 to 0.032 in), which may have been a common range. However, since the scales overlapped in all directions, multiple layers provided good protection.

Sizes ranged from 6 mm (0.25 in) wide x 1.2 cm high, to 5 cm (2 in) wide x 8 cm (3 in) high, with the most common sizes being approximately 1.25 by 2.5 cm. Many had rounded bottoms, while others had pointed or flat bases with cut corners. The plates could be flat, slightly convex, or have a raised middle membrane or edge. All of them on the shirt were basically the same size, but the scales from different chain mail varied significantly.

They were connected in horizontal rows, which were then sewn to the backing. Thus, each of them had from four to 12 holes: two or more on each side for attachment to the next one in a row, one or two at the top for attachment to the backing, and sometimes at the bottom for attachment to the base or to each other.

The shirt could be opened either at the back or at the bottom on one side to make it easier to put on, and the opening was closed with ties. Much has been written about the supposed vulnerability of this ancient Roman armor.

No specimens of whole scaly Lorica squamata have been found, but there have been a few archaeological finds of fragments of such shirts. The original Roman armor is quite expensive and only affordable by extremely wealthy collectors.

Parma

It was a round shield three Roman feet across. It was smaller than most shields, but was solidly made and was considered an effective defense. This was ensured by the use of iron in its structure. It had a handle and a shield (umbo). Finds of Roman armor are often unearthed complete with these shields.

Parma was used in the Roman army by lower class units: the velites. Their equipment consisted of a shield, javelin, sword and helmet. Later parma was replaced by scutum.

Roman helmets

Galea or cassis varied greatly in shape. One of the early types was the bronze "Montefortino" helmet (bowl-shaped with a rear visor and side protective plates), used by the armies of the Republic until the 1st century AD.

It was replaced by Gallic analogues (they were called “imperial”), which provided protection to the soldier’s head on both sides.

Today, craftsmen who create the armor of Roman legionnaires with their own hands are very fond of making them.

Baldrick

Also known as baldrick, bowdrick, bouldrick, and other rare or obsolete pronunciations, it is a belt worn over one shoulder, usually used to carry a weapon (usually a sword) or other implement such as a bugle or drum. The word can also refer to any belt in general, but its use in this context is perceived as poetic or archaic. These belts were a mandatory attribute of the armor of the Roman Empire.

Application

Baldriks have been used since ancient times as part of military clothing. All warriors, without exception, wore belts with their Roman armor (photos of some are in this article). The design provided greater weight support than a standard waist belt, without restricting arm movement and allowing easy access to the item being carried.

In more recent times, such as the British Army of the late 18th century, a pair of white baldricks crossed across the chest was used. Alternatively, especially in modern times, it may serve a ceremonial role rather than a practical one.

Baltei

In ancient Roman times, a balteus (or balteus) was a type of baldric usually used to hang a sword. This was a belt that was worn over the shoulder and slanted down to the side, usually made of leather, often decorated with precious stones, metals, or both.

There was also a similar belt worn by the Romans, especially soldiers, called a sintu, which was fastened around the waist. It was also an attribute of Roman anatomical armor.

Many non-military or paramilitary organizations include balteas as part of their ceremonial dress. The 4th Degree Colored Corps of the Knights of Columbus uses it as part of their uniform. Balteus supports a ceremonial (decorative) sword. The reader can see photos of the armor of Roman legionnaires along with the Balteans in this article.

Roman belt

The Cingulum Militaryare is a piece of ancient Roman military equipment in the form of a belt decorated with metal fittings, which soldiers and officials wore as a rank title. Many examples have been found in the Roman province of Pannonia.

Kaligi

Kaligas were heavy boots with thick soles. Caliga comes from the Latin callus, meaning “hard.” So called because hobnails (nails) were driven into the leather soles before being sewn onto a softer leather lining.

They were worn by the lower ranks of Roman cavalry and infantry, and possibly by some centurions. The strong connection between the Kaligs and ordinary soldiers is obvious, as the latter were called Kaligati (“loaded”). In the early first century AD, two or three-year-old Guy was nicknamed "Caligula" ("little shoe") by soldiers because he wore miniature soldier's clothing, complete with viburnums.

They were stronger than closed boots. In the Mediterranean this could be an advantage. In the cold, wet climate of northern Britain, extra woven socks or wool in winter might have helped to insulate the feet, but caligas were replaced there by the end of the second century AD by the more practical "closed boots" (carbatinae) in the civilian style.

By the end of the 4th century they began to be used throughout the Empire. Emperor Diocletian's decree on prices (301) includes a set price for uninscribed carbatinae made for civilian men, women and children.

The sole of the caliga and the openwork upper part were cut from a single piece of high-quality cow or ox hide. The lower part was attached to the midsole by means of latches, usually of iron, but sometimes of bronze.

The secured ends were covered with an insole. Like all Roman shoes, the caliga had a flat sole. It was laced down the center of the foot and at the top of the ankle. Isidore of Seville believed that the name "caliga" came from the Latin "callus" ("hard skin") or from the fact that the shoe was laced or tied (ligere).

Shoe styles varied from manufacturer to manufacturer and region to region. The placement of the nails was less variable: they functioned to provide support to the foot, much like modern athletic shoes do. At least one provincial manufacturer of military boots has been identified by name.

Pteruga

These are strong skirts made of leather or multi-layered fabric (linen), with stripes or lappets sewn on them, worn around the waist by Roman and Greek warriors. Also, in a similar way, they had stripes sewn onto their shirts, similar to epaulettes, protecting their shoulders. Both sets are usually interpreted as belonging to the same garment, worn under the cuirass, although in the linen version (linothorax) they may have been permanent.

The cuirass itself can be constructed in different ways: plate-bronze, linothorax, scale, plate or chain mail variant. The pads can be arranged in a single row of longer strips or two layers of short, overlapping blades of graduated length.

In the Middle Ages, especially in Byzantium and the Middle East, such stripes were used on the back and sides of helmets to protect the neck while leaving it free enough for movement. However, no archaeological remains of leather safety helmets have been found. Artistic representations of such elements can also be interpreted as vertically stitched quilted textile protective coverings.

The Roman soldiers of Septimius Severus looked little different from the soldiers of Augustus who lived two centuries earlier.
In the 3rd century, the Roman Empire experienced a period of political, military and financial turmoil. During the fifty years that elapsed between the assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 and the rise of Diocletian in 284, almost thirty emperors came to power, of whom only three died a natural death.

The straightforwardness of the “soldier emperors,” many of whom came from the rank and file, was reflected in the military uniform the Roman army, which during this period for the first time achieved noticeable uniformity.
In the 3rd century, the long-sleeved tunic became widespread. This tunic spread thanks to the influence of numerous German mercenaries who served in the Roman army.

1	German scout, early 3rd century. The German scout depicted refers to Caracalla's campaign against the Alamanni (213). A leather cloak, hat, gaiters, and shoes are shown based on finds from the Sogaard bogs in Denmark. A pair of wool trousers was also found in the Danish bogs.
2	Germanic warrior, Thorsberg, 3rd century. This a uniform was found virtually intact near Thorsberg in the 1860s. The long-sleeved tunic, rectangular cloak and trousers are typically Germanic. Analysis of the fabric revealed that there was a purple stripe on the tunic. The cloak had two shades of blue, and the trousers were made of undyed wool. Numerous weapons have been discovered near Thorsberg, many of which are undoubtedly of Roman origin.
3	Palmyra scout. III century. A lightly armed mounted warrior from a fresco from the synagogue at Dura Europos, Syria. On the frescoes there are two similar warriors in blue tunics and red pants. One tunic has white stripes along the edges of the cuffs, probably showing an undershirt. Palmyran tunics usually reached the knees and were wider than Roman tunics. Both riders hold their spears horizontally, with one of them holding the spear with both hands.
Information

In Roman icons of the 3rd century and later, Roman soldiers were depicted wearing a tunic with long narrow sleeves, a cloak and trousers.
It can be assumed that the wearing of northern European clothing in the Roman army first spread among the soldiers of auxiliary units, then the imperial bodyguards began to dress in this way, and, finally, all legionnaires serving on the northern border of the empire began to wear barbarian clothing.

1	Constantius II was the third son of Constantine the Great (306-337). At first he ruled the Eastern Empire, but by 358 he had concentrated power over both parts of the Roman Empire. Like other emperors of that time, he had to constantly repel attacks from the north and east, as well as suppress attempts by usurpers who wanted to overthrow him from the throne. Constantius solved all these problems quite successfully. Ammianus Marcellinus described Constantius as an excellent horseman, spearman and archer. The emperor had a rather cruel character.
2	Protector Sacri Lateris, imperial guard, mid-4th century. This and the previous figure are taken from the Kerch dish. The oval shield with labarum raises questions. Tunic and trousers made of fine wool or even silk with woven gold thread. All authors of that period, including John Chrysostom, speak about the expensive clothing of the imperial guard. A massive gold torc necklace can be seen around her neck.
3	Horseman, Equites Catafractarii, mid-4th century. Emperor Julian (361-363) won his victory over the barbarians long before he was able to take the throne. The Battle of Strasbourg took place in 357. One of the cavalry units of the Roman army fled in this battle. Julian ordered the perpetrators to be dressed in women's clothing and marched like that through the entire camp, after which the detachment was disbanded. The moment of shame of cowards is shown here. The female tunica talaris is depicted in a mosaic at Piazza Armerina. The women's tunic had straight claves, and there were no decorative elements at the ends, which are common for men's tunics.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

Emperor Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Anonius Bassian), according to eyewitnesses, continued to wear Germanic clothing even in Syria and Mesopotamia.
The Roman army had a large number of irregular units, whose warriors were called numerii and cuneii.
The latter were federati (foederati) - German settlers who received land on the territory of the Empire in exchange for an obligation to perform military service.
All irregular units were led by national commanders, usually chiefs, and wore traditional clothing for their tribe. As a result, such units often became trendsetters in new fashions and trends in the imperial army.

1	Emperor Alexander Severus, (222-235). Alexander Severus became emperor at the age of 14 after the assassination of Elagabalus. Until the emperor came of age, the state was ruled on his behalf by his mother Julia Mamea and aunt Julia Meza. Two important events occurred during this period. In the east, Parthia gave way to the more aggressive Persian Sassanid dynasty, which began to disturb the borders of the empire, and while the emperor and his mother tried to restore order in the east, a threat arose in the north. According to the description of contemporaries, the emperor was distinguished by asceticism, severity, and courage. He rarely wore silk or purple. In addition, the emperor introduced the wearing of clothing such as gaiters, trousers and boots in the army.
2	Emperor Caracalla (211-217) The eldest son of Septimius Severus took the throne, killing his younger brother Geta. Caracalla's official name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and he earned the nickname Caracalla for his love for a long cloak with a hood - the caracalla. The cloak is based on the sculpture from Housesteads on Hadrian's Wall. The rest of the emperor's clothing is given in accordance with the description of Dion, who testified to Caracalla's love for the Germanic style.
3	Emperor Probus (276-282) The description of Emperor Karin's reception of the Persian embassy most likely dates back to the period of the reign of Emperor Probus, who made peace with the Persian king Bagram II. But it is possible that Emperor Carus was meant, since Synesius says that the Roman emperor was bald, and only Carus was depicted bald on coins. The emperor's clothes are made of ordinary red wool. Probus was a skilled warrior, however, he, like many other Roman emperors, died a violent death.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

When the Danubian army of Septimius Severus marched on Rome, the civilian population, who had only seen these legionnaires on the column of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, was horrified by how the soldiers looked (Dio, LXXV.2.6).
Indeed, the soldiers looked like real barbarians: long-sleeved tunics and trousers (bgasae), which for centuries were considered completely unacceptable clothing for the Romans.
Among other complaints leveled against unpopular emperors like Elagabalus and Komodo was their preference for long-sleeved tunics.
Documents from Egypt written in Greek (the official language of the Eastern Empire) indicate the wearing of various tunics.
The military tunic, known as the sticharion, was decorated with colored stripes (clavi). In addition, the dalmatica tunic had long sleeves, although, judging by the documents, it was worn less often than the sticharion. The name Dalmatic leaves no doubt that this tunic originates from Dalmatia. The soldier emperors who ruled Rome in the 3rd century preferred to wear just such a tunic.
The vast majority of tunics in manuscript illustrations are red or white. Green and blue tunics are much less common. It is generally accepted that the tunics of ordinary legionnaires were white, while the centurions wore red tunics.

Army of the North
1	Legionnaire, 193. Lion Cassius reports that the Romans were shocked when they saw the Danube army, which Septimius Severus led to Rome in 193. The inhabitants of the Apennines decided that this was a barbarian invasion, since a long-sleeved tunic and trousers were unthinkable clothing for a Roman at that time. The Arch of the North, erected in 203, still depicted the segmented armor, as well as the traditional Roman tunic. Italian type H helmet, Newstead type armor.
2	Praetorian Guard, 193. The first thing Septimius Severus did after becoming emperor was to disband the Praetorian Guard and form a new detachment of bodyguards from among the soldiers of his provincial army. He subjected the Praetorians to additional humiliation by forcing them to parade in armored clothing. The stripes on the belt and shoulders are pterugs, leather or made from several layers of linen.
3	Roman Falangist, 21 Preparing a campaign in Parthia, Caracalla formed a detachment of 16,000 people, equipping them as Macedonian phalangists. It is reported that the armor was made of leather or cloth, as preparations for the campaign were carried out in a hurry. The warriors' weapons consisted of a long and short spear, as well as an ordinary Roman sword.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

Another item of clothing that should be mentioned is the camisia. Apparently, this was the name of a tight-fitting linen shirt. The name of this shirt came into Latin from the Germanic language through the Gaulish language.
Later, the camisia was often worn by priests, but before that it was very popular among soldiers.
On the eastern borders of the Roman Empire, clothing decorated with embroidery, often made with gold or silver thread, was popular. Initially, the Romans despised such fashion as barbaric, but gradually this style of clothing became common for emperors, their court and bodyguards.
Some examples of military uniforms were very richly decorated. For example, Claudius Herculanus, an imperial horse guard under Aurelian (270-275), is depicted on his tomb wearing a tunic or cloak decorated with an image of a sun with rays. Apparently, this decoration is somehow connected with the cult of the sun god propagated by Aurelian. The design was obviously embroidered with gold thread, which gave it an impressive appearance.

1	Tribune of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. The frescoes from Dura Europos depict soldiers of the XX Palmyra cohort. Here is a reconstruction of the cohort commander Julius Terentius. White cloak with fringe, long sleeve tunic with short cuffs, stripes at the wrists and hem.
2	Vexillary of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. The reconstruction was carried out based on the findings at Dura-Europos. The vexillum is depicted in accordance with one found in Egypt and currently in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow. The standard depicts the goddess Victoria. An image of a vexillum was found in Dura-Europos, but it is unclear and allows for the most daring interpretations.
3	Centurion of the auxiliary detachment, mid-3rd century. Another figure in a white cloak, standing next to the tribune. Perhaps this is the senior centurion of the cohort. The tunic is decorated with a swastika.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

All Aurelian's guards could wear such a pattern. In general, the custom of that time was for the emperor to bestow expensive clothing on his supporters in order to emphasize his favor in particular and the greatness of the regime in general.
The rectangular cloak (sagum) was the most popular type of cloak among Roman legionaries for centuries. The image of this cloak is often found in the visual arts of that time.
But there were other versions of the cloak, some of which were used in the army. Among the alternatives, mention should be made of a cloak with a hood (paenula). This cloak was common in the early period, but by the end of the 2nd century its image almost completely disappears on military tombstones, although it continues to be found on the tombstones of civilians.
In addition, soldiers wearing penules are depicted on the wooden door of the Cathedral of St. Sabina in Rome, dating from the 5th century. It is possible that the penula was the cloak of the Praetorian Guard, since it is very often found on monuments dedicated to the guard. The temporary disappearance of these cloaks may be explained by the disbandment of the Praetorian Guard by Septimius Severus, who replaced the guard with a detachment of bodyguards recruited from provincial soldiers.

Later authors mention another cloak with a hood, the so-called birrus or byrus. In Diocletian's edict on prices this cloak appears as byrus Britannicus. Probably, the birrus also looked like a penula, but had an additional flap covering the neck, which made it different from the penula, which had to be worn with a scarf.

1	Centurion, 3rd century. Reconstruction of Marcus Aurelius Nepos, centurion of the XX Legion, based on his tombstone from Chester. Belt with ring buckle. The vine rod is the traditional symbol of a centurion's authority. There was no paint left on the tombstone, and researchers reconstructed the colors based on similar figures in British mosaics of the time.
2	Mithraist, Hadrian's Wall, 3rd century. Soldier, one of the seven levels of hierarchy in the beliefs of the Mithraists. The clothes are red-brown. Phrygian cap. In his hands is a torch that was used in the cult of Mithras.
3	Sailor of the British fleet, 3rd century. The British fleet was used to fight Saxon and Frankish pirates. After Britain broke away from the empire, first as part of the Gallic Empire of Postumus (260-268), a mutiny broke out in the fleet, led by the fleet commander Carausius (286-293). The texts mention the wearing of “Venetian” colored uniforms by sailors. Headdress - petas - leather or felt cap.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

It is known that different cloaks were used for different occasions, and some of them were defined as “military” only. For example, Saturninus' soldiers wore heavy military cloaks in winter, but wore light cloaks in summer. Saturninus insisted that the soldiers do not take off their cloaks during lunch, so as not to expose their legs...
Emperor Aurelian (270-275) opposed silk and gold-trimmed clothing; he owned the aphorism: “The gods forbid fabric that costs as much as gold.” But at the same time, Aurelian did not forbid his soldiers to wear beautiful clothes, and his guard wore especially beautiful golden armor and dresses.
From the 3rd century onwards it is very difficult to determine whether a bare-legged man is depicted or a man in tight trousers. The paint on the sculptures has long faded and washed away, but the surviving frescoes and mosaics make it possible to determine that tight-fitting trousers were worn tucked into boots.
The pants were mostly dark in color: gray or chocolate brown. The biographies of the Augustans say that Emperor Alexander Severus wore white trousers instead of the scarlet trousers common at that time.
In addition, the legs could be protected with the help of different types of gaiters. In mosaics and frescoes, gaiters were often worn by hunters and those who worked outdoors.
Among the list of required equipment and normal rations for Gaius Messiah (probably a mounted warrior) discovered at Masada, as well as a similar list for Quintus Julius Proclus, a mounted warrior from Alexandria, there is mention of such a garment as a fascia, that is, a winding. In both cases, windings are mentioned after boots, which suggests that these are windings or foot wraps.

1, 2	Soldiers, IV century. The famous mosaic of the Great Hunt from the Villa Piazza Armerna in Sicily depicts many characters wearing short, belted tunics. Belts with “propeller” pads. Such pads were considered part of a soldier’s belt, but they could also be worn by servants from the personal detachment of a large landowner. The wild boar on the shield is a symbol of the XX Legion stationed in Britain, so it is possible that this symbol on the shield has nothing to do with the XX Legion.
3	Senior military leader, IV century. It is believed that this is the central figure of the above mosaic and that it represents Emperor Maximian. With the same reason we can assume that this is the owner of the villa, a senior official or a commander. The T-shaped staff is long enough for a person to lean on. Note the headdress, which is made from the same yellow-brown material as the cloak.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

Gaiters were rectangular in shape and made of cloth or felt. The clasp below the knee and at the ankle is visible in most images.
In the 2nd century, the wearing of boots spread. Along with the boots came socks. A 3rd century tombstone from Apamea shows a soldier with his socks rolled up over the tops of his boots.
There were a kind of tights in which the legs turned into socks.
Boots with laces on the instep became very popular footwear in the 3rd century.
Until the end of the 3rd century, Roman warriors were rarely depicted wearing headdresses. Therefore, the words of Vegetius, written at the end of the 4th century, that in former times they always wore hats, are surprising. This was done for training so that the helmet put on the head before the fight did not seem too heavy.

Cavalry from Luxor
1, 2	Commanders, III-IX centuries. Currently, the painting in the Luxor temple is almost completely lost. During the reign of Diocletian (284-305), the temple was rebuilt into a border fort. On one wall of the fort there were depictions of mounted warriors, probably soldiers of the mounted detachment as part of the garrison. One of the mounted warriors holds a T-shaped staff, probably indicating officer rank. Originally, the vine rod was used to punish careless soldiers. But no one was hit with a T-shaped rod. For physical punishment there was an additional, shorter rod. Tan raincoats. The first commander wears a long sleeve tunic, while the second commander wears a classic short sleeve tunic. Short haircuts are common for the period described.
3	Heavily armed mounted warrior, III-IV centuries. An iron helmet of segmental design was discovered at Deir el-Medina, Egypt. The shield was taken from a Luxor painting.
Information: “Military clothing of Rome: from the North to Stilicho. 200-400 ne"

This type of headdress was called a pillei and apparently came in two main varieties.
Externally, the pille was a low, borderless cylinder with a smooth or rough texture. The smooth texture obviously corresponded to leather or felt pills, and the rough texture corresponded to sheepskin.
The Edict of Diocletian speaks of pills. made from sheepskin. The Roman pilleum probably goes back to the Persian tiara.
Many warriors wore balaclavas, which softened blows to the head.
The Romans also used armored clothing - thoracomachus, which was an analogue of the medieval aketon.
According to modern reconstructors, thoracomachs were made from linen fabric stuffed with wool. If the thoracomach got wet, it became unpleasant to wear and took a long time to dry.