Comparison of short-range air defense systems. Modern and promising anti-aircraft missile systems of Russian air defense missile defense zone

Today we will get acquainted with the Buk anti-aircraft missile system, which is considered one of the best representatives of its class on the world stage. The vehicle is capable of destroying enemy aircraft and missiles, ships and buildings. Let's also consider the design options and differences between modifications.

What is the Buk anti-aircraft missile system?

The vehicle in question (the Buk army anti-aircraft missile system), according to the GRAU index, is designated as 9K37, and is known to NATO and United States specialists as the SA-11 Gadfly. The equipment is classified as an anti-aircraft complex on a self-propelled chassis. Missiles are used to destroy targets. The complex is designed to destroy enemy aircraft, as well as other aerodynamic targets at low and medium altitudes, within the range of 30-18,000 meters. When created, it was supposed to effectively combat maneuvering objects that are capable of providing intense radio countermeasures.

History of the creation of the Buk air defense system

Work on creating the machine began in January 197272, the start was given by a decree of the government of the Soviet Union. It was assumed that the new car would replace its predecessor, the Cube. The developer of the system was the Tikhomirov Research Institute of Instrument Engineering, which at that time was managed by A.A. Rastov. It is noteworthy that the new vehicle was supposed to be put into service by the army literally three years after the start of development, which significantly complicated the task for the designers.

To make it possible to complete the work in such a short time, it was divided into two stages:

1. First, a deep modification of the “Cube” was put into operation - the Kub-M3 air defense system, index 9A38. A vehicle on a self-propelled chassis with 9M38 missiles was supposed to be inserted into each battery. In the course of the work, a complex with the M4 mark in the name was created, which was put into service in 1978;
2. The second step implied the final commissioning of the complex, which included: a command post, a target detection station in the air, the self-propelled gun itself, as well as a launch-loading system and a missile defense system (anti-aircraft guided missile).

The designers coped with the task, and testing of both machines began already in 1977. For two years, the capabilities and potential of the systems were assessed at the Emba training ground, after which the installations began to enter service with the country.

It is worth noting that, in addition to the land variation of the system, an installation for the Navy was also created on a single missile defense system. The tracked chassis was created by the machine-building plant in Mytishchi (MMZ), the missiles were developed by the Sverdlovsk Novator bureau. The target designation/tracking station was designed at NIIIP MRP.

Operating principle of the Buk missile system

The characteristics of the complex make it possible to effectively combat various air targets whose speed does not exceed 830 m/s, maneuvering with overloads of up to 12 units. It was believed that the vehicle could even fight Lance ballistic missiles.

During development, it was intended to achieve a twofold increase in the operating efficiency of existing air defense systems by increasing the channel capacity when working with aerodynamic purposes. A necessary part of the work was the automation of processes, starting with the detection of a potential enemy and ending with its destruction.

It was planned to add an innovative installation to each battery of the Kubov-M3 regiment, which, at minimal cost, would increase the capabilities of the unit significantly. The expenditure on modernization amounted to no more than 30% of the initial investments in formation, but the number of channels doubled (increased to 10), the number of missiles ready to carry out combat missions increased by a quarter - to 75.

It is worth noting that based on the results of testing the systems, the following characteristics were obtained:

• in autonomous mode, aircraft at a three-kilometer altitude could be detected at 65-77 kilometers;
• low-flying targets (30-100 m) were detected from 32-41 km;
• helicopters were spotted from 21-35 km;
• in a centralized mode, the reconnaissance/guidance installation did not allow the full potential of the complex to be demonstrated, so aircraft at an altitude of 3-7 km could only be detected at a range of 44 km;
• under similar conditions, low-flying aircraft were detected from 21-28 km.

Processing targets by the system in offline mode takes no more than 27 seconds, the probability of hitting a target with one projectile reached 70-93 percent. At the same time, the weapons in question could destroy up to six enemy targets. Moreover, the developed missiles are capable of operating effectively not only against enemy aircraft and strike weapons, but also against surface and ground targets.

The guidance method is combined: when entering the flight path - the inertial method, adjustments are made from the command post or the installation itself. At the final stage, immediately before destroying the target, a semi-active mode using automation is activated.

The last two options became possible to destroy thanks to the laser rangefinder, which appeared on the military modification M1-2. It is possible to process objects with microwave radiation turned off, which has a positive effect on the survivability of the entire system, its secrecy from the enemy, as well as immunity from interference. The coordinate support mode introduced in this modification is aimed at combating interference.

The effectiveness of the installation lies in its high mobility: it takes only 5 minutes to deploy from a traveling position to a combat position. The system moves on a specially designed tracked chassis; there are options with a wheelbase. In the first version, on highways and rough terrain, the car develops up to 65 km/h, the supply of fuel tanks allows you to march up to 500 km and still retain the necessary volume for work for two hours.

The complex for coordinated work is equipped with the following tools:

• Communication – a channel for uninterrupted reception/transmission of information is formed;
• Orientation/navigation systems, in the shortest possible time, a location reference is formed;
• Equipment for autonomous power supply of the entire complex;
• Equipment to ensure protection and life in conditions of the use of nuclear or chemical weapons.

For combat duty, autonomous power systems are used; if necessary, it is possible to connect external sources. The total duration of work without stopping is a day.

Design of the 9K37 complex

To ensure the functionality of the complex, it includes four types of machines. There are attached technical means for which the Ural-43203 and ZIL-131 chassis are used. The bulk of the systems under consideration are based on caterpillar tracks. However, some installation options were equipped with wheels.

The combat assets of the complex are as follows:

1. One command post coordinating the actions of the entire group;
2. A target detection station, which not only identifies a potential enemy, but identifies its identity and transmits the received data to the command post;
3. A self-propelled firing system that ensures the destruction of the enemy in a certain sector in a stationary position or autonomously. In the process of work, it detects targets, determines the identity of the threat, its capture and firing;
4. A launch-loading installation capable of launching projectiles, as well as loading additional transportable ammunition. Vehicles of this type are supplied to formations at the rate of 3 to 2 self-propelled guns.

The Buk anti-aircraft missile system uses 9M317 missiles, which are classified as anti-aircraft guided missiles. The shells ensure the destruction of the enemy with a high probability in a wide range: air targets, surface and ground targets, subject to the creation of dense interference.

The command post is designated by the index 9С470; it is capable of communicating simultaneously with six installations, one target detection system and receiving tasks from higher command.

The 9S18 detection station is a three-dimensional radar operating in the centimeter range. It is capable of detecting a potential enemy 160 km away, and surveys the space in a regular or sector mode.

Modifications of the Buk complex

As aviation and air defense systems modernized, the complex was modernized to increase efficiency and speed. At the same time, the system’s own means of protection were improved, allowing for increased survivability in combat conditions. Let's look at modifications of the Buk.

SAM Buk-M1 (9K37M1)

Modernization of the system began virtually immediately after it was put into service. In 1982, an improved version of the vehicle with the index 9K37 M1, using the 9M38M1 missile, entered service. The technique differed from the basic version in the following aspects:

1. The affected area has expanded significantly;
2. It became possible to distinguish between ballistic missiles, airplanes and helicopters;
3. Countermeasures against enemy missile defense have been improved.

SAM Buk-M1-2 (9K37M1-2)

By 1997, the next modification of the Buk air defense system appeared - index 9K37M1-2 with a new guided missile 9M317. Innovations affected almost all aspects of the system, which made it possible to hit Lance-class missiles. The damage radius increased to 45 km horizontally and 25 km altitude.

SAM Buk-M2 (9K317)

The 9K317 is the result of a deep modernization of the base unit, which has become significantly more effective in all respects, in particular, the probability of hitting enemy aircraft has reached 80 percent. The collapse of the Union ruled out mass production, but in 2008 the vehicle nevertheless entered service with the Armed Forces.

SAM Buk-M3 (9K317M)

New for 2016 - the Buk M3 has received higher characteristics, has been developed since 2007. Now there are 6 missiles on board in closed containers, it works automatically, after launch the projectile reaches the target on its own, and the probability of hitting the enemy is almost 100 percent, with the exception of the millionth chance of a miss .

SAM Buk-M2E (9K317E)

The export version is a modification of the M2 on the Minsk AZ chassis.

SAM Buk-MB (9K37MB)

This option is a base developed by the military-industrial complex of the Soviet Union. It was presented by Belarusian engineers in 2005. Improved radio-electronic equipment, resistance to interference and ergonomics of crew workstations.

Performance characteristics

Considering the scale of modernization and the abundance of modifications, each model has its own tactical and technical characteristics. Combat effectiveness is clearly demonstrated by the probability of hitting various targets:

Anti-aircraft missile system "Buk-M1"

Anti-aircraft missile system "Buk-M1-2"

Parameter:	Meaning:
Aircraft	3-45
	No more than 20
Cruise missile	No more than 26
Ship	No more than 25
Target engagement altitude, km
Aircraft	0,015-22
"Lance"	2-16
Airplane	90-95
Helicopter	30-60
Cruise missile	50-70
	22
	1100

Buk-M2 anti-aircraft missile system

Parameter:	Meaning:
Enemy engagement distance, km
Aircraft	3-50
Ballistic missile, Lance class	No more than 20
Cruise missile	No more than 26
Ship	No more than 25
Target engagement altitude, km
Aircraft	0,01-25
"Lance"	2-16
Probability of destroying the enemy with one missile, %
Airplane	90-95
Helicopter	70-80
Cruise missile	70-80
Number of targets fired at simultaneously, pcs.	24
Maximum speed of the fired object, m/s	1100

Buk-M3 anti-aircraft missile system

Parameter:	Meaning:
Enemy engagement distance, km
Aircraft	2-70
Ballistic missile, Lance class	2-70
Cruise missile	2-70
Ship	2-70
Target engagement altitude, km
Aircraft	0,015-35
"Lance"	0,015-35
Probability of destroying the enemy with one missile, %
Airplane	99
Number of targets fired at simultaneously, pcs.	36
Maximum speed of the fired object, m/s	3000

Combat use

Over the long history of being on combat duty in various countries, the Buk missile system has seen its share of war. However, a number of episodes of its use create a contradictory picture regarding its capabilities:

1. During the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, an Abkhaz L-39 attack aircraft was destroyed, which led to the death of the commander of the state's air defense. According to experts, the incident occurred due to misidentification of the target by the Russian installation;
2. A division of these vehicles took part in the first Chechen war, which made it possible to evaluate their potential in real conditions;
3. The Georgian-South Ossetian conflict of 2008 was remembered by the official recognition by the Russian side of the loss of four aircraft: Tu-22M and three Su-25. According to reliable information, all of them were victims of Buk-M1 vehicles used by the Ukrainian division in Georgia;
4. As for controversial cases, the first is the destruction of a Boeing 777 aircraft in the east of the Donetsk region. In 2014, a civil aviation aircraft was destroyed, according to official data from the international commission, by a Buk complex. However, opinions differ regarding the ownership of the air defense system. The Ukrainian side claims that the system was controlled by the 53rd Russian Air Defense Brigade, however, there is no reliable evidence of this. Should you believe the accusing party?
5. There is also conflicting information coming from Syria, where many Russian-made air defense systems, including the vehicles in question, were used in 2018. The Russian Ministry of Defense reports 29 missiles fired by Buk missiles, and only five of them missed. The United States says none of the missiles fired hit their targets. Who to believe?

Despite the provocations and disinformation, the Buk complex is a worthy opponent to any modern helicopters/planes, which has been proven in practice. The complex is used not only by Russia, but also as part of combat units in Belarus, Azerbaijan, Venezuela, Georgia, Egypt, Kazakhstan, Cyprus, Syria, and Ukraine.

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Classification and combat properties of anti-aircraft missile systems

Anti-aircraft missile weapons refer to surface-to-air missile weapons and are designed to destroy enemy air attack weapons using anti-aircraft guided missiles (SAMs). It is represented by various systems.

An anti-aircraft missile system (anti-aircraft missile system) is a combination of an anti-aircraft missile system (SAM) and the means that ensure its use.

An anti-aircraft missile system is a set of functionally related combat and technical means designed to destroy air targets with anti-aircraft guided missiles.

The air defense system includes means of detection, identification and target designation, flight control means for missile defense systems, one or more launchers (PU) with missile defense systems, technical means and electrical power supplies.

The technical basis of the air defense system is the missile defense control system. Depending on the adopted control system, there are complexes for telecontrol of missiles, homing missiles, and combined control of missiles. Each air defense system has certain combat properties, features, the combination of which can serve as classification criteria that allow it to be classified as a specific type.

The combat properties of air defense systems include all-weather capability, noise immunity, mobility, versatility, reliability, degree of automation of combat work processes, etc.

All-weather capability - the ability of an air defense system to destroy air targets in any weather conditions. There are all-weather and non-all-weather air defense systems. The latter ensure the destruction of targets under certain weather conditions and time of day.

Noise immunity is a property that allows an air defense system to destroy air targets in conditions of interference created by the enemy to suppress electronic (optical) means.

Mobility is a property that manifests itself in transportability and the time of transition from a traveling position to a combat position and from a combat position to a traveling position. A relative indicator of mobility can be the total time required to change the starting position under given conditions. Part of mobility is maneuverability. The most mobile complex is considered to be one that is more transportable and requires less time to maneuver. Mobile systems can be self-propelled, towed and portable. Non-mobile air defense systems are called stationary.

Versatility is a property that characterizes the technical capabilities of an air defense system to destroy air targets over a wide range of ranges and altitudes.

Reliability is the ability to function normally under given operating conditions.

Based on the degree of automation, anti-aircraft missile systems are classified into automatic, semi-automatic and non-automatic. In automatic air defense systems, all operations to detect, track targets and guide missiles are performed automatically without human intervention. In semi-automatic and non-automatic air defense systems, a person takes part in solving a number of tasks.

Anti-aircraft missile systems are distinguished by the number of target and missile channels. Complexes that provide simultaneous tracking and firing of one target are called single-channel, and those of several targets are called multi-channel.

Based on their firing range, the complexes are divided into long-range (LR) air defense systems with a firing range of more than 100 km, medium-range (SD) with a firing range from 20 to 100 km, short-range (MD) with a firing range from 10 to 20 km and short-range ( BD) with a firing range of up to 10 km.

Tactical and technical characteristics of the anti-aircraft missile system

Tactical and technical characteristics (TTX) determine the combat capabilities of the air defense system. These include: the purpose of the air defense system; range and altitude of destruction of air targets; the ability to destroy targets flying at different speeds; the probability of hitting air targets in the absence and presence of interference, when firing at maneuvering targets; number of target and missile channels; noise immunity of air defense systems; working hours of the air defense system (reaction time); time for transferring the air defense system from the traveling position to the combat position and vice versa (time of deployment and collapse of the air defense system at the starting position); movement speed; missile ammunition; power reserve; mass and dimensional characteristics, etc.

Performance characteristics are specified in the tactical and technical specifications for the creation of a new type of air defense system and are refined during field testing. The values ​​of the performance characteristics are determined by the design features of the air defense missile system elements and the principles of their operation.

Purpose of the air defense system- a generalized characteristic indicating combat missions solved by means of this type of air defense system.

Damage range(firing) - the range at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than the specified one. There are minimum and maximum ranges.

Damage height(firing) - the height at which targets are hit with a probability not lower than the specified one. There are minimum and maximum heights.

The ability to destroy targets flying at different speeds is a characteristic indicating the maximum permissible value of the flight speeds of targets destroyed in given ranges and altitudes of their flight. The magnitude of the target's flight speed determines the values ​​of the required missile overloads, dynamic guidance errors and the probability of hitting the target with one missile. At high target speeds, the necessary missile overloads and dynamic guidance errors increase, and the probability of destruction decreases. As a result, the values ​​of the maximum range and height of destruction of targets are reduced.

Probability of target hit- a numerical value characterizing the possibility of hitting a target under given shooting conditions. Expressed as a number from 0 to 1.

The target can be hit when firing one or more missiles, so the corresponding probability of hitting P is considered ; and P P .

Target channel- a set of elements of an air defense system that provides simultaneous tracking and firing of one target. There are single- and multi-channel air defense systems based on the target. The N-channel target complex allows you to simultaneously fire at N targets. The target channel includes a sighting device and a device for determining target coordinates.

Rocket channel- a set of elements of an air defense system that simultaneously provides preparation for launch, launch and guidance of one missile defense system at a target. The missile channel includes: a launch device (launcher), a device for preparation for launch and launch of the missile defense system, a sighting device and a device for determining the coordinates of the missile, elements of the device for generating and transmitting missile control commands. An integral part of the missile channel is the missile defense system. The air defense systems in service are single- and multi-channel. Portable complexes are single-channel. They allow only one missile to be aimed at a target at a time. Multi-channel missile-based air defense systems ensure simultaneous firing of several missiles at one or several targets. Such air defense systems have great capabilities for consistently firing at targets. To obtain a given value of the probability of destroying a target, the air defense system has 2-3 missile channels per target channel.

The following indicators of noise immunity are used: noise immunity coefficient, permissible interference power density at the far (near) border of the affected area in the area of ​​the jammer, which ensures timely detection (opening) and destruction (defeat) of the target, range of the open zone, range from which the target is detected (revealed) against the background of interference when the jammer sets it.

Working hours of the air defense system(reaction time) - the time interval between the moment of detection of an air target by air defense systems and the launch of the first missile. It is determined by the time spent searching and capturing the target and preparing the initial data for shooting. The operating time of the air defense system depends on the design features and characteristics of the air defense system and the level of training of the combat crew. For modern air defense systems, its value ranges from units to tens of seconds.

Time to transfer the air defense system from traveling to combat position- time from the moment the command is given to transfer the complex to a combat position until the complex is ready to open fire. For MANPADS this time is minimal and amounts to several seconds. The time it takes to transfer the air defense system to a combat position is determined by the initial state of its elements, the transfer mode and the type of power source.

Time to transfer the air defense system from combat to traveling position- time from the moment the command is given to transfer the air defense system to the traveling position until the completion of the formation of elements of the air defense system into a traveling column.

Combat Kit(bq) - the number of missiles installed on one air defense system.

Power reserve- the maximum distance that an air defense vehicle can travel after consuming a full load of fuel.

Mass characteristics- maximum mass characteristics of elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missile defense systems.

Dimensions- the maximum external outlines of the elements (cabins) of air defense systems and missile defense systems, determined by the greatest width, length and height.

SAM affected area

The kill zone of the complex is the area of ​​space within which the destruction of an air target by an anti-aircraft guided missile is ensured under the calculated firing conditions with a given probability. Taking into account the firing efficiency, it determines the reach of the complex in terms of height, range and heading parameters.

Design shooting conditions- conditions under which the closing angles of the SAM position are equal to zero, the characteristics and parameters of the target’s movement (its effective reflective surface, speed, etc.) do not exceed specified limits, and atmospheric conditions do not interfere with observation of the target.

Realized affected area- part of the affected area in which a target of a certain type is hit under specific shooting conditions with a given probability.

Firing zone- the space around the air defense system, in which the missile is aimed at the target.

Rice. 1. SAM affected area: vertical (a) and horizontal (b) section

The affected area is depicted in a parametric coordinate system and is characterized by the position of the far, near, upper and lower boundaries. Its main characteristics: horizontal (inclined) range to the far and near boundaries d d (D d) and d(D), minimum and maximum heights H mn and H max, maximum heading angle q max and maximum elevation angle s max. The horizontal distance to the far border of the affected area and the maximum heading angle determine the limiting parameter of the affected area P before, i.e., the maximum parameter of the target, which ensures its defeat with a probability not lower than the specified one. For multi-channel air defense systems on a target, a characteristic value is also the parameter of the affected area Rstr, up to which the number of firings carried out at the target is not less than with a zero parameter of its movement. A typical cross-section of the affected area with vertical bisector and horizontal planes is shown in the figure.

The position of the boundaries of the affected area is determined by a large number of factors related to the technical characteristics of individual elements of the air defense system and the control loop as a whole, firing conditions, characteristics and parameters of the movement of the air target. The position of the far border of the affected area determines the required range of action of the SNR.

The position of the realized far and lower boundaries of the air defense missile system destruction zone may also depend on the terrain.

SAM launch area

In order for the missile to meet the target in the affected area, the missile must be launched in advance, taking into account the flight time of the missile and the target to the meeting point.

Missile launch zone is an area of ​​space in which, if the target is located at the moment of missile launch, their meeting in the air defense missile zone is ensured. To determine the boundaries of the launch zone, it is necessary to set off from each point of the affected zone to the side opposite to the target course a segment equal to the product of the target speed V ii for the flight time of the rocket to a given point. In the figure, the most characteristic points of the launch zone are respectively indicated by the letters a, 6, c, d, e.

Rice. 2. SAM launch area (vertical section)

When tracking a SNR target, the current coordinates of the meeting point are, as a rule, calculated automatically and displayed on indicator screens. The missile is launched when the meeting point is located within the boundaries of the affected area.

Guaranteed launch area- an area of ​​space in which, when the target is located at the moment of missile launch, its meeting with the target in the affected area is ensured, regardless of the type of anti-missile maneuver of the target.

Composition and characteristics of elements of anti-aircraft missile systems

In accordance with the tasks being solved, the functionally necessary elements of the air defense system are: means of detection, identification of aircraft and target designation; SAM flight controls; launchers and launching devices; anti-aircraft guided missiles.

Man-portable anti-aircraft missile systems (MANPADS) can be used to combat low-flying targets.

When multifunctional radars are used as part of air defense systems (Patriot, S-300), they serve as means of detection, identification, tracking devices for aircraft and missiles aimed at them, devices for transmitting control commands, as well as target illumination stations to ensure the operation of on-board radio direction finders.

Detection Tools

In anti-aircraft missile systems, radar stations, optical and passive direction finders can be used as means of detecting aircraft.

Optical detection devices (ODF). Depending on the location of the source of radiant energy, optical detection means are divided into passive and semi-active. Passive OSOs, as a rule, use radiant energy caused by heating of the aircraft skin and operating engines, or light energy from the Sun reflected from the aircraft. In semi-active OSOs, an optical quantum generator (laser) is located at the ground control point, the energy of which is used to probe space.

Passive OSO is a television-optical sight, which includes a transmitting television camera (PTC), a synchronizer, communication channels, and a video monitoring device (VCU).

The television-optical viewer converts the flow of light (radiant) energy coming from the aircraft into electrical signals, which are transmitted via a cable communication line and are used in the VKU to reproduce the transmitted image of the aircraft located in the field of view of the PTC lens.

In the transmitting television tube, the optical image is converted into an electrical one, and a potential relief appears on the photomosaic (target) of the tube, displaying in electrical form the distribution of brightness of all points of the aircraft.

The potential relief is read by the electron beam of the transmitting tube, which, under the influence of the field of deflection coils, moves synchronously with the electron beam of the VCU. A video image signal appears at the load resistance of the transmitting tube, which is amplified by a preamplifier and sent to the VCU via a communication channel. The video signal, after amplification in the amplifier, is fed to the control electrode of the receiving tube (kinescope).

Synchronization of the movement of the electron beams of the PTC and VKU is carried out by horizontal and vertical scanning pulses, which are not mixed with the image signal, but are transmitted via a separate channel.

The operator observes on the kinescope screen images of aircraft located in the field of view of the viewfinder lens, as well as sighting marks corresponding to the position of the TOV optical axis in azimuth (b) and elevation (e), as a result of which the azimuth and elevation angle of the aircraft can be determined.

Semi-active SOS (laser sights) are almost completely similar to radar sights in their structure, construction principles and functions. They allow you to determine the angular coordinates, range and speed of the target.

A laser transmitter is used as a signal source, which is triggered by a synchronizer pulse. The laser light signal is emitted into space, reflected from the aircraft and received by the telescope.

Radar detection equipment

A narrow-band filter placed in the path of the reflected pulse reduces the impact of extraneous light sources on the operation of the viewfinder. Light pulses reflected from the aircraft enter a photosensitive receiver, are converted into video frequency signals and are used in units for measuring angular coordinates and range, as well as for display on the indicator screen.

In the angular coordinates measurement unit, control signals for the optical system drives are generated, which provide both an overview of the space and automatic tracking of the aircraft along angular coordinates (continuous alignment of the axis of the optical system with the direction to the aircraft).

Aircraft identification means

Identification tools make it possible to determine the nationality of a detected aircraft and classify it as “friend or foe.” They can be combined or autonomous. In co-located devices, the interrogation and response signals are emitted and received by the radar devices.

Detection radar antenna “Top-M1” Optical detection means

Radar-optical detection means

A request signal receiver is installed on “your” aircraft, which receives encoded request signals sent by the detection (identification) radar. The receiver decodes the request signal and, if this signal corresponds to the established code, sends it to the response signal transmitter installed on board “its” aircraft. The transmitter produces an encoded signal and sends it in the direction of the radar, where it is received, decoded and, after conversion, displayed on the indicator in the form of a conventional mark, which is displayed next to the mark from the “own” aircraft. The enemy aircraft does not respond to the radar request signal.

Target designation means

Target designation means are designed to receive, process and analyze information about the air situation and determine the sequence of fire on detected targets, as well as transmitting data about them to other combat assets.

Information about detected and identified aircraft, as a rule, comes from the radar. Depending on the type of target designation means terminal device, the analysis of information about the aircraft is carried out automatically (when using a computer) or manually (by an operator when using cathode ray tube screens). The results of the decision of the computer (computing and solving device) can be displayed on special consoles, indicators or in the form of signals for the operator to make a decision on their further use, or transmitted to other combat air defense systems automatically.

If a screen is used as a terminal device, then marks from detected aircraft are displayed as light signs.

Target designation data (decisions to fire at targets) can be transmitted both via cable lines and radio communication lines.

Target designation and detection means can serve both one and several air defense units.

SAM flight controls

When an aircraft is detected and identified, an analysis of the air situation, as well as the order of firing at targets, is carried out by the operator. At the same time, devices for measuring range, angular coordinates, speed, generation of control commands and transmission of commands (command radio control line), autopilot and missile steering tract are involved in the operation of the missile defense flight control systems.

The range measuring device is designed to measure the slant range to aircraft and missile defense systems. Range determination is based on the straightness of propagation of electromagnetic waves and the constancy of their speed. The range can be measured by location and optical means. For this purpose, the signal travel time from the radiation source to the aircraft and back is used. Time can be measured by the delay of the pulse reflected from the aircraft, the magnitude of the change in the frequency of the transmitter, and the magnitude of the change in the phase of the radar signal. Information about the range to the target is used to determine the moment of launch of the missile defense system, as well as to generate control commands (for systems with remote control).

The angular coordinates measuring device is designed to measure the elevation angle (e) and azimuth (b) of an aircraft and missile defense system. The measurement is based on the property of rectilinear propagation of electromagnetic waves.

The speed measuring device is designed to measure the radial speed of the aircraft. The measurement is based on the Doppler effect, which consists in changing the frequency of the reflected signal from moving objects.

The control command generation device (UFC) is designed to generate electrical signals, the magnitude and sign of which correspond to the magnitude and sign of the missile’s deviation from the kinematic trajectory. The magnitude and direction of deviation of the missile defense system from the kinematic trajectory are manifested in the disruption of connections determined by the nature of the target’s movement and the method of aiming the missile defense system at it. The measure of violation of this connection is called the mismatch parameter A(t).

The magnitude of the mismatch parameter is measured by the SAM tracking means, which, based on A(t), generate a corresponding electrical signal in the form of voltage or current, called the mismatch signal. The mismatch signal is the main component when generating a control command. To increase the accuracy of missile guidance to the target, some correction signals are introduced into the control command. In telecontrol systems, when implementing the three-point method, to reduce the time of launching the missile to the meeting point with the target, as well as to reduce errors in pointing the missile at the target, a damping signal and a signal for compensating for dynamic errors caused by the movement of the target and the mass (weight) of the missile can be introduced into the control command .

Device for transmitting control commands (radio command lines). In telecontrol systems, the transmission of control commands from the guidance point to the on-board missile defense device is carried out through equipment that forms a command radio control line. This line ensures the transmission of rocket flight control commands, one-time commands that change the operating mode of the onboard equipment. The command radio line is a multi-channel communication line, the number of channels of which corresponds to the number of transmitted commands when simultaneously controlling several missiles.

The autopilot is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the autopilot is an integral part of the rocket flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with control commands.

Launchers, starting devices

Launchers (PU) and launching devices are special devices designed for placement, aiming, pre-launch preparation and launch of a rocket. The launcher consists of a launch table or guides, aiming mechanisms, leveling means, test and launch equipment, and power supplies.

Launchers are distinguished by the type of missile launch - with vertical and inclined launch, by mobility - stationary, semi-stationary (collapsible), mobile.

Stationary launcher C-25 with vertical launch

Man-portable anti-aircraft missile system "Igla"

Launcher of the Blowpipe man-portable anti-aircraft missile system with three guides

Stationary launchers in the form of launch pads are mounted on special concrete platforms and cannot be moved.

Semi-stationary launchers can be disassembled if necessary and installed in another position after transportation.

Mobile launchers are placed on special vehicles. They are used in mobile air defense systems and are made in self-propelled, towed, portable (portable) versions. Self-propelled launchers are placed on tracked or wheeled chassis, providing a quick transition from the traveling position to the combat position and back. Towed launchers are installed on tracked or wheeled non-self-propelled chassis and transported by tractors.

Portable launchers are made in the form of launch tubes into which the rocket is installed before launch. The launch tube may have an aiming device for pre-targeting and a trigger mechanism.

Based on the number of missiles on the launcher, a distinction is made between single launchers, twin launchers, etc.

Anti-aircraft guided missiles

Anti-aircraft guided missiles are classified by the number of stages, aerodynamic design, guidance method, and type of warhead.

Most missiles can be one- or two-stage.

According to the aerodynamic design, they distinguish between missiles made according to the normal design, the “swivel wing” design, and also the “canard” design.

Based on the guidance method, a distinction is made between homing and remote-controlled missiles. A homing rocket is a missile that has flight control equipment installed on board. Remote-controlled missiles are called missiles controlled (guided) by ground-based control (guidance) means.

Based on the type of warhead, missiles with conventional and nuclear warheads are distinguished.

Self-propelled PU air defense missile system "Buk" with inclined launch

Semi-stationary S-75 air defense missile launcher with inclined launch

Self-propelled PU SAM S-300PMU with vertical launch

Man-portable anti-aircraft missile systems

MANPADS are designed to combat low-flying targets. The construction of MANPADS can be based on a passive homing system (Stinger, Strela-2, 3, Igla), a radio command system (Blowpipe), or a laser beam guidance system (RBS-70).

MANPADS with a passive homing system include a launcher (launch container), a trigger mechanism, identification equipment, and an anti-aircraft guided missile.

The launcher is a sealed fiberglass tube in which the missile defense system is stored. The pipe is sealed. Outside the pipe there are sighting devices for preparing a missile launch and a trigger mechanism.

The launching mechanism (“Stinger”) includes an electric battery powering the equipment of both the mechanism itself and the homing head (before launching the rocket), a coolant cylinder for cooling the receiver of the thermal radiation of the seeker during the preparation of the rocket for launch, a switching device that provides the necessary sequence passage of commands and signals, indicator device.

Identification equipment includes an identification antenna and an electronic unit, which includes a transceiver device, logic circuits, a computing device, and a power source.

The missile (FIM-92A) is single-stage, solid propellant. The homing head can operate in the IR and ultraviolet ranges, the radiation receiver is cooled. The alignment of the axis of the optical seeker system with the direction towards the target during its tracking is carried out using a gyroscopic drive.

A rocket is launched from a container using a launch accelerator. The main engine is turned on when the missile moves to a distance at which the anti-aircraft gunner cannot be hit by the jet from the operating engine.

Radio command MANPADS include a transport and launch container, a guidance unit with identification equipment, and an anti-aircraft guided missile. The container is paired with the missile and guidance unit located in it during the process of preparing the MANPADS for combat use.

There are two antennas on the container: one is a command transmission device, the other is identification equipment. Inside the container is the rocket itself.

The guidance unit includes a monocular optical sight that provides target acquisition and tracking, an IR device for measuring the missile’s deviation from the target’s line of sight, a device for generating and transmitting guidance commands, a software device for launch preparation and production, and an interrogator for friend-or-foe identification equipment. There is a controller on the block body that is used when pointing the missile at a target.

After launching the missile, the operator follows it along the tail IR tracer using an optical sight. The launch of the missile to the line of sight is carried out manually or automatically.

In automatic mode, the deviation of the missile from the line of sight, measured by the IR device, is converted into guidance commands transmitted to the missile defense system. The IR device is turned off after 1-2 seconds of flight, after which the missile is aimed at the meeting point manually, provided that the operator achieves alignment of the image of the target and the missile in the field of view of the sight by changing the position of the control switch. Control commands are transmitted to the missile defense system, ensuring its flight along the required trajectory.

In complexes that provide guidance of missiles using a laser beam (RBS-70), laser radiation receivers are placed in the tail compartment of the missile to guide the missile to the target, which generate signals that control the flight of the missile. The guidance unit includes an optical sight and a device for generating a laser beam with focusing that varies depending on the distance of the missile defense system.

Anti-aircraft missile control systems Telecontrol systems

Telecontrol systems are those in which the movement of the missile is determined by a ground-based guidance point that continuously monitors the trajectory parameters of the target and the missile. Depending on the location of the formation of commands (signals) for controlling the rocket's rudders, these systems are divided into beam guidance systems and telecontrol command systems.

In beam guidance systems, the direction of the missile's movement is set using directed radiation of electromagnetic waves (radio waves, laser radiation, etc.). The beam is modulated in such a way that when the rocket deviates from a given direction, its on-board devices automatically detect mismatch signals and generate appropriate rocket control commands.

An example of the use of such a control system with tele-orientation of a rocket in a laser beam (after its launch into this beam) is the ADATS multi-purpose missile system, developed by the Swiss company Oerlikon together with the American Martin Marietta. It is believed that this control method, compared to the command telecontrol system of the first type, provides higher accuracy of missile guidance at long ranges.

In command telecontrol systems, missile flight control commands are generated at the guidance point and transmitted via a communication line (telecontrol line) to the missile. Depending on the method of measuring the coordinates of the target and determining its position relative to the missile, command telecontrol systems are divided into telecontrol systems of the first type and telecontrol systems of the second type. In systems of the first type, the measurement of the current coordinates of the target is carried out directly by the ground guidance point, and in systems of the second type - by the on-board missile coordinator with their subsequent transmission to the guidance point. The generation of missile control commands in both the first and second cases is carried out by a ground-based guidance point.

Rice. 3. Command telecontrol system

Determination of the current coordinates of the target and the missile (for example, range, azimuth and elevation) is carried out by a tracking radar station. In some complexes, this problem is solved by two radars, one of which accompanies the target (target sighting radar 7), and the other - the missile (missile sighting radar 2).

Target sighting is based on the use of the principle of active radar with a passive response, i.e., on obtaining information about the current coordinates of the target from radio signals reflected from it. Target tracking can be automatic (AS), manual (PC) or mixed. Most often, target sighting devices have devices that provide various types of target tracking. Automatic tracking is carried out without the participation of an operator, manual and mixed - with the participation of an operator.

To sight a missile in such systems, as a rule, radar lines with an active response are used. A transceiver is installed on board the rocket, emitting response pulses to the request pulses sent by the guidance point. This method of sighting a missile ensures its stable automatic tracking, including when firing at significant distances.

The measured values ​​of the coordinates of the target and the missile are fed into the command generation device (CDD), which can be implemented on the basis of a computer or in the form of an analog computing device. Commands are generated in accordance with the selected guidance method and the accepted mismatch parameter. The control commands generated for each guidance plane are encrypted and issued by a radio command transmitter (RPK) on board the rocket. These commands are received by the on-board receiver, amplified, deciphered and, through the autopilot, in the form of certain signals that determine the magnitude and sign of the rudder deflection, issued to the rocket's rudders. As a result of the rotation of the rudders and the appearance of angles of attack and sliding, lateral aerodynamic forces arise that change the direction of the rocket's flight.

The missile control process is carried out continuously until it meets the target.

After the missile is launched into the target area, as a rule, using a proximity fuse, the problem of choosing the moment to detonate the warhead of an anti-aircraft guided missile is solved.

The command telecontrol system of the first type does not require an increase in the composition and weight of on-board equipment, and has greater flexibility in the number and geometry of possible rocket trajectories. The main drawback of the system is the dependence of the magnitude of the linear error in pointing the missile at the target on the firing range. If, for example, the magnitude of the angular guidance error is taken to be constant and equal to 1/1000 of the range, then the miss of the missile at firing ranges of 20 and 100 km will be 20 and 100 m, respectively. In the latter case, to hit the target, an increase in the mass of the warhead will be required, and therefore rocket launch mass. Therefore, the first type of telecontrol system is used to destroy missile defense targets at short and medium ranges.

In the first type of telecontrol system, the target and missile tracking channels and the radio control line are subject to interference. Foreign experts associate the solution to the problem of increasing the noise immunity of this system with the use, including in a comprehensive manner, of target and missile sighting channels of different frequency ranges and operating principles (radar, infrared, visual, etc.), as well as radar stations with a phased array antenna ( PAR).

Rice. 4. Command telecontrol system of the second type

The target coordinator (direction finder) is installed on board the missile. It tracks the target and determines its current coordinates in a moving coordinate system associated with the missile. The coordinates of the target are transmitted via the communication channel to the guidance point. Therefore, an on-board radio direction finder generally includes an antenna for receiving target signals (7), a receiver (2), a device for determining target coordinates (3), an encoder (4), a signal transmitter (5) containing information about the target coordinates, and a transmitting antenna ( 6).

The target coordinates are received by the ground guidance point and fed into the device for generating control commands. From the missile tracking station (radio sighter), the UVK also receives the current coordinates of the anti-aircraft guided missile. The command generation device determines the mismatch parameter and generates control commands, which, after appropriate transformations by the command transmission station, are issued on board the rocket. To receive these commands, convert them and practice them on the rocket, the same equipment is installed on board as in the first type of telecontrol systems (7 - command receiver, 8 - autopilot). The advantages of the second type of telecontrol system are that the accuracy of missile guidance is independent of the firing range, the resolution increases as the missile approaches the target, and the ability to aim the required number of missiles at the target.

The disadvantages of the system include the increasing cost of an anti-aircraft guided missile and the impossibility of manual target tracking modes.

In its structural diagram and characteristics, the second type of telecontrol system is close to homing systems.

Homing systems

Homing is the automatic guidance of a missile to a target, based on the use of energy flowing from the target to the missile.

The missile homing head autonomously tracks the target, determines the mismatch parameter and generates missile control commands.

Based on the type of energy that the target emits or reflects, homing systems are divided into radar and optical (infrared or thermal, light, laser, etc.).

Depending on the location of the primary energy source, homing systems can be passive, active or semi-active.

With passive homing, the energy emitted or reflected by the target is created by the sources of the target itself or the target's natural irradiator (Sun, Moon). Consequently, information about the coordinates and parameters of the target’s movement can be obtained without special irradiation of the target with any type of energy.

The active homing system is characterized by the fact that the energy source that irradiates the target is installed on the missile and the energy of this source reflected from the target is used for homing the missiles.

With semi-active homing, the target is irradiated by a primary energy source located outside the target and the missile (Hawk air defense system).

Radar homing systems have become widespread in air defense systems due to their practical independence of action from meteorological conditions and the ability to point a missile at a target of any type and at various ranges. They can be used throughout or only on the final part of the trajectory of an anti-aircraft guided missile, i.e. in combination with other control systems (telecommand system, program control).

In radar systems, the use of passive homing is very limited. This method is possible only in special cases, for example, when homing a missile defense system at an aircraft that has a continuously operating radio jammer on board. Therefore, in radar homing systems, special irradiation (“illumination”) of the target is used. When homing a missile throughout the entire section of its flight path to the target, as a rule, semi-active homing systems are used in terms of energy and cost ratios. The primary energy source (target illumination radar) is usually located at the guidance point. Combined systems use both semi-active and active homing systems. The range limitation of the active homing system occurs due to the maximum power that can be obtained on the rocket, taking into account the possible dimensions and weight of the on-board equipment, including the homing head antenna.

If homing does not begin from the moment the missile is launched, then as the missile’s firing range increases, the energy advantages of active homing compared to semi-active homing increase.

To calculate the mismatch parameter and generate control commands, the tracking systems of the homing head must continuously track the target. In this case, the formation of a control command is possible when tracking a target only by angular coordinates. However, such tracking does not provide target selection by range and speed, as well as protection of the homing head receiver from side information and interference.

To automatically track a target along angular coordinates, equal-signal direction finding methods are used. The angle of arrival of the wave reflected from the target is determined by comparing signals received from two or more divergent radiation patterns. The comparison can be carried out simultaneously or sequentially.

The most widely used are direction finders with instantaneous equal-signal direction, which use the sum-difference method for determining the angle of target deflection. The appearance of such direction-finding devices is primarily due to the need to improve the accuracy of automatic target tracking systems in direction. Such direction finders are theoretically insensitive to amplitude fluctuations of the signal reflected from the target.

In direction finders with an equal-signal direction, created by periodically changing the antenna pattern, and, in particular, with a scanning beam, a random change in the amplitudes of the signal reflected from the target is perceived as a random change in the angular position of the target.

The principle of target selection by range and speed depends on the nature of the radiation, which can be pulsed or continuous.

With pulsed radiation, target selection is carried out, as a rule, by range using gating pulses that open the homing head receiver at the moment signals arrive from the target.

Rice. 5. Radar semi-active homing system

With continuous radiation, it is relatively simple to select a target based on speed. The Doppler effect is used to track the target by speed. The magnitude of the Doppler frequency shift of the signal reflected from the target is proportional with active homing to the relative speed of approach of the missile to the target, and with semi-active homing - to the radial component of the target's speed relative to the ground-based irradiation radar and the relative speed of approach of the missile to the target. To isolate the Doppler shift during semi-active homing on a missile after target acquisition, it is necessary to compare the signals received by the irradiation radar and the homing head. The tuned filters of the homing head receiver transmit into the angle change channel only those signals that were reflected from a target moving at a certain speed relative to the missile.

In relation to the Hawk type anti-aircraft missile system, it includes a target irradiation (illumination) radar, a semi-active homing head, an anti-aircraft guided missile, etc.

The task of the target irradiation (illumination) radar is to continuously irradiate the target with electromagnetic energy. The radar station uses directed radiation of electromagnetic energy, which requires continuous tracking of the target along angular coordinates. To solve other problems, target tracking in range and speed is also provided. Thus, the ground part of the semi-active homing system is a radar station with continuous automatic target tracking.

The semi-active homing head is installed on the rocket and includes a coordinator and a computing device. It provides target acquisition and tracking by angular coordinates, range or speed (or all four coordinates), determination of the mismatch parameter and generation of control commands.

An autopilot is installed on board the anti-aircraft guided missile, solving the same problems as in command and control systems.

An anti-aircraft missile system that uses a homing system or a combined control system also includes equipment and equipment that ensures the preparation and launch of missiles, pointing the radiation radar at a target, etc.

Infrared (thermal) homing systems for anti-aircraft missiles use a wavelength range typically from 1 to 5 microns. This range contains the maximum thermal radiation of most airborne targets. The ability to use a passive homing method is the main advantage of infrared systems. The system is made simpler, and its action is hidden from the enemy. Before launching a missile defense system, it is more difficult for an air enemy to detect such a system, and after launching a missile, it is more difficult to actively interfere with it. The design of an infrared system receiver can be much simpler than that of a radar seeker receiver.

The disadvantage of the system is the dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Heat rays are greatly attenuated in rain, fog, and clouds. The range of such a system also depends on the orientation of the target relative to the energy receiver (direction of reception). The radiant flux from the nozzle of an aircraft jet engine significantly exceeds the radiant flux from its fuselage.

Thermal homing heads are widely used in close-range and short-range anti-aircraft missiles.

Light homing systems are based on the fact that most aerial targets reflect sunlight or moonlight much more strongly than the background surrounding them. This allows you to select a target against a given background and aim an anti-aircraft missile at it using a seeker that receives a signal in the visible part of the electromagnetic wave spectrum.

The advantages of this system are determined by the possibility of using a passive homing method. Its significant drawback is the strong dependence of the range on meteorological conditions. Under good meteorological conditions, light homing is also impossible in directions where the light of the Sun and Moon falls into the field of view of the system's protractor.

Combined control

Combined control refers to the combination of various control systems when pointing a missile at a target. In anti-aircraft missile systems it is used when firing at long ranges to obtain the required accuracy of missile guidance at the target with permissible mass values ​​of the missile defense system. The following sequential combinations of control systems are possible: telecontrol of the first type and homing, telecontrol of the first and second types, autonomous system and homing.

The use of combined control makes it necessary to solve such problems as pairing trajectories when switching from one control method to another, ensuring target acquisition by a missile homing head in flight, using the same on-board equipment at different stages of control, etc.

At the moment of transition to homing (telecontrol of the second type), the target must be within the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna of the seeker, the width of which usually does not exceed 5-10°. In addition, tracking systems must be guided: the seeker by range, by speed, or by range and speed, if target selection according to these coordinates is provided to increase the resolution and noise immunity of the control system.

Guiding the seeker at the target can be done in the following ways: by commands transmitted on board the missile from the guidance point; enabling autonomous automatic search for the seeker target by angular coordinates, range and frequency; a combination of preliminary command guidance of the seeker at the target with subsequent search for the target.

Each of the first two methods has its advantages and significant disadvantages. The task of ensuring reliable guidance of the seeker to the target during the missile's flight to the target is quite complex and may require the use of a third method. Preliminary guidance of the seeker allows you to narrow the target search range.

When combining telecontrol systems of the first and second types, after the onboard radio direction finder begins to operate, the command generation device of the ground guidance point can receive information simultaneously from two sources: the target and missile tracking station and the onboard radio direction finder. Based on a comparison of generated commands based on data from each source, it seems possible to solve the problem of matching trajectories, as well as increase the accuracy of missile pointing to the target (reduce random error components by selecting a source, weighing the variances of the generated commands). This method of combining control systems is called binary control.

Combined control is used in cases where the required characteristics of an air defense system cannot be achieved using only one control system.

Autonomous control systems

Autonomous control systems are those in which flight control signals are generated on board the rocket in accordance with a pre-set program (before launch). When a missile is in flight, the autonomous control system does not receive any information from the target and the control point. In a number of cases, such a system is used at the initial stage of a rocket’s flight path to launch it into a given region of space.

Elements of missile control systems

A guided missile is an unmanned aircraft with a jet engine designed to destroy air targets. All onboard devices are located on the rocket airframe.

A glider is the supporting structure of a rocket, which consists of a body, fixed and movable aerodynamic surfaces. The glider body is usually cylindrical in shape with a conical (spherical, ogive) head part.

The airframe's aerodynamic surfaces are used to create lift and control forces. These include wings, stabilizers (fixed surfaces), and rudders. Based on the relative position of the rudders and fixed aerodynamic surfaces, the following aerodynamic designs of rockets are distinguished: normal, “tailless”, “canard”, “rotary wing”.

Rice. b. Layout diagram of a hypothetical guided missile:

1 - rocket body; 2 - non-contact fuse; 3 - rudders; 4 - warhead; 5 - tanks for fuel components; b - autopilot; 7 - control equipment; 8 - wings; 9 - sources of on-board power supply; 10 - sustainer stage rocket engine; 11 - launch stage rocket engine; 12 - stabilizers.

Rice. 7. Aerodynamic designs of guided missiles:

1 - normal; 2 - “tailless”; 3 - “duck”; 4 - “swivel wing”.

Guided missile engines are divided into two groups: rocket and air-breathing engines.

A rocket engine is an engine that uses fuel that is entirely on board the rocket. Its operation does not require oxygen intake from the environment. Based on the type of fuel, rocket engines are divided into solid rocket engines (solid propellant rocket engines) and liquid rocket engines (LPRE). Solid propellant rocket engines use rocket powder and mixed solid fuel as fuel, which are poured and pressed directly into the engine combustion chamber.

Air-breathing engines (ARE) are engines in which the oxidizing agent is oxygen taken from the surrounding air. As a result, only fuel is contained on board the rocket, which makes it possible to increase the fuel supply. The disadvantage of WFDs is the impossibility of their operation in rarefied layers of the atmosphere. They can be used on aircraft at flight altitudes of up to 35-40 km.

The autopilot (AP) is designed to stabilize the angular movements of the rocket relative to the center of mass. In addition, the AP is an integral part of the rocket flight control system and controls the position of the center of mass itself in space in accordance with control commands. In the first case, the autopilot plays the role of a rocket stabilization system, in the second - the role of an element of the control system.

To stabilize the rocket in the longitudinal, azimuthal planes and when moving relative to the longitudinal axis of the rocket (along the roll), three independent stabilization channels are used: pitch, heading and roll.

Onboard missile flight control equipment is an integral part of the control system. Its structure is determined by the adopted control system, implemented in the control complex for anti-aircraft and aviation missiles.

In command telecontrol systems, devices are installed on board the rocket that make up the receiving path of the command radio control line (CRU). They include an antenna and a receiver of radio signals for control commands, a command selector, and a demodulator.

The combat equipment of anti-aircraft and aircraft missiles is a combination of a warhead and a fuse.

The warhead has a warhead, a detonator and a housing. According to the principle of operation, warheads can be fragmentation and high-explosive fragmentation. Some types of missile defense systems can also be equipped with nuclear warheads (for example, in the Nike-Hercules air defense system).

The damaging elements of the warhead are both fragments and finished elements placed on the surface of the hull. High explosives (crushing) explosives (TNT, mixtures of TNT with hexogen, etc.) are used as warheads.

Missile fuses can be non-contact or contact. Non-contact fuses, depending on the location of the energy source used to trigger the fuse, are divided into active, semi-active and passive. In addition, non-contact fuses are divided into electrostatic, optical, acoustic, and radio fuses. In foreign missile models, radio and optical fuses are more often used. In some cases, an optical and radio fuse operate simultaneously, which increases the reliability of detonating a warhead in conditions of electronic suppression.

The operation of a radio fuse is based on the principles of radar. Therefore, such a fuse is a miniature radar that generates a detonation signal at a certain position of the target in the beam of the fuse antenna.

According to the design and principles of operation, radio fuses can be pulse, Doppler and frequency.

Rice. 8. Block diagram of a pulse radio fuse

In a pulse fuse, the transmitter produces short-duration high-frequency pulses emitted by an antenna in the direction of the target. The antenna beam is coordinated in space with the area of ​​dispersion of warhead fragments. When the target is in the beam, the reflected signals are received by the antenna, pass through the receiving device and enter the coincidence cascade, where a strobe pulse is applied. If they coincide, a signal is issued to detonate the warhead detonator. The duration of the strobe pulses determines the range of possible firing ranges of the fuse.

Doppler fuses often operate in continuous radiation mode. The signals reflected from the target and received by the antenna are sent to a mixer, where the Doppler frequency is separated.

At given speeds, Doppler frequency signals pass through a filter and are fed to an amplifier. At a certain amplitude of current oscillations of this frequency, a detonation signal is issued.

Contact fuses can be electric or impact. They are used in short-range missiles with high firing accuracy, which ensures detonation of the warhead in the event of a direct missile hit.

To increase the likelihood of hitting a target with warhead fragments, measures are taken to coordinate the areas of fuse activation and the dispersion of fragments. With good agreement, the area of ​​scattering of fragments, as a rule, coincides in space with the area where the target is located.

DATA FOR 2017 (standard update)
Complex S-350 / 50Р6 / 50Р6А "Vityaz"/ R&D "Vityaz-PVO"


Anti-aircraft missile system with air defense / medium-range anti-aircraft missile system. Developed by the GSKB of the Almaz-Antey air defense concern, chief designer - Ilya Isakov ( ist. - The newest...). Preliminary NPO Almaz began development of the complex to replace the S-300 air defense system in 1991-1993. The first mention of the Vityaz air defense missile system project dates back to the MAKS-1999 air show, at which models of the complex’s combat vehicles on the KAMAZ chassis were demonstrated. Later the models were shown at MAKS-2001. The complex is designed to replace the S-300P / S-300PM air defense system.

The development of the Vityaz air defense system began in 2007 with plans to put it into service in 2012. When creating the air defense system, developments from the export project of the KM-SAM air defense system, designed by the Almaz-Antey State Design Bureau for South Korea, were used. In 2009-2011 GSKB "Almaz-Antey" carried out R&D "Vityaz-PVO". In 2010, the development of design documentation began, the completion of the creation of design documentation was planned for 2011 (source - The latest...). In 2010, GSKB "Almaz-Antey" completed the development of working design documentation for a combat control point and a multifunctional radar, manufactured a prototype combat control point, separate completed combat control point (PCU) devices and a multifunctional radar, docked equipment and carried out autonomous testing of the prototype PBU sample (source - Annual report of GSKB Almaz-Antey for 2009).

In 2011, the Almaz-Antey air defense concern completed the development of software and algorithmic support for the 50N6A multifunctional radar of the 50K6A combat control point of the 50R6 complex, completed the equipment of the B-100 container from the B-1 antenna post, and equipped the B-20 chassis from the 50N6A radar (Air Defense Concern "Almaz-Antey", source - Annual Report 2011). In 2012, work was carried out to manufacture a prototype of a multifunctional radar, to develop a prototype of a specialized launcher, as well as to prepare the 50R6A system for preliminary and state tests (air defense concern "Almaz-Antey", ist. - Annual report 2012).

In 2013, the air defense concern "Almaz-Antey" prototypes of a specialized launcher and multifunctional radar for the S-350 air defense system were manufactured (Almaz-Antey Air Defense Concern, Annual report 2013). Prototype of the Vityaz 50Р6А air defense system, consisting of The ave self-propelled firing system 50P6A, a vehicle with a multifunctional radar for detecting air targets 50N6A and a combat control point 50K6A was publicly demonstrated for the first time at the Obukhov plant (St. Petersburg) on ​​June 19, 2013. Serial production of the complex will be carried out in the North-Western regional center of the Air Defense Concern "Almaz-Antey", in particular at the State Obukhov Plant and the Radio Equipment Plant .

Tests. Field tests of the prototype air defense missile system were planned to begin in 2011, but according to data from the end of 2010, the production of the prototype is planned for 2012 and completion of its tests is planned for 2013. The deployment of the air defense system is planned to begin in 2015 (2010 plans). In mid-2013, it was reported that the complex would begin full-scale testing in 2014. (ist. - The newest...). Although previously in June 2013 it was reported that tests of the air defense system should begin in the fall of 2013 ().

In January 2012, information appeared in the media that by 2020 more than 30 Vityaz air defense systems will enter service with the Russian air defense forces, which are planned to replace the S-300P / PS air defense system. Presumably, the Vityaz air defense system can use two types of missiles - short-range (presumably 9M100) and medium-range (presumably 9M96). According to the Air Force Commander-in-Chief, Colonel-General Alexander Zelin, it is assumed that the Vityaz air defense system will be several times greater in combat capabilities than the S-300P air defense system. In February 2012, the media announced that 38 divisional air defense systems were planned to be put into service.

09/11/2013 Head of GSKB Almaz-Antey Vitaly Neskrodovreported to the media that it is planned to complete tests on the S-350 air defense system in 2014, begin mass production in 2015 and in 20 16 to begin deliveries of air defense systems for air defense. The Vityaz air defense system should replace the famous S-300PS and S-300PM (PMU) in the Russian army.

Air defense is a set of steps and actions of troops to combat enemy air attack weapons in order to avert (reduce) losses among the population, damage to objects and military groups from air strikes. To repel (disrupt) enemy air attacks (strikes), air defense systems are formed.

The full air defense complex covers the following systems:

• Reconnaissance of the air enemy, warning troops about him;
• Fighter aircraft screening;
• Anti-aircraft missile and artillery barrier;
• Electronic warfare organizations;
• Masking;
• Managerial, etc.

Air defense happens:

• Zonal - to protect individual areas within which cover objects are located;
• Zonal-objective - for combining zonal air defense with direct screening of particularly important objects;
• Object - for the defense of individual particularly important objects.

The world experience of wars has turned air defense into one of the most important components in combined arms combat. In August 1958, the air defense forces of the ground forces were formed, and later the military air defense of the Russian Armed Forces was organized from them.

Until the end of the fifties, the SV air defenses were equipped with anti-aircraft artillery systems of that time, as well as specially designed transportable anti-aircraft missile systems. Along with this, in order to reliably cover troops in mobile combat operations, the presence of highly mobile and highly effective air defense systems was required, due to the increasing use of air attack capabilities.

Along with the fight against tactical aviation, the air defense forces of the ground forces also hit combat helicopters, unmanned and remotely piloted aerial vehicles, cruise missiles, as well as enemy strategic aircraft.

In the mid-seventies, the organization of the first generation of anti-aircraft missile weapons of the air defense forces ended. The troops received the latest air defense missiles and the famous ones: “Krugi”, “Cubes”, “Osy-AK”, “Strela-1 and 2”, “Shilki”, new radars and many other new equipment at that time. The formed anti-aircraft missile systems easily hit almost all aerodynamic targets, so they took part in local wars and armed conflicts.

By that time, the latest means of air attack were already rapidly developing and improving. These were tactical, operational-tactical, strategic ballistic missiles and precision weapons. Unfortunately, the weapon systems of the first generation of air defense troops did not provide solutions to the tasks of covering military groups from attacks with these weapons.

There is a need to develop and apply systematic approaches to argumentation of the classification and properties of second generation weapons. It was necessary to create weapons systems balanced by classifications and types of targets and a list of air defense systems, combined into a single control system, equipped with radar reconnaissance, communications and technical equipment. And such weapons systems were created. In the eighties, the air defense forces were fully equipped with S-Z00V, Tors, Buks-M1, Strela-10M2, Tunguskas, Iglas and the latest radars.

Changes have occurred in anti-aircraft missile and anti-aircraft missile and artillery units, units and formations. They became integral components in combined arms formations from battalions to front-line formations and became a unified air defense system in military districts. This increased the effectiveness of combat applications in groupings of air defense forces of military districts and ensured the power of fire echeloned at heights and ranges against the enemy with a high density of fire from anti-aircraft guns.

At the end of the nineties, to improve command, changes took place in the air defense forces of the Air Force, formations, military units and air defense units of the Coast Guard of the Navy, military units and air defense units of the Airborne Forces, in formations and military units of the air defense reserve of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. They were united into the military air defense of the Russian Armed Forces.

Military air defense missions

Military air defense formations and units carry out the tasks assigned to them to interact with the forces and means of the Armed Forces and Navy.

Military air defense is assigned the following tasks:

In peacetime:

• Measures to maintain air defense forces in military districts, formations, units and air defense units of the Coast Guard of the Navy, air defense units and units of the Airborne Forces in combat readiness for advanced deployments and repulses, together with air defense forces and means of the types of the Russian Armed Forces, attacks by means of air attacks;
• Carrying out duty within the operational zone of military districts and in the general air defense systems of the state;
• The sequence of increasing combat strength in air defense formations and units that perform missions on combat duty when the highest levels of readiness have been introduced.

In wartime:

• Measures for comprehensive, echeloned in depth cover from attacks by enemy air attacks on troop groups, military districts (fronts) and military installations throughout the depth of their operational formations, while interacting with air defense forces and means and other types and branches of the Armed Forces;
• Activities for direct cover, which include combined arms formations and formations, as well as formations, units and units of the Coast Guard of the Navy, formations and units of the Airborne Forces, missile forces and artillery in the form of groupings, aviation airfields, command posts, the most important rear facilities in concentration areas, during advances, occupation of specified zones and during operations (actions).

Directions for improving and developing military air defense

The Air Defense Forces of the Ground Forces today are the main and largest component of the military air defense of the Russian Armed Forces. They are united by a harmonious hierarchical structure with the inclusion of front-line, army (corps) complexes of air defense troops, as well as air defense units, motorized rifle (tank) divisions, motorized rifle brigades, air defense units of motorized rifle and tank regiments, and battalions.

Air defense troops in military districts have formations, units and air defense units that have at their disposal anti-aircraft missile systems/complexes of different purposes and potentials.

They are connected by reconnaissance and information complexes and control complexes. This makes it possible, in certain circumstances, to form effective multifunctional air defense systems. Until now, the weapons of Russian military air defense are among the best on the planet.

The most important areas in the improvement and development of military air defense include:

• Optimization of organizational structures in command and control bodies, formations and air defense units, in accordance with the assigned tasks;
• Modernization of anti-aircraft missile systems and complexes, reconnaissance assets in order to extend the service life and their integration into a unified aerospace defense system in the state and in the armed forces, endowing them with the functions of non-strategic anti-missile weapons in theaters of military operations;
• Development and maintenance of a unified technical policy to reduce the types of weapons, military equipment, their unification and avoidance of duplication in development;
• Providing promising air defense weapons systems with the latest means of automated control, communications, active, passive and other non-traditional types of reconnaissance, multifunctional anti-aircraft missile systems and new generation air defense systems using the criteria of “efficiency - cost - feasibility”;
• Conducting a complex of collective used training of military air defense with other troops, taking into account upcoming combat missions and the characteristics of deployment areas, while concentrating the main efforts in training with high-readiness air defense formations, units and subunits;
• Formation, provision and training of reserves for a flexible response to changes in circumstances, strengthening air defense force groups, replenishing losses of personnel, weapons and military equipment;
• Improving the training of officers in the structure of the military training system, increasing the level of their fundamental (basic) knowledge and practical training and consistency in the transition to continuous military education.

It is planned that in the near future the aerospace defense system will occupy one of the leading areas in the strategic defense of the state and in the Armed Forces, will become one of the constituent parts, and in the future it will become almost the main deterrent in the outbreak of wars.

Air defense systems are one of the fundamental ones in the aerospace defense system. Today, military air defense units are able to effectively resolve missions of anti-aircraft and, to some extent, non-strategic missile defense measures in groupings of troops in operational-strategic directions. As practice shows, during tactical exercises using live fire, all available Russian military air defense systems are capable of hitting cruise missiles.

Air defense in the aerospace defense system of a state and in its Armed Forces tends to grow in proportion to the increase in the threat of air attacks. When resolving aerospace defense tasks, a coordinated general use of multi-service air defense forces and missile and space defense forces in operational-strategic areas will be required as the most effective than individual use. This will happen due to the possibility, with a single plan and under unity of command, to combine strength with the advantages of different types of weapons and mutual compensation for their shortcomings and weaknesses.

Improving air defense systems is impossible without further modernization of existing weapons, rearmament of air defense troops in military districts with the most modern air defense systems and air defense systems, and the supply of the latest automated control and communication systems.

The main direction in the development of Russian air defense systems today is:

• Continue development work in order to create highly effective weapons that will have quality indicators that cannot be surpassed by foreign analogues for 10-15 years;
• Create a promising multifunctional military air defense weapons system. This will give impetus to create a flexible organizational structure for the execution of specific tasks. Such a system needs to be integrated with the main weapons of the ground forces, and act in an integrated manner with other types of troops in the course of solving air defense problems;
• Introduce automated control systems with robotics and artificial intelligence in order to reflect further increases in enemy capabilities and increase the effectiveness of used air defense troops;
• Provide samples of air defense weapons with electro-optical devices, television systems, thermal imagers to ensure the combat effectiveness of air defense systems and air defense systems in conditions of intense interference, which will minimize the dependence of air defense systems on the weather;
• Widely use passive location and electronic warfare equipment;
• Reorient the concept of the future development of weapons and military equipment for air defense, carry out a radical modernization of existing weapons and military equipment in order to provide a significant increase in the effectiveness of combat use at low cost.

Air Defense Day

Air Defense Day is a memorable day in the Russian Armed Forces. It is celebrated every year, every second Sunday in April, in accordance with the Decree of the Russian President of May 31, 2006.

For the first time, this holiday was defined by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in a Decree dated February 20, 1975. It was established for the outstanding services shown by the air defense forces of the Soviet state during the Second World War, as well as for the fact that they carried out particularly important tasks in times of peace. It was originally celebrated on April 11, but in October 1980 Air Defense Day was moved to be celebrated every second Sunday in April.

The history of establishing the date of the holiday is connected with the fact that, in fact, in the April days, the most important government resolutions on the organization of air defense of the state were adopted, which became the basis for the construction of air defense systems, determined the organizational structure of the troops included in it, their formation and further development.

In conclusion, it is worth noting that as the threat of air attacks increases, the role and importance of military air defense will only increase, which has already been confirmed by time.

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S-300VM "Antey-2500" air defense system

The world's only mobile air defense system that can intercept short- and medium-range ballistic missiles (up to 2500 km). “Antey” can also shoot down a modern aircraft, including the invisible Staelth. The Antey target can be hit simultaneously by four or two 9M83 (9M83M) missiles (depending on the launcher used). In addition to the Russian army, the Almaz-Antey concern supplies Antey to Venezuela; a contract was also signed with Egypt. But Iran abandoned it in 2015 in favor of the S-300 air defense system.

ZRS S-300V

The S-Z00V military self-propelled anti-aircraft missile system carries two types of missiles. The first is the 9M82 in order to shoot down ballistic Pershings and SRAM-type aircraft missiles, as well as long-flying aircraft. The second is 9M83, for destroying aircraft and ballistic missiles of the Lance and R-17 Scud types.

Autonomous air defense system "Tor"

Bearing the proud name of the Scandinavian deity, the Thor air defense system can cover not only infantry and equipment, but also buildings and industrial facilities. "Thor" protects, among other things, from precision weapons, guided bombs and enemy drones. At the same time, the system itself controls the designated airspace and independently shoots down all air targets not identified by the “friend or foe” system. That's why they call it autonomous.

Anti-aircraft missile system "Osa" and its modifications "Osa-AK" and "Osa-AKM"

Since the 60s of the 20th century, the Osa has been in service with the Soviet and subsequently Russian armies and the armies of the CIS countries, as well as more than 25 foreign countries. It is capable of protecting ground forces from enemy aircraft, helicopters and cruise missiles operating at extremely low, low and medium altitudes (up to 5 m at a distance of up to 10 km).

MD-PS air defense system with increased secrecy of operation

The stealth of the MD-PS is ensured through the use of optical means for detecting and guiding the missile using infrared radiation of the target in the wavelength range of 8-12 microns. The detection system has an all-round view and can simultaneously find up to 50 targets and select the most dangerous ones. Guidance is carried out according to the “fire and forget” principle (missiles with homing heads that “see” the target).

"Tunguska"

The Tunguska anti-aircraft gun missile system is a short-range air defense system. In battle, it protects infantry from helicopters and attack aircraft operating at low altitudes, and fires at lightly armored ground and floating equipment. She opens fire not only from a standing position, but also while moving - as long as there is no fog or snowfall. In addition to the ZUR9M311 missiles, the Tunguska is equipped with 2A38 anti-aircraft guns, which can turn towards the sky up to an angle of 85 degrees.

"Pine - RA"

The Sosna-RA light mobile towed anti-aircraft gun-missile system, like the Tunguska, is equipped with an anti-aircraft gun that hits targets at an altitude of up to 3 km. But the main advantage of Sosna-RA is the 9M337 Sosna-RA hypersonic missile, which fires at targets at altitudes of up to 3,500 meters. The destruction range is from 1.3 to 8 km. "Sosna-RA" - light complex; this means that it can be placed on any platform that can support its weight - Ural-4320, KamAZ-4310 trucks and others.

New items

Long- and medium-range anti-aircraft missile system S-400 "Triumph"

The destruction of targets at long range in the Russian army is ensured, among other things, by the S-400 Triumph air defense system. It is designed to destroy aerospace attack weapons, and is capable of intercepting a target at a distance of more than 200 kilometers and at an altitude of up to 30 km. The Triumph has been in service with the Russian army since 2007.

"Pantsir-S1"

The Pantsir-S1 air defense missile system was put into service in 2012. Its automatic cannons and radio command-guided missiles with infrared and radar tracking make it possible to neutralize any target in the air, on land and on water. Pantsir-S1 is armed with 2 anti-aircraft guns and 12 surface-to-air missiles.

SAM "Sosna"

The Sosna mobile short-range anti-aircraft missile system is the latest Russian innovation; The complex will enter service only at the end of this year. It has two parts - armor-piercing and fragmentation-rod action, that is, it can hit armored vehicles, fortifications and ships, shoot down cruise missiles, drones and high-precision weapons. The Sosna is guided by a laser: the rocket flies along the beam.