The grammatical meaning of the word. The grammatical meaning of the word and methods of its formation
Types of grammar
І. Depending on the scope of the object of study:
1. General grammar- studies universal grammatical features and properties inherent in all languages or a number of languages.
2. Private grammar- explores the grammatical structure of a particular language.
ІІ. Depending on the period of the grammatical structure of the language:
1. Historical (diachronic) grammar- studies the structure of language in its development or at individual past stages; explores the changes that occur in the grammatical structure of a language over time; its variety - comparative historical grammar, which examines related languages in their historical development.
2. Descriptive (synchronous) grammar- studies the state of the grammatical structure of a language in a certain period, usually corresponding to the moment the grammar was written; its variety - comparative grammar- describes the similarities and differences in the structure of related and unrelated languages at any particular moment in their existence.
ІІІ. Depending on the main characteristics of the grammatical structure of the language:
1. Formal grammar- describes the grammatical structure of the language from form to meaning: the basic descriptive and normative grammars of the modern Russian language, which present systems of morphological and syntactic formal means of the language and describe the grammatical meanings contained in these formal means.
2. Functional grammar- describes the grammatical structure of a language from meaning to the forms expressing it: grammatical meanings grouped in a certain way, which are considered in their functioning together with formal means of expression specific to each context.
TOPIC No. 2: “GRAMMATIC MEANING: ITS NATURE AND FEATURES. TYPES OF GRAMMATIC MEANINGS"
Grammatical meaning (hereinafter - GZ ) is a generalized (abstract) linguistic meaning of a linguistic unit, which is characteristic of a series of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and has a regular (standard) expression in the language.
Yes, words spring, summer, park, worker, love, happiness, blue they have the meaning of objectivity, gender, number and case; words read, thought, shouted, slept- the meaning of objectivity, GC of the past tense; words read, did, learned, assembled- GZ perfect form etc. You can also call the GP of a person, object, subject, predicativity, degree of comparison, etc.
The features of GL emerge most clearly when it is compared with its lexical meaning.
| Lexical meaning (LZ) | Grammatical meaning(GZ) |
| 1. Historically fixed in the minds of speakers, the correlation of the word with the concept of the object of reality. | 1. Reflection of the most general relationships between objects and phenomena known by man, and, therefore, expresses the relationships between words. |
| 2. LZ is called objective, real meaning. | 2. GC is called relational (from English. relation‘relationship’) meaning. |
| 3. More specific. | 3. More abstract. |
| 4. Individually for each word. | 4. Inherent in large groups and entire classes of words, it has a mass character. |
| 5. Less frequent. | 5. More frequent. |
| 6. The number of LPs is unlimited, since LPs are associated with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of reality. | 6. GPs are quantitatively limited and fixed, since GPs are associated with the generalization of the properties of words, with abstraction from their LPs. |
| 7. Lexical system Each language is open in nature and is constantly updated with new units and new meanings. | 7. Grammar is characterized by a strictly defined, relatively small number of GCs (for example, for Russian nouns these are GCs of gender, number and case). |
| 8. LZ always correlates with objective, extra-linguistic reality, since it reflects the correlation of a word with a concept and conveys the objective-material meaning of the word. | 8. For civil protection, this connection is optional, optional, i.e. GP may not correlate with objective reality, since it expresses the relationship between words. Russian steppe, pain, Siberia, dog- f.r. Ukrainian step, bil, Siberia, dog- b.r. |
| 9. LZ does not have regular means of expression, inherent in the word as a whole. | 9. GS has a regular (standard) expression using grammatical way and grammatical means. Formal standard indicators of GC are called grammatical exponents. |
The following example demonstrates the optional connection of GE with extra-linguistic reality and the obligatory presence of an exponent for GE, i.e. a standard formal indicator:
Types of grammatical meanings
1. Actually grammatical (relational) meaning- see table.
2. Word-formation (derivational) meaning- the meaning is transitional between the lexical meaning and the actual grammatical meaning. Derivational meaning is the generalized categorical meaning of derived words of a certain word-formative structure, which is established on the basis of the semantic relationship of derived stems with the corresponding generators.
Milk – milk jug (vessel for milk); creamer, salad bowl (salad bowl), coffee pot, teapot, sugar bowl, salt shaker., that is, the name of the vessel according to the object or substance placed in it.
Switch, turntable, switch, loudspeaker etc. - all words of this series belong to the same word-formation type, since a) they have the same generating basis (all of them are verbal nouns); b) formed using the same word-formation device, formant (suffix - tel) and c) have the same word-formation meaning: ‘an object intended to perform an action called by a producing verb’.
If the lexical meaning is inherent in one word, then word-formation meanings, like grammatical ones, are characteristic of entire groups, series, categories of derivative words that are structurally homogeneous and built according to certain word-formation models. Word-formation meanings act as the basis for the formation of LL.
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The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.
A grammatical category unites grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; The grammatical category of case in English includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a number of words or syntactic structures and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.
In a word, grammatical meanings are a mandatory addition to the lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:
a) lexical meaning is inherent in a specific word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.
b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categoricalness / conjecture).
c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with a emptied lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of the age of approximately 15-25 years, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.
The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter gender animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).
Grammatical form is the external (formal) side of a linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the genitive case, a verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and the material means of its expression.
Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method, there are different means of expressing grammatical meanings.
Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).
2. Emphasis – hands (ip.p., plural) – handsu (p.p., singular).
3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) - collect (owl. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.
4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). In Malay, orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.
5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root - τρέφ / τροφ.
Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: teach - I will read (weekend tense); fast (positive degree) – faster (comparative degree) – fastest (superlative degree).
2. Means of syntactic connections - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns usually belong to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. The gender of inanimate indeclinable nouns is usually determined by the generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).
3. Function words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - go onto the highway ( v.p.) – turn around on the highway (p.p.); found out (indicative mood) - would know (subjunctive mood).
4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as its passive role (object): A horse sees a mouse (horse - sp., subject; mouse - v.p., object ) – The mouse sees a horse (mouse – i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).
5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓Money went to the phone: 1) with logical emphasis on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”
Questions and tasks for self-control:
1. What is grammar?
2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?
3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?
4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?
More on the topic § 2. Grammatical category. Grammatical meaning. Grammatical form:
- Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical category (GC), grammatical meaning (GZ), grammatical form (GF).
Grammatical meaning– this is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular (standard) expression in grammatical forms. In the field of morphology, these are the general meanings of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns, procedurality in verbs), as well as the particular meanings of word forms and words in general. The grammatical meaning of a word is not determined by its lexical meaning.
Unlike lexical meaning, characteristic of a particular word, the grammatical meaning is not concentrated in one word, but, on the contrary, is characteristic of many words of the language. In addition, the same word can have multiple grammatical meanings, which are found when a word changes its grammatical form while maintaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word stol has a number of forms (stola, stola, tables, etc.) that express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
If lexical meaning is associated with a generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena of objective reality, their name and expression of concepts about them, then grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words.
For example, the words cow and bull exist to distinguish between animals based on their biological sex. Gender forms group nouns according to their grammatical properties. The shapes table, wall, window group words (and not objects, phenomena and concepts about them).
1) grammatical meanings are not universal, are less numerous, and form a closed, more clearly structured class.
2) grammatical meanings, unlike lexical ones, are expressed in a mandatory, “forced” order. For example, a Russian speaker cannot “evade” the expression of the category of number of a verb, an English speaker cannot “evade” the category of definiteness of a noun, etc.
3) lexical and grammatical meanings differ in terms of the methods and means of their formal expression.
4) grammatical meanings may not have complete correspondence in the extralinguistic sphere (thus, the categories of number and time usually correspond to reality in one way or another, while feminine noun stool and masculine noun chair motivated only by their endings).
The grammatical meanings of words are expressed using various grammatical means. The grammatical meaning expressed using the grammatical means of the language is called a grammatical category.
All words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. Parts of speech– the main lexical and grammatical categories into which words of a language are distributed based on the following characteristics: a) semantic (generalized meaning of an object, action or state, quality, etc.), b) morphological (morphological categories of a word) and c) s and n t a c h e c o g o (syntactic functions of a word)
. The classification of Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov is one of the most substantiated and convincing. It divides all words into four grammatical-semantic (structural-semantic) categories of words:
1. Name words, or parts of speech;
2. Connectives, function words, or particles of speech;
3. Modal words;
4. Interjections.
1. Name words (parts of speech) denote objects, processes, qualities, characteristics, numerical connections and relationships, are members of a sentence and can be used separately from other words as sentence words. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, words into the category of state; they are also accompanied by pronouns.
2. Function words are deprived of a nominative (nominal) function. These include connective and function words (prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles, connectives).
3. Modal words and particles also do not perform a denomination function, but are more “lexical” than function words. They express the speaker's attitude towards the content of the utterance.
4. Interjections express feelings, moods and volitional impulses, but do not name and. Interjections differ from other types of words by their lack of cognitive value, intonation features, syntactic disorganization and direct connection with facial expressions and expressive tests.
In modern Russian there are 10 parts of speech: 1) noun,
2) adjective, 3) numeral, 4) pronoun, 5) state category, 6) adverb, 7) preposition, 8) conjunction, 9) particles, 10) verb (sometimes participles and gerunds are also distinguished as independent parts of speech )[i]. The first six parts of speech are significant performing a nominative function and acting as members of a sentence. A special place among them is occupied by pronouns, including words that lack a denominative function. Prepositions, conjunctions, particles - official parts of speech that do not have a denomination function and do not act as independent members of a sentence. In addition to the named classes of words, in modern Russian there are special groups words: 1) modal words expressing the attitude of the statement to reality from the point of view of the speaker ( probably, obviously, of course); 2) interjections, which serve to express feelings and expression of will ( oh, oh, chick); 3) onomatopoeic words ( quack-quack, meow-meow
Independent (nominative) parts of speech include words naming objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions about independent words, and in a sentence significant words are members of the sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
| Noun | Who? What? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. | |
| Verb | what to do? what to do? | To saw, to saw, to know, to find out. | |
| Adjective | Which? whose? | Nice, blue, mom's, door. | |
| Numeral | How many? which? | Five, five, five. | |
| Adverb | How? When? Where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. | |
| Pronoun | Who? Which? How many? How? and etc. | I, he, so, my, so much, so, there. | |
| Participle | Which? (what is he doing? what has he done? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. | |
| Participle | How? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding. |
Notes
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position of participles and gerunds in the system of parts of speech. Some researchers classify them as independent parts of speech, others consider them special forms of the verb. Participle and gerund really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and forms of the verb.
Functional parts of speech- these are words that do not name objects, actions, or signs, but express only the relationships between them.
- Functional words cannot be questioned.
- Function words are not parts of the sentence.
- Function words serve independent words, helping them connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
- TO service units speeches in Russian include the following
- pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
- union (and, but, however, because, so that, if);
- particle (would, whether, not, even, exactly, only).
6. Interjections occupy a special position among parts of speech.
- Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words and do not serve to connect words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
- Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use interjections such as ah, oh, uh; to express the feeling of cold - br-r, to express fear or pain – Ouch etc.
Independent parts of speech have a nominative function (they name objects, their characteristics, actions, states, quantity, signs of other characteristics or indicate them), have a system of forms and are members of the sentence in a sentence.
Functional parts of speech do not have a nominative function, are unchangeable and cannot be members of a sentence. They serve to connect words and sentences and to express the speaker's attitude towards the message.
Ticket number 8
Noun
Significant part speech, which includes words with an objective meaning, which have a category of gender, change according to cases and numbers and act as any member in a sentence.
MORPHOLOGY
The branch of language science that studies modes of expression grammatical expressions, patterns of word change, grammatical classes of words and their inherent grammatical categories.
Concept of grammatical meaning
A generalized meaning that is regularly expressed in a language using typed means - The gloggy kuzdra Shteko budlaned the bokra and curled the bokrenka
Signs of grammatical meanings
Abstractness
Regularity
Mandatory
Class-wide prevalence
List privacy
Languages differ in what meanings they choose as grammatical meanings.
Types of grammatical meanings
1) Nominative - reflect extra-linguistic reality (reflects reality)
2) Syntactic - are not associated with extra-linguistic reality, they reflect only the ability of a given word form to be combined with other word forms (reflect the features of compatibility (gender of nouns))
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
1) Synthetic - grammatical meaning using affixes. ( Walked- past tense, masculine)
Suppletivism ― expression of grammatical knowledge through the exchange of stems ( person people )
2) Analytical - use of function words ( if- subjunctive mood)
Both methods are typical for the Russian language.
Grammatical form and word form
Grammatical form - a linguistic sign in which grammatical meaning finds its regular expression. In speech, in specific statements, a word appears in one of its grammatical forms.
Word form - a word in some grammatical form.
Morphological paradigm
Morphological paradigm of the word - a system of grammatical forms of one word
wood ― 24, table- 12 components
Complete Paradigm - includes the entire set of forms characteristic of a given part of speech.
Redundant Paradigm - contains redundant components ( waving)
The youth- 6, incomplete, trousers- 6, incomplete.
The concept of grammatical category
Grammatical forms are grouped into grammatical categories.
Singular Form + Form plural= Grammatical category of number
Types of grammatical categories
Binary/non-binary
Inflectional/non-inflectional
The problem of parts of speech in English
The study of the question of the number of parts of speech in a particular language goes back to ancient grammarians.
When isolating parts of speech, you can use various approaches. In Russian grammar of the 21st and 20th centuries, several approaches have emerged:
1) Formal - the main classification criteria are the features of inflection and a set of grammatical characteristics.
2) Synthetic function of the word
3) Logical, lexical-semantic (general categorical meaning of the word
In modern Russian studies, the classification of parts of speech takes into account several approaches:
Part of speech is a class of words that is characterized by:
2) General set grammatical categories
3) General syntactic functions
4) Word-formation features.
Several variants modern classification parts of speech
1) School grammar - 10 parts of speech
1. Grammar 80 also presents a classification of 10 parts of speech. Significant parts of speech - noun, pronoun, adjective, numeral, adverb, verb
Functional - preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection
2) A.N. Tikhonov
Nominatives - noun, adjective, participle, numeral, pronoun, verb, gerund, adverb, state category.
Functional - preposition, conjunction, particle,
Interjection
Onomatopoeia
Modal (obviously, certainly, probably)
Any classification of parts of speech is always the result of compromises between different approaches.
SIGNIFICANT PARTS OF SPEECH IN RYA
NOUN
Part of speech that denotes an object and carries out this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, animate/inanimate
Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.
A group of words that exhibit originality in the expression of certain grammatical categories.
First level of division
At the first level of division, all nouns can be divided into 2 groups:
1) Own - call individual items
Names "Bolshevik"
They have either only st or only pl shape
2) Common nouns - name an object according to its belonging to a particular class.
Next level of division
- Real
1) Special meanings- denote a homogeneous mass of matter that can be divided into parts, but cannot be counted ( milk)
2) Grammatical features: only one form of number
3) Word formation - most of it - is not derivative
In speech, real nouns that have only a neuter form can in some cases form a plural form ( dry wines)
The meaning of the noun changes (type, quantity)
- Collective
a set of persons or objects as one indivisible whole (youth , students). All collective nouns have only singular forms. Collective nouns are usually derived. Must be distinguished from concrete nouns like people, class, group, detachment, herd.
Material and collective are closely related to each other. Sometimes it is difficult to answer the question whether it is real or collective. Sometimes they even talk about material-collective (dust)
- Distracted (abstract)
They only have a singular form. Many are derivatives. In some cases, nouns can be plural ( joys of life, happy dreams, annual readings) since the meaning of nouns changes.
- Common nouns
Show originality in the expression of grammatical categories. Boring, sweet tooth. The main feature is that in different contexts it can be either feminine or male. These include nouns with inflection a, most often colloquial style, abbreviated names - Sasha, Zhenya, Valya. Sometimes some indeclinable nouns are classified as counterpart. Not to be confused with common nouns doctor, teacher, officer, which can name persons of the feminine gender, but the words themselves remain masculine.
- Specific nouns
words that name countable objects that can be presented separately and counted. They have two number forms and are the standard of a noun as a part of speech. However, a small group of concrete nouns have only a plural form. ( sled)
Animacy
Animation/inanimation
Basic rule - In the plural, V.p. = R.p - animate, V.p. = I.p. - inanimate.
The rule was formed for the plural, since the grammatical category of number is most clearly expressed in the plural. For two groups of masculine nouns ( student, sentry) the rule also works in the singular.
In the Russian language, lexical and grammatical animation may not coincide. There are also nouns that experience fluctuations in the expression of animation - inanimateness. I see dolls - I see dolls. There are nouns that are animate in one meaning, but not in another. Stars. The youth- outside the grammatical category, since there is no plural.
In school grammar they talk about masculine, feminine, neuter gender.
Zaliznyak proposed a fourth gender - paired, words with only a plural form. ( gate, clock). Suggested talking about 7 coordination classes:
1 - m.r. neod.
2 - m.r. od.
3 - f.r. neod.
4 - f.r. od.
5 - av.r. inod.
6 - avg.
7 - paired gender.
Gender in English is expressed in morphological, syntactic and lexical-semantic ways.
Morphological - expressing the grammatical meaning of gender using inflections. This method is usually called inconsistent, since homonymous endings can have meanings of different genders. Table, daughter
Syntactic - expression of gender through the form of a word that agrees with the noun. In addition to agreed words, this function can be performed by forms of the predicate in the past tense or in subjunctive mood
Lexico-semantic - is based on the relationship between the grammatical meaning of gender and the lexical meaning of gender. This method is relevant only for a small number of nouns that name people. For these nouns, gender is nominative. For everyone else, syntactic.
Sometimes the meaning of gender is determined by the lexical meaning of gender, also in some zoonyms.
Singular
1) The main meaning is the meaning of singularity, that is, an indication of one object
2) Generalized-collective meaning - the singular form indicates a set of objects understood as a collection. During the session, the student rests
3) Distributive\distributive - the singular form indicates an object that is owned by several persons at the same time. Open the textbook to... page.
Plural
1) Basic value - The value of a separate set. From 2 to many.
2) Collective set - the plural form indicates a collection of people, united according to some characteristic. He lived among the English for a long time
3) Hyperbolic set - indicates a deliberate elimination from specific singularity; this can be observed in two cases.
Indicates the importance of an item We have guests - our daughter
To express reproach, censure We didn't study at universities
4) Continuous set - has the meaning of duration, special extent, intensity. Snow and ice all around
Question about case meaning.
Case meaning is a meaning associated with expressing the meaning of a noun to other words in a phrase or sentence.
Currently, the following types of case meanings are distinguished:
1) Subjective meaning
2) Object value
3) Definitive
4) Circumstantial
5) Some scientists highlight the collective/adding meaning.
These meanings are not assigned to a specific case form.
1) Subject meaning ― the meaning of a real figure, the bearer of a sign or state. People are walking down the street. The students are cold
2) Object value - the meaning of the relationship of an object to the action that extends to this object. We are drinking tea
The object value can be different types:
Direct object value. Real object. To fish
Internal object. The object of speech, thought, feeling. Reminisce about the trip.
Destination object. I'm giving a lecture to students.
Object means. Seal with glue
Intermediary object. Send the parcel through the conductor
There are other types of objects.
3) Definitive meaning - the meaning of nouns that characterizes an object according to some characteristic:
Properly defining Girl in a hat. Brick house.
Predicative-definitive My brother is handsome
4) Circumstantial meaning - the meaning of a noun that characterizes an action or attribute in terms of measure, time, and so on.
1) Temporary - come back in May
2) The meaning of place - have a walk in the forest
3) Causal - cry over a mistake
4) Conditional - be careful when flying
5) The meaning of the goal - send for a doctor
6) Measures and degrees - stuck up to his neck
7) Concessive - against advice, he left
8) Image and method of action - sing in a bass voice
5) Collective meaning - the value of completing informationally incomplete units in a sentence. He was known as a talker (he was known as- incomplete). His name was Vanya (his name was- incomplete)
The meaning the case expresses is influenced by several factors: the form of the noun itself, its meaning, the form and meaning of the word with which the noun is associated, the presence/absence of a preposition, and the nature of the preposition.
ADJECTIVE
- a part of speech that denotes a non-procedural feature of an object and expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of gender, number, case, as well as categories of degrees of comparison and completeness of brevity
Form comparative degree
Indicates a greater or lesser degree of a characteristic compared to something.
FSS can be synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic - is formed using three suffixes: e, ee, she ( louder, whiter, more) Productive - her. Simple form the comparative degree is not formed from an adjective with sck suffixes, suffixes of subjective assessment ( weak), from an adjective with the suffixes ush, yush (transmissible), l ( experienced), from compound adjectives (long-armed), with the prefix not ( difficult). There are other restrictions.
Analytical - is formed using auxiliary words more and less. Absent in group 80.
The meaning of the form of degrees of comparison.
Comparative degree (comparative) - has two main meanings.
1) a characteristic is inherent in one object to a greater or lesser extent than another. A cat is smarter than a dog
2) a feature of the same object in one situation is presented to a greater or lesser extent than in another. Winter is colder this year
The analytical form has fewer restrictions in education.
The simple comparative form is usually part of the predicate. Analytical can be both a predicate and a definition.
Forms superlatives
Traditionally, the meaning of superlative forms is defined as the maximum degree of manifestation of a characteristic.
The superlative form is also formed synthetically and analytically.
Simple - eish, aish. Composite - most, most, least, all (total) + synth. Comparative degree form ( most beautiful of all, most important).
When the superlative form has the meaning itself high degree manifestations of a trait are called superlative
However, superlatives can simply mean great degrees. (elative) most beautiful building. (not the most beautiful building in the city)
Most modern linguists do not believe that adjectives have superlative forms.
For the formation of synthetic forms, the same restrictions apply as for the formation of comparative forms. The superlative form formed with the word most contains an adjective in the positive degree. The shortest road, the tightest way, the best option- exception.
NUMERAL
In language, the idea of quantity can be conveyed by different means: the grammatical category of number, with the help of nouns ( hundred, dozen), also using special words called numerals.
Whether the numeral is a part of speech is an ambiguous question. In school practice, numerals include quantitative, ordinal, collective, and fractional numerals. In grammar 80, numerals include only cardinal numerals and collective numerals. Ordinal ones belong to adjectives, and fractional ones are considered as a combination of words belonging to different parts of speech. Numerals also include words such as many and few. Tikhonov’s concept excludes many and little, but includes fractional numerals, cardinal and collective numerals. Panov's concept is ordinal, and cardinal and ordinal numbers are forms of the same word.
A concept that distinguishes cardinal, ordinal and collective numerals within numerals.
Numeral ― a part of speech that denotes the number and order of objects when counting and expresses these meanings in the grammatical categories of case (consistently) and in the grammatical categories of gender and number (not sequentially). There are three lexico-grammatical categories in the composition of numerals:
1) quantitative
2) ordinal
3) collective
Some linguists distinguish only quantitative and ordinal, and collective ones are classified as quantitative.
According to their structure, all numerals are divided into simple ones, having one root ( forty, five, five), complex, having two roots ( fifty) and compounds consisting of two or more words ( thirty five, three thousand thirty)
Lexico-grammatical categories of cardinal numerals:
Cardinal numbers mean:
1) abstract quantity ( 8 + 3 becomes 11)
2) quantity as a sign of an object ( two years, five books)
3) place of the object when counting ( house six)
Grammatical features:
NEVER inflected by numbers (outside the grammatical category of numbers)
They change according to cases, but the case of the numeral does not express either subjective or objective meaning, but only indicates the syntactic connection of the numeral with the noun.
Do not change by gender except for words one-one-one, two-two.
Synthetic features:
From 1 to 4 in the nominative and accusative cases are combined with a singular noun
In the nominative and accusative cases, they control the noun ( three cups, five tables), in other cases they agree with nouns
Features of some cardinal numbers:
One is considered differently by linguists, sometimes it is not classified as a numeral and is called a pronominal adjective, or a countable adjective (grammar 70), some believe that it is a numeral only in compound numerals. The differences in opinions are explained by the fact that the word one behaves differently from other numerals: it changes in gender and number, and always agrees with the noun. In addition, in addition to the quantitative meaning, the word one has some meaning, separate, etc. Thus, the word one behaves like a numeral only in compound numerals. In all other cases - a pronominal adjective.
A thousand, a million, a billion in school grammar are numerals, and grammar 80 clearly refers to nouns, since they change according to numbers. There is a point of view according to which it makes sense to call these words nouns only in cases where they either do not name an exact number (a million problems) or are used in the plural form.
Rule of use with the preposition by:
- Two, one and a half, three, four, ninety, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred are used in the accusative case, coinciding with the nominative. They took two hundred rubles.
The rest have variant forms ( took five rubles or took five rubles)
One is always in the dative form ( handed out one pencil each)
Lexico-grammatical category of collective numerals:
Formed from quantitative using the suffixes o, j, ( two, two) and uh, er ( damn, four)
The norm limits the number of collective numerals from two to ten, but there are others. It is traditionally believed that the meaning of collective numerals is a designation of quantity as a collection. But many linguists do not agree with this statement and believe that collective numerals are no different in meaning from cardinal ones.
Grammatical features:
Outside the grammatical category of number
Outside the grammatical category of gender
Case does not express meaning, but indicates compatibility with a noun
Synthetic features:
Compatibility with nouns: collective numbers can be combined with masculine nouns or with words of the general gender ( two friends, three onlookers), but cannot be combined with feminine nouns.
Can be combined with nouns pluralia tantum ( two hours, three days)
Collective numbers combine with nouns children, guys, people, faces.
Can be combined with nouns with the meaning of non-adulthood ( seven kids)
Can be combined with substantivized adjectives ( two sick)
Can be combined with personal pronouns ( there are three of us)
Some classify both as collective numerals, but they do not have a numerical meaning, so it is advisable to consider them pronouns. In addition, these words have different rules for compatibility with nouns.
Lexico-grammatical category of ordinal numbers:
Call the serial number of the item when counting.
Grammatical features:
Can vary by case, number, gender
Always agree with nouns
Declension of numerals:
Ordinals are inflected as relative adjectives (adjective type)
The rest, according to the nature of the endings, are distinguished by 6 types of declination:
3) 50, 60, 70, 80
4) 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900
5) 40, 90, 100, one and a half, one and a half hundred
6) collective
PRONOUN
On the one hand, they are used as independent words, on the other hand, they do not name phenomena or objects, but only point to them. Many linguists believe that pronouns appeared before names.
Distinguishing features:
1) Pronouns are characterized by the correlation of the same word with a wide range of objects in the surrounding reality. The direction in each individual case may mean different faces and various items
2) Functions:
Diectic - indication of the condition of the speech act. Correlating what is said with the conditions of the speech act and its participants. I write (the speaker writes), I am the speaker, you are the listener, he is the third person.
First and second person pronouns referring to the speaker (I, we) or the listener (you, you). Also demonstrative pronouns, referring to the object to which the speaker’s pointing gesture is directed (that, this, this, that..)
Anaphoric — correlation of this message with other messages. This is a function of referring to something known. They can replace names of objects, actions, and even entire sentences in the text. My brother came and said that he was leaving. N Ikolay got ready and left. Petya did the same. I will write him letters if necessary.
Perform:
Third person personal pronouns
Returnable (themselves, each other)
Relative pronouns
Emotional-evaluative function ― Your Olga (at the end of the letter)
effimism - function of taboo - one hundred and one questions about “this”
Classification of pronouns.
1) Traditional.
- Personal - indicate participants in a speech act.
- Refundable - myself. This pronoun does not have a nominative case, which indicates that the object or addressee of the action is the same as the subject of the action.
- Possessives - the item belongs to the first, second or third party. ( my, yours, his, yours(belonging to what is named as the subject) his, her, theirs― personal pronouns with possessive function
- Index fingers (that, this, such, this, that) - highlight objects or signs associated with participants in a speech act or speech space.
- Definitive - indicate generalizing signs ( everyone, everyone, any, all) or excretory ( himself, the most)
- Interrogative (who, what, which, which, whose)
- Relative coincide with interrogatives, but are fundamentally different from them syntactic function, acting as allied words - The boy broke a vase that was on the table.
- Undefined - affixes not, postfixes -that, -or, -something, affixoid something- Indicates something unknown to the speaker
- Negative - no and no. Absence of objects, signs, circumstances.
The traditional classification does not take into account the pronoun each other. This pronoun is often classified into a special category called reciprocal.
2) Functional-semantic classification:
Personal, possessive, reflexive + each other, emphasizing-demonstrative ( this, that, such, such), excretory-enhancing ( himself, the most), interrogative, relative, indefinite, generalized distributive ( every, any, all, everyone), negative.
3) Formal grammatical classification:
1) pronouns nouns - indicate a person or object, case is expressed sequentially, gender and number are not sequential (personal, reflexive, some interrogatives ( who what), some negative ( nobody, nothing), some undefined ( someone, someone)
2) pronouns adjectives - indicate a feature, express meaning in dependent grammatical categories of gender, number, case. ( yours, mine, yours, ours, some, some)
3) numeral pronouns - indicate an indefinite quantity, outside the grammatical category of number and have the same features of compatibility with nouns. ( how much, how much)
4) pronouns adverbs ― immutable pronouns ( here, there, from there, somewhere, someday...) Some linguists classify them as adverbs.
Declension Features
The declension of personal pronouns is characterized by a change in the stem in indirect cases. I, me, me, we, us.
Pronouns he she it when combined with a preposition, they have forms with the initial phoneme n. With him, with her, about them
The pronoun self does not have a nominative case form
The grammatical features of other pronouns, namely adjectives, adverbs, numerals, completely repeat the features of the corresponding part of speech.
VERB
The verb in Russian is opposed to names, as it has its own set of grammatical categories. It also denotes a feature of an object, but this is a special feature – a feature as a process.
Verb - a part of speech that denotes a procedural feature and expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood, tense, etc. The main function is the predicate.
Verb paradigm
Also more complex than the naming paradigm.
3 groups of verb forms.
1) The infinitive is the initial form of the verb, but it is very conditional.
2) Conjugated forms (predicative)
3) Non-conjugated forms (attributive) participles and gerunds. Not all scientists refer to it as a verb.
Each of these groups is characterized by a special set of grammatical categories.
Verb conjugations
Conjugation - usually used in the following situations:
1) Verb conjugation - changing the verb in the narrow sense by persons and numbers in the present or future simple tense, in the broad sense changing the verb by tenses, moods, persons, numbers, and so on.
2) Conjugation also refers to a system of verbal inflections in the present or future simple tense.
Depending on what inflections are presented, all verbs can be divided into two large classes: first and second conjugation.
Verb of the 1st conjugation - carry
I carry, you carry, he, she, it carries,
We carry, you carry, they carry
Verb of the 2nd conjugation - decide
I will decide, you will decide, he will decide
We will decide, you will decide, they will decide
In addition to inflections, verbs of the first and second conjugation differ from each other in the features of alternation: for verbs of the second conjugation, alternation appears only in the first person singular form ( love - love), for verbs of the first conjugation, alternation appears in four forms - second and third person singular, and first and second person plural ( bake - bake, bake, bake).
Verbs of the 1st and 2nd conjugations differ from each other in the final stem (ending), for verbs of the 1st conjugation the stem of the present or future simple tense can end in a hissing - jump, in j - blush, in a paired hard consonant - carry, verbs of the second conjugation in this case can also end in sibilants, j, and a paired soft consonant.
What is needed to determine the conjugation?
1) put the verb in the 3rd person singular form. numbers
2) Let’s see if the ending is shocking
3) If the ending is stressed, then we conjugate the verb according to persons and numbers
4) If the ending is unstressed, we return to the infinitive
5) If the final of the infinitive is on it, then the 2nd, if not on it, then the 1st
6) Let’s remember, isn’t this an exception? ( shave, lay, drive, hold, breathe, offend)
The language also has different conjugated verbs - want, run, honor (honor, honor),
Verb inflections
The system of verbal inflection is characterized by greater complexity compared to the inflection of names. For each Russian verb, it is necessary to establish its belonging: a) to the inflectional class and b) to the type of conjugation
Maslov criterion
A species pair occurs if and only if the verbs have the same meaning.
Special diagnostic contexts:
1) For perfective verbs. He returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door...
2) For imperfective verbs. Description of recurring events. Every year at this time he returns from a business trip, climbs the stairs, opens the door...
3) For imperfective verbs. Narration in the present historical. Yesterday he returned from a business trip, climbed the stairs, opened the door...
Thus, we can conclude that these verb pairs are aspectual verb pairs, since the verbs in each pair denote the same event. In contexts two and three, the use of perfective verbs is excluded, so speakers must use a verb with the same meaning, but imperfective.
Bi-aspect verbs
Look, knock, teach, and so on. It is either perfective or imperfect, but does not have a pair - unpaired verbs. Perfective tantum - perfective aspect, imperfective tantum - imperfective aspect
Among unpaired verbs there are also two-aspect verbs.
Two-aspect verbs - in different contexts they can be both perfect and imperfect verbs.
When Alexey got married, he immediately left for Paris. When Alexey got married, there were 100 guests.
Among the two-type verbs there are few native Russian verbs ( telegraph, asphalt, hospitalize)
The type of two-aspect verbs can only be determined by context.
Formation of forms of the passive voice in the Russian language.
They are formed differently for perfective and imperfective verbs.
In perfective verbs, the passive voice form is formed, as a rule, using the formative postfix -sya.
For perfective verbs, the forms of the passive voice are formed, as a rule, in an analytical way with the help of the auxiliary verb to be, in the corresponding personal form and a short passive participle.
Exceptions: He was loved everyone. This book was very easy to read.
Verbs in the passive voice form can change according to tenses, persons, numbers, and so on.
The house was built by workers last year.
Present forms
Form only imperfective verbs! Present tense forms do not have special suffixes in Russian, verb endings with the meaning of a particular person and number ( I say, you speak) also serve as a formal expression of the meaning of the present tense if they are attached to stems of the same type.
The present tense form can express several meanings.
The first value of this form is called present actual .
The present tense form in this case indicates an action coinciding with the moment of speech. I'm giving a lecture now.
The second main meaning of the present tense form is present irrelevant . In these cases, it indicates that the action is not related to the moment of speech. I'm a good swimmer. It has several subtypes: extended present - he has loved her for a long time; constant continuous - Moscow stands on 7 hills; and so on.
PARTICIPLE AND ADVISORY
They occupy a special place in the morphological paradigm of the verb, since they combine the properties of the verb and other parts of speech - adjectives and adverbs, respectively.
On this basis, participles are sometimes derived from the verbal paradigm and included in adjectives, and gerunds are included in adverbs (Peshkovsky) or are interpreted as independent parts of speech (Tikhonov).
Participle - a “hybrid” form of the verb, which has the characteristics of a verb and an adjective.
As a verb, the participle manifests itself thanks to the categories of voice, aspect and tense, lexical and grammatical signs of transitivity and reflexivity, in addition, participles fully retain the features of verbal control: to love children - loving children, to manage a plant - managing a plant.
Any word in any language, other than the individual lexical one, also has a grammatical meaning, indicating the relationship of this word to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relationship to the person performing the action, the relationship of the reported fact to time, etc.
If the lexical meaning is always inherent in only one specific word, then the grammatical meaning always characterizes an entire class of words. So, for example, the lexical meaning “ vehicle on four wheels, driven by an internal combustion engine” is inherent only to the word “car”, but the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender is also inherent in the Russian language to the words “ceiling”, “man”, “cucumber” and many other words. The grammatical meaning together with the lexical one forms the so-called general meaning words.
Most words have not one, but several grammatical meanings. Thus, the verb “wrote” is characterized by the grammatical meaning of the past tense, perfective, masculine, singular; The adjective “highest” is characterized by the grammatical meanings of the singular, nominative case, feminine gender, superlative degree.
Grammatical meanings can be constant (classifying) and “variable” (formative). So, for example, the meaning of the masculine gender of the noun “stol” is constant, the word stol in Russian under no circumstances can become neuter or feminine, but the meaning of the nominative singular can be changed: “stola”, “stolu” ", "tables", "tables", etc.
The means of expressing grammatical meaning can be either synthetic or analytical. Synthetic means are those means of expressing grammatical meaning that are associated with a change in the form of the word. Analytical are those forms of expressing grammatical meaning that are external to the word and are not associated with a change in its form.
The main synthetic means of expressing grammatical meaning in most languages of the world is affixation. All types of affixes can act as formative ones, except for interfixes, which are strictly assigned to the sphere of word formation.
Another synthetic means of expressing grammatical meaning is suppletivism. Supplementism is the replacement of the root of a word with another due to a change in the grammatical meaning of the word (I go - walked, good - better, person - people). Not all grammatical meanings are conveyed using the suppletive method.
For example, in many languages of the world we are faced with suppletive forms of number or verb tense, but nowhere has a suppletive way of conveying case meanings been found. Supplementalism is not the main means of expressing grammatical meaning in any language of the world, but a certain number of Supplemental forms are found in almost all languages of the world. However, in some languages, such as Chinese or Dungan, suppletivism is completely absent.
Many languages also provide such a means of expressing grammatical meaning as stress transfer. Russian: “pour - pour”, “cut - cut” (perfect - imperfect form); Bulgarian: “pesha” (writes) - “write” (wrote), “cheta” (reads) - “cheta” (read), etc.
Such a method as reduplication (doubling the root of a word) is not typical for the Russian language; Of the Indo-European languages, it is most actively used in Sanskrit, ancient Greek, and Latin. So, for example, in Latin the perfect forms of many verbs are formed by partial doubling of the root: mordeo (bite) - momordi (bitten), do (give) - dedi (gave), curro (run) - cucurri (ran), etc. .
Reduplication is especially common in the Malay and Indonesian languages, where it is used to form the plural of nouns. Malay: orang (person) - orangorang (people); Indonesian: glombang (wave) - glombangglombang (waves).
In some languages, grammatical meaning can be expressed by changing the musical tone of the root vowel. Thus, in the Nuer language, the word lei pronounced with falling intonation will mean “animal,” and lei with rising intonation will mean “animals” (singular - plural).
Analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning include various kinds particles, prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs. A very important analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning is the order of words in a sentence; changing this order in languages such as English, French, German, Chinese, Vietnamese, etc. can lead to a complete change in the meaning of the phrase. Wed. English: “A cat sees a dog.” and “A dog sees a cat.” (“The cat sees the dog.” and “The dog sees the cat.”).
A very important analytical means of expressing grammatical meaning is context. So, for example, in the sentences “There were coats hanging on the hanger.” and “New coats are expensive,” the meaning of plurality, in relation to the word “coat,” is conveyed solely by context.
Establishing the grammatical meaning of a word is sometimes facilitated by knowledge of its lexical meaning. Let’s take as an example the sentence “The lawn was run over by a tank.” Both the noun “lawn” and the noun “tank” have the same nominative and accusative cases. We can only understand that the word “tank” is in the form of the nominative case, and therefore is the subject, and the word “lawn” is in the form of the accusative case, and, therefore, is a direct object, only based on the lexical meaning of these words.
A lawn is a piece of land planted with grass or flowers; it is an immovable object, and nothing can move over it. A tank, being an armored self-propelled vehicle, may well run over something, from which it follows that it is the noun “tank” that is in the nominative case in this case and is the subject.
Very often the grammatical meaning of a word is conveyed not with the help of any one means, but with the help of a complex various means, of which one, as a rule, is the main one, and the rest are additional. So, for example, in German die Bücher (books), the main indicator of the plural is the ending - er, and the additional indicators are the infix -ü- (in the singular there will be Buch) and the plural article die.
A.Yu. Garbage. Fundamentals of the science of language - Novosibirsk, 2004.
