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A. F

White armor- armor produced in Europe from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 15th century. After the revival of the art of making cuirass, plate armor was replaced. Later it evolved into Milanese and casten-brut. It was called white to distinguish it from Coracina. Later they began to call armor that was not coated with paint and not blued. It had less flexibility and degree of freedom, but greater reliability than a large-plate brigantine. Used with a Grand Bascinet helmet and gauntlets. A characteristic feature was a plate skirt without hip pads. Not to be confused with legguards. Note author.

Castaing-brut- armor produced in northern Europe from the beginning to the middle of the 15th century. Predecessor of Gothic armor. Used with a Grand Bascinet helmet and plate gloves. Characteristic features were an angular silhouette and a very long skirt.

Milanese armor- armor produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the middle of the 16th century. The concept of the armor was based on simplicity, reliability and protection. It was often used in conjunction with an armet-type helmet, additional protection in the form of a rondel, bouvier, shoulders, forehead protector, and so on. Plate gauntlets and sabatons were a mandatory element of armor. The characteristic features of the armor were smooth, rounded shapes, the presence of a large number of belts fastening the armor and an enlarged left elbow pad.

Gothic armor- armor produced in northern Europe from the mid-15th to the beginning of the 16th century. It was distinguished by great flexibility and freedom of movement provided to the owner of the armor. These properties of the armor were achieved by reducing the level of reliability and protection. As a rule, it had strong corrugation and corrugation, which increased the strength and reduced the weight of the armor. Often used in conjunction with a salad helmet, bouvier, steel gloves and half gloves. The characteristic features of the armor were angles and sharp lines, and minimal additional protection. Often additional reservations were not used at all. The armor set also included chain mail to protect joints and open areas of the body.

Maximilian armor- armor produced in northern Europe since the beginning of the 16th century. Developed by German gunsmiths inspired by the work of Italian craftsmen. Combines Italian rounded with German angular style. The mixture of styles made it possible to create armor that has an external resemblance to Milanese armor, but without losing the characteristic features of the Gothic. The armor was more durable than the Milanese, but had a lesser degree of freedom and flexibility than the Gothic. A distinctive feature of Maximilian armor, in addition to corrugation and corrugation, were stiffening ribs created by bending the edges of steel plates outward and wrapping them into the narrowest possible tube. Used with helmets of the Armet and Bourguignot type, and plate gauntlets with separate thumb protection. A characteristic feature of the armor was the enlarged elements of standard protection, which made it possible for those who wished to refuse additional armor. For example, changing the size of the shoulder pad, towards increasing the chest plate, made it possible to abandon the rondel.

Brigantine- armor made of steel plates made on a leather or fabric base with the plates overlapping the edges of each other, produced in Europe from the 13th to the 17th centuries. When using a brigantine with plate protection for the limbs, the result was plate-brigant armor. There was also chain mail-brigantine, splint-brigantine and full brigantine armor. There were three main types of brigantines. Classic brigantine It was mainly used from the 13th to the mid-14th centuries. Afterwards it began to be used mainly by militias and mercenaries. It was made from small plates. Often produced in a dimensionless (baggy) version. The edges of the brigantine were connected by straps on the back and shoulders. The back was protected by side wings. Could have had a chainmail skirt. Large-plate brigantine(coracina) was used by knights from the beginning of the 14th to the beginning of the 15th century. Made exactly to fit. Coracina had a detachable breastplate and separate plates protecting the back. Fastened with straps on the chest and shoulders. It also had a skirt of laminar design. Sometimes the back segments of the skirt were missing for greater seating comfort. Later specimens of Coracina consisted of two chest plates, two plates protecting the abdomen, four lateral plates and two dorsal plates. With the advent of the cuirass, the coracina disappeared due to its high cost. Brigantine with plastron used since the middle of the 14th century. It was made by riveting a forged breastplate (plastron) to a classic brigantine. Fastened with straps on the back.

Bakhterets- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Subsequently, its production spread throughout the East, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. It is made of overlapping vertical rows of horizontally arranged steel plates on a chain mail base. The overlap of the plates was at least double. May be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides very good protection and complete freedom of movement. Consists of several hundred (up to one and a half thousand) small plates.

Yushman- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 14th to the 17th centuries. It differs from bakhterets in having larger plates and less overlap between them. May be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides less protection than a bakhterets and less freedom of movement. Consists of about a hundred large plates.

Kolontar- ring-plate armor produced in the Middle East from the 13th to the 17th centuries. It is made of steel plates woven together without overlapping. It does not have sleeves covered with plates. The columnar is made on a chainmail basis. May be a vest or jacket with chain mail sleeves and hem. Fastened with straps on the sides. Provides good protection and freedom of movement.

Lamellar armor- a group of armor produced from the 11th to the 14th centuries in eastern Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel plates woven together with wire or leather cord. First, horizontal stripes are assembled, and then they are fastened together with partial overlap. The armor can be a vest, jacket or robe. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Was supplanted by laminar armor. Lamellar armor is often confused with ring-plate armor. Note author.

Laminar armor- a group of armor, the first examples of which were made in the Roman Empire. Subsequently, they were produced from the 12th to the 15th centuries in eastern Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel strips woven together with wire or leather cord. The production technology is the same with lamellar armor. First, strips of the required length were forged, and then they were fastened together. Subsequently, the plates began to be attached with rivets to leather straps running inside the armor. The armor is a vest to which additional elements are attached. Can be fastened with straps on the sides or chest. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Due to greater rigidity, reliability of plate fastening and lower manufacturing costs, laminar armor replaced lamellar armor, but individual moving elements (shoulder pads, elbow pads, etc.) of lamellar construction continued to be found. Laminar armor was replaced by ring-plate armor.

Ring armor- a group of armor produced from the 5th century BC to the 19th century in Europe, the Middle East and Asia, from steel rings woven together. The weaving of rings can be divided into “4in1” - single, “6in1” - one and a half, “8in1” - double. The armor can be a vest, jacket, overalls or robe. A ring net can be a stand-alone means of protection used in combination with others. For example, aventail. The armor can be fastened with straps on the sides, chest or back. Provides good protection and freedom of movement. Must be used only with underarmor.

Underarmor- the simplest armor-clothing (quilted jacket, vest, robe, etc.) with internal padding made of cotton wool, hemp or flax. The type of armor under which it was worn determined the size and thickness of the underarmor.

Helmets

Round helmet- The open helmet has been produced since ancient Greece. It was made of leather and metal, or entirely of metal. Could have a nosepiece, a mask, ears, butt plate, aventail in various combinations. In Europe it evolved into the capelina, bascinet and pot helmet.

Chain Hood- head protection produced in Europe since the 5th century. Could be used either independently or in conjunction with a helmet.

Potty helmet- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the beginning of the 13th century. Cylindrical or pot-shaped in shape. The later modification had a pointed top and was called a sugar loaf. Tournament modification - toad head. The helmet had two slits on the front. Holes for ventilation could be drilled below. The helmet was worn over a chainmail hood and a thick hat (skullcap). It rested on the shoulders of the wearer, which, together with the hat, protected against concussion when hit on the head. It had poor visibility and could not be firmly fixed relative to the head. After a spear blow he was often removed from the head. Since the end of the 14th century, it was used only in tournaments.

Capelina (chapel)- a group of helmets produced in Europe from the beginning of the 13th to the 17th centuries. It had a cylindrical or spheroconic shape. Replaced the round helmet as head protection for infantrymen and cavalrymen. It was distinguished by wide brims that partially covered the shoulders. There was no face protection. Could have had aventail. The capelina was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications were similar to lettuce.

Bascinet- an open helmet produced in Europe from the beginning of the 13th to the 16th centuries. Could be used independently and as a head protection for knights instead of a chain mail hood worn under a pot helmet. Face protection was limited to a nasal guard and aventail. The bascinet was attached to the head with a chin strap. Later modifications had a very wide detachable nosepiece. In the 14th century, the snout evolves into an elongated cone-shaped visor of a dog's muzzle. The visor was attached in two ways. In the first method, the visor was attached to the frontal part of the bascinet on one hinge and with a belt behind the back of the helmet. This method made it possible to fold back or unfasten the visor. In this case, it could be completely removed and not interfere with putting on the potty helmet. The second method was traditional. The visor was attached to the temple parts of the helmet. The helmet later evolved into the grand bascinet.

Grand Bascinet- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the mid-14th century. Unlike the bascinet, it had a nape plate covering the lower part of the neck and a permanent visor. The appeared bouviger (chin guard) formed a single set of protection with the helmet, covered the chin, throat, collarbones and was attached with pins to the helmet and cuirass. The grand bascinet rested on his shoulders and made it impossible to turn his head. It was attached to the back and, through the bouvier, to the chest part of the cuirass. In terms of protective properties, the grand bascinet was slightly inferior to the pot helmet, but thanks to its versatility, it ousted it from the battlefield and supplanted it in tournaments. Evolved into armet.

Armet- a closed helmet produced in central and southern Europe from the beginning of the 15th to the end of the 16th century. Unlike the grand bascinet, the bouviger was integral with the rest of the helmet. The bouviger consisted of two opening face halves. In the closed position they were fixed with a pin on the chin. Later, the buviger became single and was attached to the temples of the helmet, which made it possible to fold it back like a visor. In this version, the lower part of the bouvier was attached with a belt with a rondel to the back of the helmet. Almost always the armet rested on the shoulders and did not allow one to turn the head. The helmet could have an aventail and not be attached to the cuirass.

Salad- a group of helmets produced in northern Europe from the end of the 14th to the middle of the 16th century. They originate from the bascinet and are helmets of various shapes, united by the presence of a long backplate located at an acute angle to the neck and, not always, however, a longitudinal stiffener rib. Most salads do not have lower face protection. The upper part is protected by a fixed plate with a narrow slot for the eyes or a short visor. In this case, it is necessary to use a bouvier. An armor set consisting of Gothic armor, a salad without lower jaw protection and a bouvier was extremely popular in the German states. The salad allows you to turn and tilt your head in any direction, and the backplate and buviger form good protection for the neck and lower part of the face. The salad did not obstruct the flow of air at all. The combat helmet, as it was called in Germany, was not used in tournaments. In battle, after a spear strike, the salad moved to the back of the head and completely opened the eyes. In the middle of the 15th century, the development of blacksmithing made it possible to equip the salad with two visors. The upper one covered the face from the eyebrows to the tip of the nose, the lower one from the nose to the throat. In the 16th century, the salad evolved into bourguignot. The German World War II helmet and the modern cyclist's helmet are direct descendants of the Salad. I like German gunsmiths, and if you remember what was happening in this region then, you understand that they could not make ceremonial and tournament armor. Note author.

Barbute- (Venetian salad) an open helmet, produced in the south of Europe from the 15th to the mid-16th century. It was a creatively redesigned version of a helmet popular in ancient times. The combat helmet covered the entire head to the shoulders except for the Y-shaped or T-shaped cutout in the front part. Did not interfere with vision, breathing or head movement. Could be equipped with aventail.

Bourguignot- a closed helmet produced in Europe since the mid-16th century. It was a mixture of salad and barbute with elements of armet. It was characterized by a round body, tightly fitting the skull, adjacent to the back of the head and trapezius muscles of the back. Provided good visibility, head mobility and normal air flow. Barbute made it possible to completely abandon the bouvier. Over the course of half a century, in connection with the development of military art, the burgignot became an open helmet. The visor evolved into a visor, the stiffening rib became a ridge, and the side parts of the helmet (cheek pads and ears) began to be attached to hinges.

Laminar armor (from Latin laminae - layer) is the general name for armor made of solid transverse strips movably connected to each other.
The most famous examples of laminar armor are the Roman Lorica segmentata and some of the later varieties of samurai armor. In addition to Lorica segmentata, complete laminar protection of the limbs was also known in ancient Rome, but it was practically not used in the army, being used mainly for gladiators, who usually only had one arm (in some cases one leg) protected in this way with an unprotected body.
Laminar armor was widespread in the East until the 16th century, until it was replaced by ring-plate armor. Laminar armor was widely used by Mongol warriors in the 12th-14th centuries; the most common type of Mongolian armor - huyag - often had a laminar structure. In terms of cut, the Mongolian laminar armor was no different from the lamellar armor, but it was heavier and more inconvenient than the lamellar armor.

Related concepts

Ringed armor - armor woven from iron rings, a metal network to protect against damage from cold weapons. It bore (depending on the variety) different names: chain mail, shell, baidana, yacerin. Different types of chain mail were used - from a chain mail shirt, which covered only the torso and shoulders, to full hauberks, which covered the body completely, from head to toe.

History of the name

“Lamellar” armor received its name due to its unique design, consisting of many metal plates (Latin lamella - “plate”, “scale”). These steel elements are connected to each other using a cord. Lamellar armor in each state had its own distinctive features. But the principle of connecting the plates with a cord was common to the construction of all ancient armor.

Bronze armor

In Palestine, Egypt and Mesopotamia, bronze was used to make lamellas. This metal is widely used in the east and center of Asia. Here warriors were equipped with lamellar armor until the nineteenth century.

What kind of armor was there in Ancient Rus'?

Until the mid-twentieth century, among scientists who studied ancient Russian weapons, there was an opinion that our ancestors used only chain mail. This statement remained unchanged for a long time, despite the fact that lamellar armor was depicted on frescoes, icons, stone carvings and miniatures. Plank armor was considered conditional, and any mention of it was ignored.

Archaeological work 1948-1958

After the end of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet archaeologists discovered over 500 burnt lamellar plates on the territory of Novgorod. The find gives grounds to assert that the ancient Russians also widely used lamellar armor.

Rus. Years of the Mongol invasion

As a result of archaeological excavations on the territory of Gomel, scientists discovered the largest workshop for the production of armor. It was burned by the Mongols in 1239. Under the rubble, archaeologists discovered swords, sabers and over twenty types of ready-made lamellar plates. In a separate room, defective scaly products and blanks were found: they had no holes or bends, and the edges of the plates contained burrs. The fact of finding a long awl, a file, a sharpening wheel and a grinding wheel initially prompted scientists to think that it was here that lamellar armor was made, assembled and adjusted. Making armor, meanwhile, is only possible with a blacksmith's forge. But this equipment was not found either in the workshop or nearby. The researchers came to the conclusion that an ancient armory was discovered in Gomel, while the production process for making armor was carried out in another place.

What is lamellar armor?

By connecting small metal plates with laces, the strips that make up the lamellar armor are assembled. The photo below shows the features of the combination of steel flakes in the product.

The assembly work must be carried out in such a way that each plate overlaps the adjacent one with one edge. After conducting studies of reconstructed armor from different countries, scientists came to the conclusion that the plates that made up the lamellar armor of Byzantium did not overlap, but were tightly adjacent to each other and attached to the skin. The ribbons were tied together first horizontally and then vertically. Forging metal plates was a labor-intensive task. The process of assembling the armor itself was not particularly difficult.

Description

The weight of the armor made of 1.5 mm thick plates ranged from 14 to 16 kg. Lamellar armor with overlay plates was more effective than chain mail. A cuirass created according to a lamellar pattern can reliably protect against piercing weapons and arrows. The weight of this product does not exceed five kilograms. The impact force of the enemy's weapon is dissipated over the surface of the armor, without causing any harm to the warrior wearing the armor.

Mounting methods

In order to prevent damage to the armor, the plates in it were tied with two special cords so that their length on the back side was insignificant. If one cord broke, the steel elements in the armor were held in place by the second. This made it possible for the warrior to independently replace damaged plates if necessary. This method of fastening was the main one, but not the only one. You could also use metal wire or rivets. Such structures were highly durable. The disadvantage of the second method is the low mobility of the armor.

At first, belts were used to connect steel plates. Over time, this practice was stopped. This was due to the fact that when cutting blows from a sword, the lamellar armor was often damaged. The armor, which used rivets and wire, was able to withstand impacts from various types of weapons.

Form

The components of the armor are rectangular steel products with paired holes evenly distributed over the entire surface. Some plates in it contain bulges. They are necessary in order to better reflect or weaken the blows of arrows, spears and other weapons.

Where is plate armor found?

When reproducing historical events of the Middle Ages in feature films, heroes often use lamellar armor. “Skyrim” is one of the popular computer games where the topic of plate armor is also given a lot of attention. According to the conditions, this armor is worn by mercenaries, marauders and bandit leaders. In the game, this heavy armor becomes available after passing the eighteenth level, when the hero needs a more serious level of protection. It can be provided by improved steel plate armor, which in its characteristics significantly exceeds a conventional set of steel.

How to make lamellar armor?

There are two ways to become the owner of this heavy armor:

Use the services of workshops that manufacture such armor.
Get the necessary drawings, diagrams and materials, and then start making lamellar armor with your own hands. The work can be carried out in connection with any historical event. Or simply make plate armor according to the design you like.

What will you need for work?

Steel plates. They are the most important element in the armor and must have a shape that matches the assembly pattern. The thickness of the hardened plates should not exceed 1 mm. Lamellar armor made from convex plates, which, unlike flat ones, are expensive, will look much more impressive. Considering the size of the human body, it can be assumed that the armor will require at least 350-400 plates measuring 3x9 mm.
Leather belts. They are necessary for connecting metal plates together. The optimal thickness of the belts should be 2 mm. Experienced users recommend not purchasing ready-made belts. It’s better to get sheets of leather of the required thickness and cut the belts yourself. This will allow you to correctly calculate the required length of the cords. It is recommended to cut the belts 0.5 cm wide. They are ideal for holes whose diameter is 0.3 cm. You will need 80 m of cord for the job. You can also use silk cord to make belts. The strips should be cut lengthwise in such a way that they can hardly pass through the holes in the plates.

How does the process work?

The prepared steel plates must have paired holes. They are done with a drill. Each hole is stitched with nylon threads. Before starting the firmware, each plate should be sanded, after which its thickness may decrease slightly. Despite the fact that the decrease in thickness is not particularly noticeable, since the plates overlap each other, their thickness is initially recommended to be at least 1 mm. When testing lamellar armor with 1 mm plates, four arrows fired from a distance of 20 m with a bow weighing 25 kg did not cause serious damage to the armor.

Plate beating. The procedure is necessary to form bulges on products. This work is performed on a wooden base using a three-hundred-gram hammer with a rounded head.

Painting the plates. Vegetable oil can be used to burnish the product. Before use, the product is subject to thermal exposure. The surfaces of the plates are processed on both sides. It is recommended to coat the inside with a special metal varnish, and simply polish the outside, and, if necessary, tin and gild.
Belt processing. Before passing the cord through the holes in the plates, the pieces of leather from which it is made must be processed. To do this, pass the cord several times over a piece of hard wax. If the belt is made of linen, then it is subject to waxing. From time to time it is recommended to wipe the belts with a cloth soaked in vegetable oil. This will protect them from possible drying out. It is also recommended to treat steel plates with oil. For edging, only a leather belt is recommended.
For work, it is recommended to use leather belts. They are better than products made from silk thread because they can stretch. This quality is especially important when creating lamellar armor, since the armor, bending around the body, must initially be very tight and stretch after some time.
At the ends of the plates, ribbons are passed through paired holes, which are subsequently tied. Care must be taken to ensure that the binding occurs freely. This will give the steel plates the ability to move on top of each other, similar to segmented armor.
To prevent rust from forming on the records, they must be treated with phosphoric acid. Dull metallic - this is the color that lamellar armor acquires after treatment with acid.
To make homemade lamellar armor, you can use plates of soft galvanized sheet.

Homemade armor is primarily intended for beauty rather than protection. It is mainly used as a souvenir.

The history of weapons is inextricably linked with the socio-economic development of society and its political history. Therefore, the study of certain types of ancient Russian weapons and defensive weapons is of no small importance for clarifying many issues in the history of material culture and the economy of ancient Rus'.

This article is devoted to plate armor - one of the least studied types of protective weapons of ancient Rus' and other peoples of Eastern Europe in the early Middle Ages.

When plate armor appeared in Rus', what place did it occupy in the defensive weapons system of ancient Russian troops? These questions remain completely unclear to this day. Moreover, among historians and archaeologists there has become an erroneous opinion that in pre-Mongol Rus' plate armor was not used at all and that the only type of metal protective clothing at that time was chain mail armor (chain mail) 1. The fact that images of warriors in plate armor were repeatedly found on miniatures, frescoes, icons, stone carvings and other monuments of material culture of the pre-Mongol period was not given any importance. Such images were considered conventional.

The fact that already in the 13th century remained without due attention. for plate armor a special name was used - “plank armor”, in contrast to simply “armor” - chain mail. The name “plank armor” 2 for plate armor is very expressive and fully corresponded to the shape of the armor, which seemed to consist of small “planks” (plates).

In the inventories of the Moscow Armory Chamber, the epithet “plank” is applied to the oldest plate armor stored here - plate armor of the 16th century. 3

“Plank armor” undoubtedly belonged to expensive armor and therefore was available to the wealthiest warriors and warriors. Plate armor was highly valued and, like swords, shields were also highly prized. helmets and chain mail, were carefully kept and passed on by inheritance. As the most valuable weapon, plate armor was sometimes used as payment for trade transactions, as was the case, for example, in 1287, when the Galician prince Vladimir Vasilkovich (grandson of Roman Galitsky) gave payment for the village of Berezovichi “50 hryvnia kun, 5 cubits of scorlat and armored planks." 4

Naturally, plate armor in its entirety could fall into the ground and become the prey of archaeologists only in exceptional cases, as a result of a fire or other similar disaster. This explains the rarity of their finds during archaeological excavations. Only individual plates from the armor were lost or small parts of it that had become unusable were thrown away, which is observed during excavations of ancient Russian settlements.

The rarity of finds and partly ignorance of the details of plate armor of the pre-Mongol period were the reasons for the underestimation of this important type of defensive weaponry of ancient Rus'.

Now the situation is changing radically thanks to the discoveries of Soviet archaeologists over the past decade.

2

The appearance of plate armor on the territory of the USSR dates back to the Bronze Age or even the Neolithic Age. If chain mail in the same territory became widespread only in the era of developed iron, before the beginning of our era, then plate armor had a history of more than a thousand years by that time. The most ancient plate armor was made from rectangular oblong bone plates with holes for attachment to a leather or fabric lining. They date back to the 2nd millennium BC. e. and were discovered in Neolithic burials of the Baikal region by A.P. Okladnikov 5.

It is interesting to note that such shells were not always reliable protection for their owners. Arrows with stone and bone tips, fired from a complex bow, which became widespread during this period, apparently often pierced them. A.P. Okladnikov discovered burials of warriors in such shells; deeply embedded flint and bone arrowheads were stuck on their bones 6 .

In Siberia, in addition to the Baikal region, armor made of bone plates was used from the 1st millennium BC. e. until the late Middle Ages. Bone plates from shells were repeatedly encountered during archaeological excavations by V.N. Chernetsov and II I. Moshinskaya in Ust-Poluy (late 1st millennium BC - first centuries AD) 7 .

On the European territory of the USSR, plate armor made of bone is known from Scythian burial mounds of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. S. A. Mazaraki during excavations near the village. Popovki (formerly Poltava province) discovered more than 200 bone plates from the shell in mound No. 3. The shape is similar to all known bone plates from shells (an elongated rectangle with small holes at the ends) 8. The length of the plates is from 60 to 103 mm, width from 15 to 20 mm, thickness 3-5 mm.

Similar shell plates were found in other mounds near Popoyka, as well as near the village. Volkova 9 and near the village. Lozovaya 10 during excavations by D. Ya. Samokvasov. Similar plates from the same area were published by B. N. and V. I. Khanenko 11 .

Remains of shells made of bone plates were also found in the Kama region at the village of Skorodum (IV-III centuries BC) during excavations by O. N. Bader in 1953 12.

Armor made of bone and horn plates was widespread in the Sarmatian period, judging by the testimony of Pausanias, who left a detailed description of contemporary Sarmatian armor (2nd century AD). The shells were made from bone plates and horse hooves and were similar to a pine cone. The plates were connected to each other on a lining using ox and horse sinews 13 .

Shells made of bone plates are preserved much worse than bronze and iron ones. It is not possible to establish their numerical relationship with metal ones. But, taking into account the high level of military equipment and the constant improvement of military art among the Scythian and Sarmatian peoples, as well as archaeological data, it should be considered that the most common among these peoples in the 1st millennium BC. e. there were bronze and especially iron plate armor.

Metal plate armor apparently first appeared among the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BC. e. This is indicated by bronze scale plates in the tomb of Amenhotep II, nailed to the figures that adorned the wooden throne. These plates did not have holes for sewing onto the lining, and did not belong to real armor, but in shape they were completely similar to the bronze plates of military armor. The same plates were found in the tomb of Ramses III. The oldest battle armor made of bronze scale plates is the shell found in the tomb of Pharaoh Shoshenq I (941-920 BC). From that time on, the shell became widespread in Assyria and Babylon. Similar shells were used in Egypt and under the pharaohs of the 26th dynasty until the Persian conquest, as well as in ancient Greece and Rome 14.

According to Herodotus, the Persians made plate armor according to Egyptian models 15. Their shells were made of iron plates and resembled fish scales 16. Indeed, the vast majority of bronze and iron shells found in Persepolis, Khorsabad, Egypt, Karmir-Blur and in Scythian mounds were composed of small plates stacked on top of each other with one rounded end, surprisingly similar to fish scales (Herodotus) and a pine cone ( Pausanias). The oldest plate bronze armor on the territory of the USSR is the armor of the Urartian king Argishti I (788-750 BC), found during excavations of the Urartian fortress of Teishebaini (VIII-VII centuries BC) on the Karmir-Blur hill near Yerevan 17. In 1951-1953 Three more shells were found there, two of which were iron.

The shell with the name Argishti I was distinguished by excellent decoration and consisted of nine types of plates. most of which had dimensions of 52x19x1 mm and 30x15x1 mm. Along with them, bronze arrowheads with the cuneiform names of kings Argishti I and Sardurn II and bits with the name of king Menua (810-788 BC) were found.

Iron plate shells were found in the rubble of the upper floor, in the fire layer 18; a Scythian akinak was found along with one of them, which perhaps indicates that they belonged to the Scythian warriors who stormed the fortress (the fortress was destroyed by the Scythians in 585 BC).

From the 7th century BC A. bronze and iron scale plate armor in the form of a sleeveless shirt are very widespread not only among the peoples of Western Asia and Egypt, but also in ancient Greece and Rome, in Transcaucasia and Central Asia. Numerous archaeological finds of plate bronze and iron armor (about 200 known) in the mounds and catacombs of the North Caucasus, Crimea, Northern Black Sea region and the Volga region indicate the widest distribution of plate armor in the Scythian and Sarmatian periods and in the European territory of the USSR. They are especially often found during excavations of burial mounds of the Scythian period (VI-IV centuries BC) in the Dnieper region, in the Kyiv and Poltava regions 19, as well as in the Voronezh region (near the village of Mastyugino and in Chastye Kurgans 20). Individual finds of bronze flake plates are known in the Saratov and Kazan regions 21.

Lamellar armor of the Sarmatian period (2nd century BC - 2nd century AD) is especially common in the Kuban 22 and Lower Volga region 23. Some finds are known in the Orenburg and Kustanai regions, as well as on the Ob, but they date back to a later time (III-IV centuries AD).

The area of distribution of plate armor in the 1st millennium BC. e. and in the first centuries of our era in the European and Asian territories of the USSR was huge.

The Scythians undoubtedly made their own plate shells. This is evidenced by bronze and iron blanks of plates discovered (as well as the plates themselves) at the Scythian Kamensky settlement of the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e 24.

In addition to the finds of metal plates and whole shells, from this time there are many images of warriors in plate armor (on the famous golden comb from the Solokha mound 25, on the frescoes of the catacombs in Kerch 26, etc.).

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., along with. with plate armor being widely used, individual parts of chain mail armor in combination with plate armor began to spread. Cases of the use of chain mail in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. are not uncommon, and at the turn of our era, chain mail turned into an independent armor, which received in the first half of the 1st millennium. e. widespread throughout the European territory of the USSR from Kuban to the Kama region.

Cases of finds of plate armor of this period on the territory of the USSR are extremely rare, although there is no doubt that they continued to be used. Separately found metal plates from shells of the 3rd-4th centuries. known from Siberia 27 to Kazakhstan 28. From VII-VIII centuries. One can point to the finds of iron armored plates in Peijkent 29 . Poor archaeological knowledge of this period creates the impression that armor in Eastern European territory ceased to be used during the turbulent era of migration of peoples. Of course, during the era of the Hunnic devastating invasion and subsequent waves of nomads, there was an undoubted decline in the economic development of the Eastern European peoples, which is also partly the reason for the rarity of armor in the archaeological monuments of this time.

From all of the above, it follows that plate armor and chain mail on the territory of the Eastern Slavs did not appear from somewhere outside, but were borrowed from other local peoples of the Sarmatian period, and were the result of the development of military affairs and handicraft production, cultural eastern traditions, rooted in ancient times .

3

Excavations over the last 10-13 years have shown that plate armor was also widespread among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Mongol period and played an important role in the defensive weapons system of ancient Russian warriors.

My review of the archaeological collections of a number of museums in the USSR also made it possible to identify many details of ancient Russian plate armor in old collections. Among the museum's archaeological collections there are a lot of so-called objects of undetermined purpose, including, undoubtedly, a network of as yet unidentified steel and iron plates from shells. In order to draw the attention of archaeologists to these seemingly insignificant products, often covered with rust and deformed, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the characteristics of the remains of ancient Russian plate armor from excavations in recent years.

The discovery of real Old Russian plate armor in Novgorod in 1952 (excavations by A. V. Artsikhovsky) for the first time drew the attention of researchers to the need to revise established views on the role of plate armor in Old Russian weapons and was decisive in this regard. Now the remains of about 40 ancient Russian plate armor of the 8th-15th centuries, found during excavations, have already been identified (see table). Their correspondence with the images of plate armor on the monuments of the pre-Mongol period is beyond any doubt.

Lamellar armor, like chain mail, was relatively widespread among the Eastern Slavs already in the 7th-10th centuries. The oldest remains of Slavic lamellar armor were found in 1954 by V. Kukharenko at the Drevlyan settlement of Khotamel, Davnd-Gorodaksky district. Byelorussian SSR. Based on the main material - weapons and ceramics of the Korczak (or Prague) type - the settlement is well dated to the period of the 7th-9th centuries. thirty . Three slightly curved iron plates, 86-90 mm long, 32-35 mm wide and about 1 mm thick, were found here. All plates have from one to seven holes along the edges for connecting with each other and sewing protective clothing onto a leather or fabric base (Fig. 1, 7,8). The plates from Khotomel, in all likelihood, date back to the first period of the existence of the settlement in the 7th-8th centuries, since in shape and size they are very close to the plates from shells from Avar burials well dated by coins between the Danube and Tissa and Penjikent rivers. Similar plates were discovered in 1943 in a rich burial of a mounted warrior at Bashui falu in Hungary, which dates back to approximately 640. The armor combined the plates with chain mail. and the author who published this monument considers this armor brought by Avars or Bulgarians from the East, i.e. from the territory of the USSR 31. (There were also larger semicircular plates, similar to those very common in a later period in Novgorod and other settlements of ancient Rus').

An almost exact analogy to the armor plates from Khotomel are the iron plates from building No. 1 of the Shakhristan of Penjikent (Tajikistan). This building dates back to Kushan coins from the 7th - early 8th century AD. e. and, according to the author of the excavations, A.M. Belenitsoego, died at the beginning of the 8th century. (Fig. 1, 5,6) 32. In Khotomel and Penjnkent, not only the plates and the arrangement of the holes on them are similar, but also the three-blade arrowheads that accompanied the armor plates at both sites.

Iron plates from shells (of a similar shape were known among the peoples of Siberia in the 3rd-4th centuries AD. One such plate (size 75x20x1 mm) was published by M. P. Gryaznov from burial No. 37 of the burial ground of the 3rd-4th centuries AD. in Bolshiye Elbany (point XIV) on the Upper Ob (Fig. 1.1) 33.

In all likelihood, an iron shell from a mound in the Kutr-Tas area of the Kustanai region dates back to the same period, from which about 250 plates of three forms have been preserved (Fig. 1, 2) 34 .

In 1949, during excavations in the town of Plisnesk, Lviv region, in the layer of the 7th-10th centuries. a large slightly curved iron plate from the shell with a rounded end (80x55x1 mm) and holes for attachment to clothing was found (Fig. 1, 10) 35 .

Of particular interest are iron plates for plate armor from the workshop of a 10th-century gunsmith, opened by G. B. Fedorov in 1957 at the Slavic site of Alchedar in Moldova (Fig. 1.3, type Fig. 1.8).

Tools have been preserved in the gunsmith's workshop; pliers, various anvils, chisels for cutting iron plates and wire for chain mail rings, punches for making holes, as well as gunsmith's products. Among the latter there are more than a dozen iron plates of different sizes for plate armor. Some of the plates already have holes for connecting them to each other and sewing onto the lining, others still without holes (a kind of semi-finished product), some with rivets, as on many plate armor from Novgorod. All plates are curved, which is generally characteristic of plate armor of all times.

The workshop also had blanks for rings for chain mail, which had not yet been connected to each other. In addition, there were also several iron arrowheads, typical of X in 36.

This workshop testifies to the local production of military and defensive weapons among the Slavs of Transnistria. Two types of arrowheads from the gunsmith's workshop (socketed awl-shaped and stalked diamond-shaped Gnezdovsky type) are most characteristic of the Slavic settlements of Moldavia in the 10th century.

In 1956-1957 B. A. Shramko were found at the Donetsk settlement of the Kharkov region in the layer of the X-XII centuries. two iron plates from plate armor with a hemispherical convexity in the middle (size 67x35x1) mm, diameter of the convexity 16 mm (Fig. 2, 1) 37 .

In shape and size, these plates completely coincide with the plates from a nomadic burial in the area of Bek-Bike near the village. Dzhalgaly in the Volga region, discovered by I.V. Sinitsyn in 1948 38. The equestrian warrior buried here was dressed in plate armor in the form of a sleeveless shirt 110 cm long and 40 cm wide at the shoulders, 60 cm wide at the hem (in front). The lime trees were fastened with braid or strap; they had the same convex hemispheres in the middle and the same arrangement of holes. as well as the plates on the Donetsk town (Fig. 2, 2).

I.V. Sinitsyn dates this burial to the 8th-12th centuries. Judging by the analogy with the plates from the Donetsk settlement, it is probably possible to attribute this burial to the 10th-12th centuries, especially since neither the ritual nor other things from the burial contradict this.

In Rus', plate armor was made by urban armor artisans; among the nomads of the southern steppes they could have appeared as a result of military clashes and trade with the Russians.

Several iron or steel pastes from plate armor were found by M.I. Artamonov in 1951 during excavations of Sarkel (Belaya Vezha). Six plates from the shell were soldered together with rust in the same way they were once connected on the armor. These rectangular oblong plates with holes at the ends were placed on top of each other in steps with their long sides and sewn onto a fabric or leather lining (Fig. 2, 3). The plates were found in the layer of the X-XII centuries. and, undoubtedly, are the products of Russian artisans of Belaya Vezha 39.

During excavations in Novgorod over the past ten years, more than 500 iron and steel plates of various shapes and sizes from various plate armor of different times have been found. A thorough analysis of the location of the find, the depth of occurrence, the shape and size of these plates gives every reason to believe that they belong to more than two dozen different armor that were in use at different times - from the 11th to the 16th centuries. inclusive. Of these, plates from nine pieces of armor were found from the layers of the 10th-13th centuries. It should be noted that the stratigraphy of the Nerevsky excavation site in Novgorod allows the layers to be dated with an accuracy of up to a quarter of a century.

Shell plates were found either singly, sometimes several pieces at a time, sometimes several dozen; once about 300 pieces of one piece of armor were found.

The sizes of the plates are different, their shape is also varied - narrow elongated, square, wide rectangular and semicircular. All of them, without exception, have three or more small holes; many (wide ones) also have rivets. The thickness of the plates is from 0.5 to 2 mm. All are slightly convex; their weight is from 3 to 25 g.

When connected to each other, they were fixed on a leather or fabric base so that they overlapped each other, and as a result, plate armor (whether it was a shell, breastplate, backplate, etc.) had twice the thickness of armor over almost the entire surface. Moreover, due to the convexity of the plates, when struck by a spear, dagger or armor-piercing arrowhead, they better reflected or softened the blow and retained greater stability than flat plates. There is no need to describe all the Novgorod finds of plate armor; we will note only a few. The remains of plate armor in Novgorod were first found back in 1948 during excavations at the Yaroslav's courtyard, but then they were not identified. They were sintered lumps of narrow steel plates with a total of 86. All of them are curved and are still very springy. The armor lay in the oldest layer of the 10th-12th centuries, 30-40 layers from the mainland, at a depth of about 3.8 m, in an undisturbed layer. Its most probable date is the 11th century. This armor included steel plates of three types and six sizes. The main mass consisted of narrow oblong plates with a slight expansion in the middle and with holes along the edges and in the middle. Some have two holes at one end (diameter about 1 mm). The length of such plates is 66-70 mm, width 6-11 mm. thickness less than 1 mm (Fig. 2, 4-3).

The rim of the armor from such plates consisted of larger plates with rounded corners and several holes along the edges. Their length is 70 mm, width 20-27 mm, thickness about 1 mm.

From the second plate armor found in the 11th century layer. at the Nerevsky end of Novgorod, two large rectangular plates were preserved, one of which (90x80x2 mm) had eight holes and was probably central in the armor (Fig. 3, 1). It is also possible that such plates were sewn independently, several at a time, onto the clothing of ordinary soldiers who did not have the opportunity to purchase expensive chain mail or plate armor (armor). In later times such armor was called “kuyak” in Rus'. All other armor was also found in the Perm end of Novgorod.

In the 11th century and in the middle of the 12th century. oblong plates with bulges and double holes were also used (Fig. 1. 11. 12). These plates are from two other armors.

Very interesting in shape are seven plates from a pitted shell of a koitz from the 12th or the very beginning of the 13th century. (Fig. 2. 9,10). They. Apparently they consisted of short sleeves of armor or shoulder pads.

From the sixth armor, dating back to the first half of the 14th century, three semicircular and one rectangular plates with holes along the perimeter were found (Fig. 4, 2). One plate has 19 holes spaced at a distance of about 1 cm from each other, while the others have 24 holes at intervals of 6-8 mm. Such plates could not only be independently sewn onto clothing, but also be part of chain mail armor. An example of such combined armor is the armor found on the bank of the river. Vozhi and stored in the Ryazan Museum of Local Lore. Its probable date is the year of the famous battle with the Tatars on the river. Vozhe (1378). The same armor is available from the State Historical Museum, in the Armory Chamber in Moscow, but they are later (XVI-XVII centuries). In 1957, in Zaryadye in Moscow, large pieces of similar armor were found from rows of oblong plates connected to each other by chain mail rings (excavations by L. and F. Dubinin).

From the seventh armor, 47 large plates of three shapes and sizes were found (Fig. 5, 3-7). The bulk of the plates (38 pieces) are rectangular plates with four holes along the edge of one of the narrow sides and a rivet in the middle. Several of these plates have one rounded side. The latter formed the edge of the armor. All of them are tightly connected with rectangular plates with iron rivets so that their holes exactly coincide. When joining, the plates overlapped each other by about 1 cm. Rows of them were sewn onto a leather lining, then each of the plates was further riveted. The rivets on the outer side of the plates have a very neat appearance, their shape is hemispherical. On the inside they are riveted less neatly, but still carefully. You can also determine the thickness of the leather base from the rivets - it was about 3 mm. The leather lining burned completely, since the plates were in a thick layer of fire. The length of the plates is 66 mm. width 37-40 mm, thickness 1 mm. This one is of particular interest not only because of the careful processing of the plates, but also because it was found in the estate of the Novgorod mayor Ontsifor Lukich, known both from chronicles and from several birch bark letters found here. The armor dates from the middle. XIV century It is most likely that it fell into the ground during one of the strongest fires that raged in the area in 1368.

From the eighth armor, dating back to the second half of the 14th century, about 300 narrow oblong steel plates (66 X 11 X 0.5 mm) and several larger rounded edge plates were found (Fig. 5, 6, 8-11). It should be noted that the preliminary dating of this armor, which appeared in print immediately after the excavations in 1952 40, is now being clarified on the basis of many complexes of well-dated objects and tiers of pavements 41.

As can be seen from the above facts and from the table, plate armor in Novgorod has been used since the 11th, if not the 10th, century. But the same table shows that “plank armor” was most widespread in the 13th-15th centuries, when the most diverse types of armor-piercing weapons, crossbows, and firearms were especially widely used.

Thus, this type of defensive weapons developed and improved in inextricable connection with the development of military weapons and military art. In addition to Novgorod, a number of finds of plate armor from ancient Russian cities and settlements are also known.

The Kiev Historical Museum houses a part of plate iron armor consisting of 60 large plates (Fig. 3, 2-5). This armor probably comes from the Olelkov settlement of the 10th-13th centuries 41. There are also three more plates of carapace from the Kyiv region, but their time and location are not known more precisely 43.

The remains of lamellar shells were found by D. A. Avdusin in Smolensk 3 1952 in the layer of the XIII-XIV centuries, at the Zaitsevsky settlement of the XII-XIII centuries (during excavations by T. N. Nikolskaya in 1956), at the settlement Nikulchno on Vyatka near Kirov in the layer XIII-XIV centuries (excavations by L.P. Gussakovsky), in Pereyaslavl-Ryazan in the layer XIV-XV centuries (excavations by A. L. Mongait 1956-1957), in Pskov, in layer XV -XVI centuries (excavations by G. P. Grozdilov. 1956) 44.

To the listed finds should be added a bronze plate kneecap from the burial of a nomad of the 10th-12th centuries. Kamensky burial ground (excavations by E. A. Symonovnch 45.

As can be seen from the above facts, plate armor was widespread in the territory of the Eastern Slavs. In the X-XII centuries. plate armor was used not only by Russian soldiers, but, apparently, was also used by the nomads of the southern Russian steppes and the Volga region.

Old Russian artists depicted plate armor many times in miniatures of chronicles and lives, on numerous icons and in stone carvings. Thus, on the slate reliefs of the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery of the 11th-12th centuries. in Kyiv, mounted warriors are depicted in plate-like scaly armor in the form of a shirt with short sleeves 47. Warriors on the reliefs of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral of the 12th century. in Vladimir and the St. George Cathedral of 1234 in Yuryev-Polsky 48 are also dressed in plate armor. Novgorod icons and frescoes constantly depicted warriors in plate armor with short sleeves. Particularly colorful is the design of the scaly lamellar shell made of rounded plates on the 12th-century icon of George, kept in the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin 49 . It is similar to the plate armor of Dmitry of Thessalonica on the icon of the 12th century. from the city of Dmitrov, stored in the Tretyakov Gallery 50.

Plate armor is depicted very realistically on a 12th century fresco. In the Church of St. George in Staraya Ladoga 51 and in the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo - XIV century, on the icon of Boris and Gleb - XIV century, stored in the Novgorod Museum, on the icon of Dmitry Solunsky - XV century, George - XV century, on the icon “The Life of Christ” - XV-XVI centuries. and others 52.

Images of lamellar, scaly shells are also found on Pskov icons of the 14th century. 53 and Moscow XV centuries. as well as on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Keremlin and on the carved wooden throne of Ivan the Terrible in 1551, stored in this cathedral. The list of images of ancient Russian plate armor could be significantly increased 55.

In addition to direct mention of plate armor (“plank armor”), Russian chronicles also contain indirect indications of the prevalence of this type of armor.

Thus, in 1343, the Pskov mayor Danila fled from the battlefield, “cutting off his armor” 56. Chain mail was worn over the head, like a shirt, so M. G. Rabinovich’s assumption that it was possible to cut off only plate (“plank” - L.M.) armor 57, often consisting of a breastplate and a backrest, tied with ribbons or straps. There is no doubt that the armor of the Pskov mayor Danila was plate-like and probably heavy.

In difficult moments, soldiers abandoned their armor, as was the case in 1468 during the first Kazan campaign 58 or in 1471, when defeated by the troops of Ivan III on the river. Sheloni Novgorodians threw down their weapons and “fled in disgrace, throwing off their armor and burdens for the sake of their horses” 59.

It is possible that the chronicle expressions “curling up in armor” 60, “putting your armor on yourself” 61, “putting your armor on yourself” referred specifically to plate armor.

Images, chronicles, as well as the finds of the armor themselves listed above, allow us to judge the high quality of ancient Russian armor. Novgorod armor was especially good, which in the 15th century apparently withstood the blows of enemy weapons. Probably, this can explain the fact that in 1456 the troops of Moscow Prince Vasily the Dark “saw the strong armor on the Novgorod soldiers and began shooting at their horses with arrows” 62 . The armor of the Novgorodians was valued by their enemies. When the Tver prince Mikhail defeated the Novgorodians at Torzhok in 1315, their horses and armor were flooded” 63. Muscovites in 1471, on the banks of the Ilmen, removed the armor from captured Novgorodians, and which to them. were not needed, they were thrown into water or fire “not to beat them, but with their armor they led me to the wave of beat” 64 . From the last fact it is clear that in the 15th century. and the Moscow troops had good defensive armor, which is confirmed by the documents of the diplomatic correspondence of Ivan III with Mengli-Girey. The Tatars constantly ask in letters through ambassadors for more and more “pansyrs, sholoms and small armor.” Mengli-Girey asks that Ivan III “having indicated to his pansyrshkas, you would send them” 65.

It is interesting that the Gireyevs wore the armor made in Moscow for three years, but it was “lost” in battle.

There is no doubt that all the cities of Rus' had their own armored men or armored men, and there were them in Novgorod as well. The good defensive armament of the ancient Russian troops is evidenced by very colorful chronicle comparisons of shiny iron and steel armor with ice: “veins in armor, like in ice” 66.

Detachments of warriors who had protective armor were sometimes numerous. They counted 1000 or more people. In 1146... for example. Yuri Dolgoruky sent his friend and ally Svyatoslav Olgonich to help “a thousand armored men” 69 (in this case, not armor masters, but warriors and protective armor).

Armor was given to the warriors wearing it. a huge advantage over types without protective clothing. So, in 1359, in Novgorod, the Slavs easily dispersed the districts: “The Slavs in armor sat down with the byakhu (apparently they set up an ambush - A.M.) and dispersed the districts, but they were without armor” 67.

Throughout the Middle Ages, chain mail and plate armor were very widespread in Eastern Europe and ancient Rus', and their production was at a high level for its time. There is no doubt that the brilliant victories of the Novgorodians over the Swedes in the Battle of Neva and over the Germans in the Battle of the Ice and many others were ensured not only by the courage of the Novgorodians and the general skill of Alexander Nevsky, but to a large extent also by their excellent weapons.

Table of the distribution of plate armor on the territory of ancient Rus' (based on archaeological finds)
№ №	Place of discovery, author and year of excavation	Date of monument or layer	Quantity plates	Plate dimensions (in mm)	Rice. in the text
1.	The ancient settlement of Khotomel (Yu. V. Kukharenko, 1954)	VII-IX centuries	3	90351	1.7,8
2.	G. Plisnesk Lviv. region (I. D. Starchuk, 1949)	VII-X centuries	1	80551	1.10
3.	Mr. Alcedar, Moldova (G. B. Fedorov, 1957), in the gunsmith’s workshop	X century	10	75801 77331	1.9 Type 1.8
4.	Donetsk ancient settlement Khark. region (B.A. Shramko, 1956-1957)	X-XII centuries	2	67351	2.1
5.	White Vezha (M. I. Artamonov, 1951)	X-XII centuries	6	458-161	2.3
6.	Novgorod the Great, Yaroslavo Dvorishche (A. V. Artsikhovsky, 1948-1957)	X-XII centuries	86	666-111 706-91 70271 70531	2.4-8
7.	There, Nerevsky end	XI century	2	90802 65361	3.1
8.	Ibid.	XI century	1	62241	1.11
9.	Ibid.	XII century	3	70521	3.6
10.	Ibid.	XII century	1	80401	1.12
11.	Ibid.	XII - XIII centuries	7	85201	2.9,10
12.	Zaitsevskoe town, Mtsensk. district Orlovsk. region (T. N. Nikolskaya, 1956)	XII - XIII centuries	1	73161	2,13
13.	Novgorod the Great, Nerevsky end (A. V. Artsikhovsky 1951-1957)	XIII century	4	67100,5 70110,5	5.8,9
14.	Ibid.	XIII century	1	59541	3.7
15.	Ibid.	XIII century	1	72371	Type 5.3
16.	Ibid.	XIV century	4	62621,5 75672	Type 4.2
17.	Ibid.	XIV century	1	70481	Type 3.7
18.	Ibid.	XIV century	47	66401	5.3-7
19.	Ibid.	XIV century	1	72140,5	5.11
20.	Ibid.	XIV century	300	66110.5	5.8-10
21.	Ibid.	XIV century	3	183431 and two figured from bracers	4.4,5
22.	Ibid.	XIV century	1	60431	5.13
23-28	Ibid.	XV century	14*	85661 77732	Type 4.2 and 3.7
29-30	Ibid.	XVI century	3**	57541	Type 4.2 and 3.7
31.	Olelkovo town (Kiev Museum, No. 1822 and C, 69023)	X-XIII centuries	60	72261 72581	3.2-5
32.	Kyiv oblast. (more precisely unknown; Kiev Museum, No. B-99)	X-XIII centuries	3	80201	3.2-5
33.	Smolensk (D. A. Avdusin. 1952)	XIII-XIV centuries	8	70501 70202	2.11,12
34.	Mr. Nikulchino Kirov. region (L. P. Gussakovsky, 1956-1958)	XIII-XIV centuries	4	60511	5.2
35.	Drupk (L. V. Alekseev, 1957)	XIII-XIV centuries	1	63341	5.1
36.	Pereyaslavl Ryazansky (A. L. Mongait, 1956-1957)	XIV-XV centuries	7	60501 64421	Type 3.7
37.	Tushkov town (M. G. Rabinovich, 1957)	XIV-XV centuries	1	70100,5	5.12
38.	Moscow, Zaryadye (A.F. Dubynin, 1957)	XIV-XV centuries	200	70201	Type 2.12
39.	Pskov (G. P. Grozdilov, 1956)	XV-XVI centuries	1	66631	4.
* - from six shells; ** - from two shells

Rice. 1. Types of iron plates from armor.
1 – from burial. No. 37 in the village. 37 B. Elbany on the Upper Ob, III-IV centuries. n. e.;
2-4 – from a destroyed burial in the Kustanai region. III-IV centuries n. e.;
5-6 – Penjikent, building I, first half of the 8th century. n. e;
7.8 – Khotomel settlement, 7th-8th centuries;
9 – Alchedar settlement in Moldova, from the workshop of a gunsmith of the 10th century;
10 – Plisnesk, from the layer of the 7th-10th centuries;
11 – Novgorod, XI century;
12 – Novgorod, mid-12th century.

Rice. 2. Types of iron plates from armor. 10th-12th centuries
1 – Donetsk settlement near Kharkov, from the layer of the X - XII centuries.
2 – from a nomadic burial in Bek-Bik, X-XII centuries.
3 – from Belaya Vezha, layer X-XII centuries;
4-8 – Novgorod, Yaroslavo Dvorishche, layer X-XII centuries;
9,10 – Novgorod, Nerevsky end, wheelhouse of the 12th and 14th centuries;
13 – Zaytsevskoe settlement of the 12th-13th centuries.

Rice. 3. Types of iron plates from armor of the 11th-13th centuries.
1 - Novgorod. XI century,
2-5 - Olelkovo settlement (?), X-XIII centuries;
6 - Novgorod, XII century;
7 - Novgorod. mid-13th century;
8 - Novgorod, first half of the 13th century. (from leggings or bracers)

Rice. 4. Types of iron plates from armor of the 13th-15th centuries.
1 - Pskov, from the layer of the XV - XVI centuries;
2 - Novgorod, from the layer of the XIII - XIV centuries;
3 - Novgorod, knee pad from the turn of the 13th-14th centuries;
4 - Novgorod, plates from bracers of the mid-14th century;
5 - Novgorod, mid-14th century.

Rice. 5. Types of iron plates from armor of the 13th-14th centuries
1 – Drutsk, XIII-XIV centuries;
2 – Nikulchino settlement on the river. Heel, XIII-XIV centuries;
3-7 – Novgorod, estate of mayor Ontsifor; mid-14th century
8-11 – Novgorod, from shells of the 13th and 14th centuries;
12 – Tushkov town, from the layer of the XII-XV centuries;
13 – Novgorod, second half of the 14th century.

Lesser-known examples have been introduced in Asia from Iran to Mongolia, including Central Asia. Laminar armor made from animal skins is also traditionally made and worn in arctic regions, currently in Siberia, Alaska and Canada.

During the laminar age, plate armor 16 was replaced by galvanic mail in the Middle East and Central Asia, remaining mainly in Mongolia. However, laminar armor did briefly appear in one form or another in Europe during the 16th to 17th centuries with the main feature that distinguishes it from other forms of laminar armor being metal strips secured using sliding rivets. This was known as anima and was invented in Italy. Notable examples include the Earl of Pembroke armor and the armor worn by the Polish hussars. The method was also used for armoring the neck, upper limbs, and thighs, as shown in the Almain and zischagge rivets.

Ancient Laminar Armor

Medieval laminar armor

Japanese laminar armor

Laminar shells were made in Japan in the early 4th century. Tanko(laminar), worn by infantrymen and Keiko(plate) worn by horsemen were both types of pre-samurai early Japanese armor, constructed from iron plates connected by leather straps.

Kiritsuke iyozane DO (laminar armor), constructed with horizontal rows (stripes) of armor plates laced together in a manner that imitates the scales (kozane) of plate armor.

Initially, for many centuries, lamellar armor was only a less expensive option, plate armor. Laminar is simply made of horizontal armor strips pierced like plate armor strips, but without the extra lacing and notches to imitate plate armor strips. And as in plate armor, these laces can sometimes be cut during battle; The laces also become worn when the armor has been worn for a long time without being repaired.

Later, during the early construction of the 15th century, laminar armor changed significantly; Instead of lacing being used, strips of new laminar armor were riveted to wide straps (as in the Lorica segmentata). As a result, laminar armor became more durable than plate armor: hidden straps could not be cut without armor impregnation, Brad straps did not require constant mending, and the straps were stiffer and more durable than the finer lacing that had been used previously. Laminar armor eventually became more popular than plate armor, and almost completely replaced plate armor at the end of the 15th century.

Pure plate armor has become very rare; however, various combinations of laminar and plate armor were very popular. This was because even though laminar armor was much more reliable than plate armor, laminar armor was not flexible enough, while plate armor was very flexible. Laminar armor can be worn with plated pauldrons and tassets (worn with separate bracers, greaves and helmet). Less common was the opposite combination of lamellar armor worn with lamellar pauldrons and tassets. Both could optionally be worn with lamellar or laminar cod pieces and a hip-guard, or even with a reinforced mirror plate.

At the end of the 15th century, when lamellar armor became much more popular than lamellar ones, both types of armor began to be replaced by lamellar mail. Initially plated mail was made only as greaves, but soon by the early 16th century plated mail was used in both pauldrons and greaves, as they could better envelop the body and completely replace laminar and lamellar pauldrons and tassets. Thus, the typical laminar armor of this period was only a laminar cuirass that could be worn over a brigantine with sleeves complemented by metallized mail greaves. (The helmet, bracers and greaves are not mentioned here as they were common in this region). The brigantine's sleeves worked as pauldrons, and if the chainmail was long enough his knees could work as tassets. Another variant was dressed in laminar armor without brigantine, but with metallized mail pauldrons and greaves. Both varieties of laminar armor could be reinforced with a mirror plate (even though laminar armor would have been sufficient protection against steel weapons, a metal mirror was worn as protection against the "evil eye"). Finally, by the end of the Laminar Age and lamellar armor 16 had virtually disappeared from the Near Eastern and Central Asian regions.

Mongolian laminar armor

Laminar armor of the indigenous peoples of the Bering Strait

Chukchi and Siberian Yupik armor had a very similar design; according to various sources, Chukchi armor may have only one huge shoulder pads extending to the waist, used as a shield, and look more like a wing or both "wings". Both Chukchi and Yup'ik armor may have plate or laminar designs; unlike other areas, plate and laminar armor tended to have different designs and were made from different materials. Similar plate armor with "wing" shoulder pads was used by Koryak people.

Classical plate armor was made of hard materials (originally from natural materials such as bone, tusk, whalebone and even wood, like arrowheads were originally made of bone or stone) and in the form of a short shell or even consisted only of

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