How was Australia formed? Australia: form of government, description, history and interesting facts

AUSTRALIA (state) AUSTRALIA (state)

AUSTRALIA, Commonwealth of Australia, a state in the Southern Hemisphere, on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and adjacent islands. Australia owns islands in the Indian Ocean - Ashmore and Cartier, Coconut (Keeling) and Christmas (Christmas), in the Pacific Ocean - Norfolk Island, etc. The area is 7.7 million km 2. Population 20.4 million people (2007). Capital - Canberra (cm. CANBERRA). Sydney seaports (cm. SYDNEY (city)), Melbourne (cm. MELBOURNE), Fremantle (cm. FREMANTLE), Newcastle (cm. NEWCASTLE (city in Australia)).
Nature - see Art. Australia (mainland). (cm. AUSTRALIA (mainland))
Member of the Commonwealth (cm. BRITISH COMMONWEALTH).
Political system
The head of state is the Queen of Great Britain, represented by the Governor General. The legislative body is a bicameral parliament (Senate and House of Representatives). Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the Prime Minister. The government is formed by the party that receives the majority of votes in the general elections.
Administrative division
Federation of 6 states and 2 territories. The capital is allocated to a special administrative unit - the Australian Capital Territory.
Population
Most of the residents are descendants of immigrants from the British Isles (English, Irish and Scots). The aborigines, who were subjected to extermination, survived only in the interior regions (about 1.5% of the country's population). Currently they benefit from a government support system. After the lifting of immigration restrictions for Asians, their numbers are growing rapidly (Malays, Chinese, Indonesians, Indians). The Russian and Ukrainian communities number several tens of thousands of people. The official language is English. Believers are mainly Christians (Catholics and Protestants). Wed. density of us. 2.4 hours per 1 km 2 (1996). The population is concentrated mainly on the east and southeast coasts. OK. 85% of Australians live no further than 80 km from the sea, and all major cities are located in this zone. Urban population - 85%.
Economy
Australia is developed both agriculturally and industrially. GDP per capita is 33 thousand dollars (2006). One of the oldest industries is mining. The main type of energy fuel is hard coal (production 226.1 million tons per year, mainly in the states of New South Wales and Queensland); Australia is one of the top ten countries in the world in terms of coal production and one of the first places in the world in terms of exports. Oil and gas production is significant. Australia is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of bauxite (about 40% of world production), and the production of alumina (about 40% of world production), iron ore, lead, zinc and nickel. Copper, gold, diamonds (one of the first places in the world), and uranium are also mined. Among the manufacturing industries, the most developed are mechanical engineering and metalworking (equipment for the food and mining industries, means of transport, including cars (national company Holden) and ships, agricultural machinery. Textile (mainly wool) is well developed and clothing industry.
The currency is the Australian dollar.
Australian agriculture has always been extremely important and has played a key role. The fields occupy approx. 7% of the country's territory, meadows and pastures are occupied by St. 54%. Large land ownership dominates (the average farm size is over 2300 hectares, one of the highest in the world). Sheep are raised, mainly Merino; In terms of their livestock (120.6 million in 1995) and wool shearing (3.3 million tons in 1994/95), the country ranks 1st in the world. Cattle and pigs are raised. The main export crop is wheat; Barley, rice, oats, sugar cane, cotton, and tobacco are also grown. Fruit growing and viticulture are highly developed. Agriculture is developed in the south-west of Western Australia, the south of South Australia, the south-east of New South Wales and most of Victoria. The rest of the territory, with the exception of desert areas, is dominated by livestock farming.
Historical sketch
Aborigines settled Australia in prehistoric times, about 40 thousand years ago. In 1606, the Dutch navigator W. Janszoon sailed to the shores of Australia (cm. JANSZON Willem). He landed on the west coast of Cape York Island. In 1770, the eastern coast of the mainland was discovered by the English navigator J. Cook (cm. COOK James) . He named these lands the colony of New South Wales and declared them the property of the British crown. The continent seemed barren and was significantly removed from the metropolis, so it was initially considered only as a place of hard labor and exile for criminals. Sydney was founded in 1788 and became the first convict colony. The living conditions of convicts were so difficult that uprisings sometimes broke out. The most famous is the Irish convict uprising at Castlehill (1804). From the end of the 18th century. The gradual exploration of the continent by travelers and explorers began. Among the discoverers were outlaws (bushrangers). In 1813, the first crossing of the Blue Mountains took place, opening the road to the interior. Among the researchers are C. Sturt, E. Eyre, R. Burke, W. Wills, M. McDuel, J. Stewart and J. Forrest. Since 1829, Australia began to be settled by people from other countries (mainly Western Australia). In 1836, the colonization of South Australia began. In 1850, the British Parliament passed an act under which the Australian colonies could create their own bodies of self-government. In 1855, the state of Victoria created such bodies, and the following year the states of New South Wales, Tasmania and South Australia created their own governments. In 1859, the state of Queensland separated from New South Wales and created its own government. From 1840 to 1868, criminals were no longer sent to Australia. In 1851, the “gold rush” broke out, which lasted until 1861. Sheep were brought by colonists in the early 19th century, and by the middle of the century, Australian wool had proven its high quality. After the gold rush died down, an economic depression began. In 1901, the colonies united to form the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the status of a British dominion. In 1902, immigration to the country was limited by a special act that required immigrants to pass an English language test. In 1919, Australia received a mandate for Papua New Guinea and the island of Nauru. In 1933 there was an attempt to secede from Western Australia. In the post-war period, starting from 1948, over 2 million emigrants arrived in the country, mainly from Europe. A long period of growth in national welfare and the construction of a social state begins. In foreign policy there is a reorientation from Great Britain to the United States. In 1951, together with New Zealand and the United States, Australia created the ANZUS military bloc. Australian troops took part in the First and Second World Wars, and in the Vietnam War 1965-1972. Australian units, under the auspices of the UN, participated in the Korean War (1950-1953). In 1967, Australian Aborigines received full civil rights. In 1974, immigration bans on immigrants from Southeast Asia were lifted. Papua New Guinea gained independence in 1975. In 1986, as a result of the Australia Act, passed by the British Parliament, the remnants of colonial power were eliminated. In 1992, the oath of allegiance to the British crown was abolished.
National holiday - January 26, Australia Day.

encyclopedic Dictionary. 2009 .

See what "AUSTRALIA (state)" is in other dictionaries:

Australia (state)- Australia. Devil's Marbles. Northern Territory. AUSTRALIA (Union of Australia), a state on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and small islands. Area 7.7 million km2. Population 17.56 million people, including 95% white (descendants of exiles and... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- ... Wikipedia

Commonwealth of Australia ... Wikipedia

Australia- (Australia) History of Australia, state symbols of Australia, culture of Australia Executive and legislative powers of Australia, climate of Australia, natural resources and wildlife of Australia, largest economic centers of Australia... ... Investor Encyclopedia

Wiktionary has an entry for "Australia" ... Wikipedia

1) Commonwealth of Australia, state. The name Australia (Australia) is based on its location on the mainland of Australia, where over 99% of the territory of the state is located. Since the 18th century possession of Great Britain. The Commonwealth of Australia is currently a federation... Geographical encyclopedia

Commonwealth of Australia, a state in the Southern Hemisphere, on the mainland of Australia, about. Tasmania and surrounding islands. 7.7 million km². population 17.6 million people (1993), mainly descendants of immigrants from Great Britain and... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

State of Palestine at the Olympic Games IOC Code: PLE ... Wikipedia

- (Union of Australia), a state on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and small islands. Area 7.7 million km2. population 17.56 million people, including 95% white (descendants of exiles and immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland), indigenous... ... Modern encyclopedia

Area of ​​Australia. 7682292 km2 (continental area - 7631500 km2).

Population of Australia. 23.80 million people (

Australia GDP. $1.454 trl. (

Location of Australia. - a country on the mainland of Australia. Together with the nearby island, Tasmania forms the Commonwealth of Australia. In the north it is washed by and the Torres Strait, in the east by and, in the south by the Bass Strait and in the west by the Indian Ocean. The Union also owns the islands of Cartier, Ashmore, Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, Heard Islands, MacDonald Islands, and Norfolk.

Administrative divisions of Australia. The state is divided into 6 states and 2 territories.

Australian form of government. Federal parliamentary democracy.

Head of State of Australia. The Queen, represented by the Governor-General.

Australia's highest legislative body. Parliament (Senate and House of Representatives).

Australia's highest executive body. Government.

Major cities in Australia. Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide.

National language of Australia. English.

Religion of Australia. 26% are Anglicans, 26% are followers of the Roman Church, 24% are followers of other Christian denominations.

Ethnic composition of Australia. 92% - , 7% - Asians, 1% - Aboriginals.

Australian currency. Australian dollar = 100 cents.

On the one hand, the country retains the influence of English culture, sometimes manifested in restraint, stiffness, and puritanism; on the other hand, many observers note the similarity of Australia with California, which is manifested in love of life, freedom of morals, and the habit of spending most of the time outdoors. Australians are friendly to foreigners. They are extremely laconic and consider brevity to be a wonderful quality. Business proposals should be presented simply, concisely, without going into details. When describing a product, you need to honestly indicate its pros and cons. The offer price should not be inflated. The tradition of most Australians is a relaxed style of clothing. But for business meetings, visits to concert halls and the best restaurants, of course, you need an appropriate suit.

Australia flag.

Australia (Union of Australia, Commonwealth of Australia) is a state in the Southern Hemisphere, on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and adjacent islands. Australia owns the islands in the Indian Ocean - Ashmore and Cartier, Coconut (Keeling) and Christmas (Christmas), in the Pacific Ocean - Norfolk Island. Area 7.7 million sq. km, population 20.4 million people (2007). The capital is Canberra, the largest cities are Sydney and Melbourne.

In addition to whites and Asians, the country is home to 230 thousand indigenous people, descendants of the oldest wave of immigrants to this region. They speak hundreds of different tribal languages. Indigenous Australians have gained civil rights and land rights only since the late 1960s, most of them live in Western Australia and the Northern Territory, where there are large reserves and national parks.

Australia is one of the most urbanized countries, with more than 80% of the population living in cities. The southeastern and southwestern parts of the country, which were previously colonized, have a temperate and subtropical climate. This is a country with a high standard of living, but some of the aborigines maintain a traditional way of life. The currency is the Australian dollar.

State structure

The Commonwealth of Australia consists of six states, former British colonies, enjoying significant autonomy: New South Wales (state capital - Sydney), Queensland (Brisbane), Victoria (Melbourne), South Australia (Adelaide), Western Australia (Perth), Tasmania (Hobart) ), - as well as two territories: the most sparsely populated Northern Territory (Darwin) and the Capital Territory, where the country's capital, Canberra, is located. In addition, Australia owns six "outer island territories"; Of these, only three are inhabited: Christmas Island and two Cocos Islands. Australia is a constitutional monarchy.

Skyscrapers of Sydney.

The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain, represented by the Governor General. The legislative body is a bicameral parliament. As a former colony, Australia is part of the British Commonwealth. The main language in the country is English, the dominant religion is Christianity. Australia is a country of immigrants. After the Second World War, among them there became a significant proportion of those who came from outside the British Isles, as a result of which the “White Australia” policy had to be abandoned. Among the Australians, at least a quarter of those who came here over the past half century include many Italians, Greeks, Syrians, Poles, and immigrants from Yugoslavia. There is a Russian community (there are many Harbin residents who moved from China) and a Ukrainian community (of post-war origin). Over the past twenty years, many Vietnamese, clustered in big cities, Indians, Indonesians and immigrants from New Guinea (the tropical north of the country) have settled in Australia. The government has adopted special programs for the adaptation of Asians into Australian society.

Australia. Settlement of colonists.

Immigration into the country is limited on the basis of property and qualifications. However, those who come to the country to relax and get acquainted with its sights are always welcome guests.

Geography

The Commonwealth of Australia is the only country in the world located on an entire continent (albeit the smallest). Its least populated area is 7.6 million sq. km. The continent is entirely located in the Southern and Eastern Hemispheres. Its shores are washed by the waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Australia. Great Dividing Range.

Areas of fertile land lie in the east and southwest of the country, its entire center and west are occupied by deserts and semi-deserts, and in the north are the savannahs and tropical rainforests of the Arnhem Land Peninsula. The country is low-water - the largest rivers, the Murray and Darling, flow from the Australian Alps, the most elevated part of the Great Divided Range, which stretches in the east of the continent. Mount Kosciuszko (2230 m) rises here - the highest point of the mainland. The lowest-lying, bitter-salty Lake Eyre, “the dead heart of Australia,” is located in the Central Lowlands. There are low ancient block mountains in Western Australia and Arnhem Land.

The proximity of Asian countries, and especially Japan, has determined the modern orientation of the country, rich in mineral resources, to supply the industry of this region. For seaside holidays, the eastern coast, covered by the Great Barrier Reef, is most favorable.

Climate

Australia's climate is determined by its geographical location in the Southern Hemisphere; the seasons here are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere. The hot season is in November-January, the relatively cold season is in June-August. Due to its location predominantly in the tropics, the continent receives a huge amount of solar heat. The change of seasons is quite clearly manifested only in the far north and far south, and is expressed primarily in seasonal precipitation. “Wet season” and “dry season” are concepts that are far from conventional. The northern, eastern and southern outskirts of the continent (a tenth of its area) receive more than 1000 mm of precipitation per year, but in the interior (half of the territory), precipitation does not exceed 250 mm per year. In the north, rain falls mainly in summer, in the southern part - in autumn and winter, and only on the most developed east coast - all year round. However, even there the relatively dry period lasts three to five months. Average summer temperatures range from 20-28 °C, winter temperatures - 12-24 °C, the greatest frosts on the plains are from -4 to -6 °C, and only in the Australian Alps it can reach -22 °C.

Semi-desert in Central Australia.

Australian mangroves.

In northern Australia there are stifling hot summers and irregular rainfall - such a climate is unfavorable for human life and agriculture. Tropical cyclones hit these shores once or twice a year, usually in November–April. The vast territory west of the Great Dividing Range has a hot and dry climate with sharp daily temperature changes. In the subtropics of the southwest, the climate is reminiscent of the Mediterranean. The southeast, blown by the moist winds of the Pacific Ocean, is well and evenly moistened all year round, and is home to the granaries and orchards of Australia. The mildest and wettest climate - with warm, windy winters and cool summers (although summers are rainless in the west) - is on the island of Tasmania, located mainly in the temperate zone. On the tropical coast of Queensland, in the east, summer, on the contrary, is rainy.

Natural attractions

One of the country's attractions is the eucalyptus tree - its varieties can be seen everywhere, it is even on the coat of arms of Australia. Representatives of the Australian living world are equally unique: kangaroos, platypus, echidna, koala, and therefore many places of interest are national parks, where combinations of different types of flora and fauna are preserved.

Australia. Blue Mountains National Park.

In New South Wales, the oldest of the states, you can admire the ridges, plateaus and forested valleys of the Blue Mountains (114 km west of Sydney), visit Mount Kosciuszko (487 km southwest of Sydney), and then the evergreen forests of New England (576 km northwest of Sydney). It will be an interesting trip into the desert, to the Aboriginal-decorated cliffs of Motwingi (130 km northeast of the mining town of Broken Hioo).

In South Australia, you can visit the eucalyptus groves of Kangaroo Island or admire the domes of the ancient Flinders Mountains (450 km north of Adelaide). Off the coast of Queensland is Australia's largest attraction - the coral world of the Great Barrier Reef (length - 1500 km), as well as rain forests and pristine beaches of Fraser Island (260 km north of Brisbane), which, by the way, is the world's largest sand island .

In Victoria, you'll definitely want to look at the green sandstone ridges of the Grampians (260 km west of Melbourne) or the granite cliffs and forested hills of Cape Wilson (250 km southeast). Western Australia is famous for the Stirling Range Park (1,200 plant species) 400 km southeast of Perth, a stunning panorama of the Indian Ocean from the coast of Yanchep Park (51 km to the north), and the oldest fossilized living organisms on earth - stromatolites in the northwest, in Shark -Beat. There are also wild desert ancient mountains (the Hammersley and Mount Augustus ranges).

In the Northern Territory, 250 km east of Darwin, lies Kakadu National Park - a paradise of crocodiles, where sacred rocks painted by Aboriginal people rise. In the south, 455 km southwest of the “desert capital” of Alice Springs, there is the most famous monument of the mainland - the red mountain Ayers Rock (the aborigines call it Uluru - this is their ancient shrine) and nearby the exotic Mount Olga. Drive 155km west of Alice Springs to the exotic palm groves of the Palm Valley oasis in the MacDonnell Ranges. There is a project to transform the island of Tasmania into a single national park - the famous deserts and forests of the island preserve many rare species of animals that are not even found on the mainland.

Culture

The history of the settlement of Australia by modern civilization goes back a little over two hundred years. Therefore, a direct transition from the prehistoric rock paintings of Ayers Rock and others like it to the monuments of the colonial period is natural. Sydney, the country's oldest and largest city, retains a corner of the old colonial center on the southern shore of the bay. Particularly noteworthy is the building of the Sydney Grammar School of the Victorian era. The city is home to the Royal Botanic Park and the Art Gallery of New South Wales. On a rocky promontory rises the famous, shell-shaped, ultra-modern building of the Sydney Opera House - a symbol of the new Australia, and across the bay stretches the arched Sydney Bridge, no less famous than the bridge in San Francisco (USA). South of Sydney is Botany Bay, where James Cook and colonial founder Arthur Philip landed.

Central Australia. Cave drawings.

In Melbourne, founded by free settlers who wanted to capture the spirit of “good old England,” many more architectural monuments have been preserved that are reminiscent of Europe of the last century: massive Victorian-style buildings and shady parks, the famous state art gallery. Not far from the botanical garden there is a house transported from England where James Cook (1728 - 1775) was born. The town of Swan Hill has recreated a 19th century colonial village. The Lutheran churches of the German colonists enliven the landscape of the Barossa Valley near Adelaide - the birthplace of Australian winemaking.

Hobart, the capital of Tasmania, retains a small number of early colonial architecture, including Fort Anglesey (1814), Australia's oldest theatre, and the Houses of Parliament. 80 km to the southwest is the Port Arthur convict prison (in the past, criminals exiled by the British government were located here). Buildings from 1830 have been preserved here - now it is an object for viewing. Although Australians have a traditional reputation as uncomplicated country dwellers, in recent decades the federal government has poured considerable resources into raising the standard of symphony orchestras and television in the country; A ballet troupe was created. Aboriginal art has now gone beyond the ethnographic departments of museums, and theatrical dance groups have been created that attract the attention of tourists.

Cities

In Australia there are five cities with a population of more than 1 million inhabitants - Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide. All of these cities are state capitals. Perth (population - 1193 thousand people), despite its founding date - 1829, is a young city. Its rapid growth was due to the mining boom in Western Australia. Ultra-modern high-rise buildings from the 1970s and 1980s are a signature feature of the Perth cityscape. Perth has an art gallery, the Western Australian Museum, and the Burswood Casino. Unique examples of the state's vegetation are preserved in King Park in the city center. Australia's main gold refinery is located here, where metal is also brought from other countries. Near Perth there are Rottnest Island (marine entertainment) and Swan Valley (wine) parks. There are many dangerous marine animals found off the coast of the state. Perth's outport is Fremantle.

The city of Adelaide is located on the Gulf of St. Vincent. It is the stronghold of British white Australia, slightly diluted by immigrants. The population of Adelaide is 1065 thousand people. The city center is surrounded by a ring of parks. King William Street is home to numerous banks and travel agencies. In the center, in a pedestrian area, is the main shopping area, where department stores and restaurants are concentrated. The city museum contains a unique ethnographic collection of Aboriginal people. A popular arts festival in the country is held annually in the Festival Center building. Kangaroo Island is a favorite vacation spot for city residents.

Australia. Fountain in Adelaide.

Holidays in Australia

In Australia, you can mine gold in the mines of the last century, live in a gold miner’s hut; skydive; fly in a hot air balloon; learn to scuba dive among coral labyrinths; play golf or tennis; Drive a rented car across Australia in ten days; to fish; rock climbing; sledding down sand dunes, surfing on ocean waves. You can simply walk through the mountains, climbing into exotic corners, look at crocodiles in a national park or sunbathe on the beaches of numerous resorts on the east coast, and find a refuge for relaxation tens of kilometers from residential areas. There are numerous cruises on sea and river vessels.

Australia. A traditional Tiwi Aboriginal shrine on Melville Island, the only area under indigenous governance.

© Corel Professional Photos

Australia. London Bridge rock on the coast of Victoria.

© Corel Professional Photos

The capital of Queensland, Brisbane is one of the main resort centers. The most famous resort is the Gold Coast (Gold Coast): starting 80 km south of Brisbane and stretching 42 km to the border with New South Wales. The Gold Coast is one of Australia's most famous and popular holiday destinations. An endless string of beaches washed by the warm waters of the ocean, white hotel towers in the greenery of tropical gardens, majestic mountains on the horizon - all this creates a unique flavor. The resort has the status of an urban area with its center in Surfers Paradise.

Australia. The coconut palm is not exotic to Australia.

Australia. Country beach.

Among the resorts of the Great Barrier Reef, the most famous are Lindeman, Daydream, Hayman, Brampton, Long - and there are about 20 resort islands in total. There are 350 species of corals, 4,000 mollusks, and 1,200 fish on the reef. The city of Cairns in northern Queensland is a major center for sport fishing.

115 km north of Brisbane stretches another extensive resort area - Sunny Beach. An important point of the recreational business is Sydney, in the vicinity of which there are several leisure facilities. Along the shores of Port Jackson Bay, which juts into the land, there are the beaches of Bondi, Manly, and Palm Beach. The King Cross entertainment district in the city center attracts Sydney residents and visitors with its numerous cafes, cinemas and restaurants, as well as its reputation as a hub for gambling and dubious entertainment. Within a radius of several tens of kilometers there are several parks where you can see kangaroos, koalas and other Australian animals in almost natural conditions.

104 km west of Sydney are the Blue Mountains, visited annually by more than half a million holidaymakers and tourists. The blue effect arises from the glow of eucalyptus oil vapor evaporating under the direct rays of the sun from the millions of eucalyptus trees that densely cover the gentle slopes of mountains, plateaus and canyons. Reaching a height of 1300 meters, the Blue Mountains are an example of the diversity of Australian nature. This is one of the few places in the country where snow falls. The most famous ski resorts outside the country are Thredbo, Smiggin Holes, and Perisher Valley. In the town of Bowral, a tulip festival is held annually in the spring.

Sagittarius fish is an inhabitant of Australian mangroves.

Australian coast. Wild beach.

From Sydney, excursions are organized to the Hunter River Valley (180 km north of the city) - a wine-growing region and to the South Bank (250 km) - to the world of old Australia, kangaroos and pioneer villages. The center of tourism is the Northern Territory, where the savannahs with rivers (there are crocodiles) near the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Uluru massif, near which the new hotel complex is located, and the deserts around Alice Springs with the Sheraton Hotel are equally popular.

Tourist routes

A visit to Featherdale Wildlife Park is one of the most interesting excursions, always popular with all visitors to Australia. In the Wildlife Park you can walk in the company of kangaroos and emus, see wombats, possums and other exotic animals of Australia. The park was founded on land originally owned by Charles and Marjorie Vig in 1953. It initially operated as a private zoo. Then the son-in-law of the Vig couple, Bruce Kuber, who had been keen on studying the fauna and flora of Australia since childhood, organized a kind of “living” laboratory on this territory, which allowed thousands of people to visit the park every week and get acquainted with the life of animals in the wild. Currently, Featherdale Park is home to more than 5,000 different species of animals and birds, including some that have almost disappeared. The park is well suited for outdoor activities, and biology and zoology teachers can tell and show their students much more here than in the narrow walls of a classroom. The park has also become a permanent place for excursions and work of professional photographers, writers, naturalists and other specialists. Travel companies from all over the world have become interested in the Wildlife Park, since the care of animals here, as well as the territory of the park itself, meets the highest standards. Featherdale is now one of the most visited and loved wildlife reserves in the world. Featherdale Park is home to 4 different species of kangaroos and over 15 species of wallabies and wallaroos, ranging in size from the largest tawny species to pygmy marsupials and tree frogs. There is a special children's zoo on the territory of the Park, where you can get a closer look at how kangaroos bear their young. But not all places allow you to get close to kangaroos, as sometimes males can become aggressive, especially when looking for a female kangaroo.

Excursion to the foot of the Kuranda Range mountains, deep into the Australian savanna (Kuranda and Australian Savanna Tour). The journey begins at the foot of the Kuranda Range on the world's longest cable car, the 7 kilometer Skyrail. Smoothly gliding over the tops of the ancient tropical forest, you enjoy views of pristine nature, panoramas of the ocean coast and coral islands. Along the way, you make stops for walks along forest paths and, finally, you are in Kuranda, where you can buy products from local craftsmen and aborigines at the local market. The trip then continues by car and takes you deep into the Australian savannah, passing banana, mango and tobacco plantations and huge termite mounds along the way. The road leads you to volcanic lakes, where you will find swimming in clear waters, walks through the forest to huge fig trees and an Australian picnic - barbecue, meat fried on a hot sheet of metal. The journey continues towards Malanda Falls. Along the way, visit an opal processing workshop, where you can not only see the processing process, but also purchase famous Australian opals. Then descend through the Gillies Range with breathtaking views of North Queensland nature.

Traveling around South Cairns (South Cairns Tour). The trip begins with a visit to Belender Ker National Park, just 45 minutes from Cairns. You then enter the picturesque forests of Boulders Wildlife Park. From here you can see the legendary and mysterious mountain Bartel Frer. The diversity of North Queensland's flora and fauna is on full display here. There is no better place to stop for a picnic with a traditional barbecue and a swim in the clear waters of Barbinda Creek. The Josephine Falls area is also good for relaxing and swimming. You can take a walk into the forest and admire the beauty of ancient waterfalls, as well as take unforgettable pictures as a souvenir. Most animals are nocturnal, although if you're lucky you might see pythons, as well as tree-dwelling kangaroos and bush turkeys.

Australia. Countryside view.

Australia. Ayers Rock Monolith (Uluru) is a remnant of the Peterman mountain range, the age of the monolith is 450 million years. The mountain giant is surrounded by sparse vegetation, mostly shrubs, but sometimes there are also eucalyptus trees with silver trunks and gray-green leaves. Mount Uluru is considered sacred by the Aboriginal people.

Air travel around Australia. During a 12-day trip on board a private comfortable plane, you will be able to see a real wonder of the world - the incredible and only largest monolith in the world, Ayers Rock, changing its famous brown color at sunset. By meeting local aborigines, you will become more familiar with their culture and also hear an original interpretation of dreams. At night, the Southern Cross will spread out above you in the bottomless night sky.

Alice Springs is the most remote town in the center of Australia from civilization, in the area of ​​the oldest rock formations in the world. And then - a trip to hot springs, flights over picturesque waterfalls, mountain passes, a trip to the center of Kakadu National Park, where you can observe the life of birds and crocodiles in their natural environment, and during a trip to the East Aligator River area you will see examples of rock art Aboriginals. Some drawings are more than 20 thousand years old. Then - to the tropics - to the Great Barrier Reef. Here you can fly over the reef and swim underwater, surrounded by unforgettable seascapes of tropical Australia.

Hunting in the wild. Fly to the outback for two days of great adventure: follow the trail and hunt kangaroos, wild boars, goats, huge feral bulls, foxes and hares, hunt kangaroos at night. Accompanied by a professional hunter, you'll travel around southwest Queensland, learning about local history and visiting sheep farms. In the evening you will find a wonderful home-cooked dinner and a cozy overnight stay. In the morning, a trip to an ancient mining town, famous for its black opals, which you can purchase here. And then - hot healing springs, swimming and relaxation.

Off the coast of Australia. A school of fish in the Great Barrier Reef.

Off the coast of Australia. Great Barrier Reef. Rock perch.

Ocean Deep Water Fishing. Fishing on a speedboat will bring pleasure to both amateurs and fishing professionals. Throughout the trip, you are accompanied by a professional Russian-speaking instructor-guide, who has carefully prepared gear and bait for you. Light snacks and soft drinks are at your service on board the boat.

Travel to Stradbroke Island (Stradbroke Island Day Cruise). A sea voyage on a motor ship along the ocean, bays and rivers of the island with a stop for walking and swimming. You will be able to water ski and motorcycle, take a breathtaking parachute flight. A traditional Australian lunch will complete this exciting journey.

Cairns, the central city of northern Queensland, is considered the tourism capital of Australia. All tourist roads go here, and further paths lead to the north - to the rainforests of Daintree and the ancient town of Cooktown, to the west - to the coolness of the Atherton Tableland plain, or to the east - to the islands of the Great Barrier Reef. The islands are an ideal place for family and individual holidays. The average annual temperature here is 26 degrees. Picturesque tropical vegetation, dazzling beaches and the rich underwater world of coral islands, gentle ocean waves allow you to admire nature, swim and sunbathe all year round.

No less attractive is the small town of Port Douglas, whose comfort and picturesqueness have attracted such giants of the tourism business as Sheraton Mirage and Radisson Royal Palm Resorts. From here, as well as from Cairns, you can take exciting boat trips on sailboats and boats, and get acquainted with the inhabitants of the underwater world of the coral islands. Comfortable hotels with first-class service and the unique beauty of the world-famous Great Barrier Reef will allow you to spend unforgettable days.

Fraser Island is the world's largest sand island. Tropical forests rising straight from the sand, endless gold beaches, crystal clear freshwater lakes, colorful sand layers in the Pinnacles, the wreck of the famous ship Maheno, which in the distant past was wrecked in these places, hundreds of species of birds, freely wandering dingoes, echidnas, swamp kangaroos , and humpback whales migrating along the western part of the island in August-October. The modern seaside resort's array of activities will leave you with an unforgettable impression of a subtropical wonderland.

National cuisine

Australians love meat pie - a puff pastry pie with meat filling (similar to our belyash). Dishes from fish, shellfish, and shells are prepared everywhere. Australia's national dish is barracuda, which is caught in the Cleveland area. We also advise you to try the “Marsupial” steak made from kangaroo meat with mushrooms, sailor-style brains in red wine, Australian salad, in which thin pieces of ham are rolled into tubes and then folded, putting diced fresh cucumbers, apples and boiled celery root on top, then pour over orange juice and mayonnaise. The Melbourne chicken with sauce is also unforgettable; it is served as a side dish with eggplants, tomatoes, and garlic fried in a mixture of equal parts of butter and olive oil for flavor; Fried potatoes shaped like small nuts are placed at both ends of the dish. For dessert, try Pavlova - kiwi with meringue and fresh cream. Barbecue - outdoor grilling - is considered a kind of "national sport" in Australia.

Holidays

January 1 - New Year.
January 26 is Australia Day.
Easter Monday.
April 25 - Anzac Day (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps Day).
May 1 - Labor Day.
July 14 is the Queen's birthday.
December 25 - Christmas.
December 27 is Boxing Day.

"Aussi" is a colloquial word that was in use during the First World War. This was the name given to British or Irish people born in Australia.

The original meaning of the word was the easy-going, carefree and lucky nature of the soldiers fighting on the battlefield, but after the Second World War the word served to distinguish the old immigrants from Australia from the new ones who arrived from Western and Southern Europe.

Until now, “aussi” is a kind of mark of Australians. In some sectors of society, the word “Australian” is considered an anachronism.

origin of name

The name "Australia" was officially adopted in 1817 by the British governor of the colony of New South Wales. It was invented earlier, in 1814. Etymologically, it comes from the Latin expression terra australis incognita (“unexplored southern land”). It was used by cartographers for many centuries before European colonization.

The British colony developed its own national culture, welcoming immigrants from many parts of the world, as well as indigenous Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.

A strong sense of socio-historical identity united the subcultural diversity of the various regions of the country.
Throughout the country's history, different cultures have had to assimilate and integrate into the dominant British-Australian culture. In the early 1970s, politics took a course towards multiculturalism.

In 1988, Australians celebrated the nation's bicentenary. It has been accepted that it is home to many peoples, but despite this, social life is rocked by divisions due to social, racial, national, class and gender differences.

Education Australia

Australia's history began in the 18th century when it became a British penal colony. The essence of Australian culture has been shaped primarily by the mechanisms of immigration and race relations. An important factor that has shaped the specifics of national culture is the small number of females in relation to the male population.

They say that it was thanks to this that the Australian idea of ​​mateship - equality and friendship between the sexes - was born. The participation of Australian and New Zealand troops in the First World War is seen as the symbolic birth of a united nation.
The impetus for the formation of a national culture was the myth of the countryside, where the agricultural and cattle-breeding industries were created.

The mythology of the countryside continues to influence the national character, despite the bulk of the population being concentrated in urban coastal centers. Thanks to its relatively sunny, warm climate, Australians are associated with sporty, tanned people who love the beach and surfing.

National identity

When the British invaded Australian soil in 1788, the local population far outnumbered them. Europeans brought disease and violence to the new continent. The following periods of history are outlined by racial discrimination, which alternated with periods of more or less loyal politics.

Its goal was the complete assimilation of the aborigines into the dominant culture. This process had a particularly strong impact on children from mixed marriages. In the first half of the 20th century, this practice was widespread: children were taken from their Aboriginal parents in order to introduce them into civilized “white” society. These children were called the “stolen generation.”

The ideology of cultural assimilation permeates relations not only with indigenous peoples, but also with immigrants. Early in Australian history, British Protestants supported the arrival of Irish Catholics, who eventually became the dominant cultural group through their active participation in the development of Catholic education and government representation.

From that time on, Australia began to be seen as a part of English society, which was dominated by British, or Anglo-Celtic culture. Thanks to strong immigrant flows, over two centuries it has become one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world.

The national culture of Australia is multiethnic and cosmopolitan. Cultural policy was guided by the principles of cultural philosophy, according to which it is easier to accept the peculiarities of language and lifestyle (clothing, food) than to deal with the whole complex of economic difficulties of some immigrant groups.

Despite the official emphasis on cultural diversity, Anglo-Celtic traditions continue to dominate most areas of social life, including the media, legal system, public education and health care.

Ethnic relations

The first immigrants to Australia were the Chinese, who fled their homeland in the 1850s and 1860s due to hay fever. Fear of racial mixing, xenophobia and subsequent unrest led to restrictions on the entry into Australia of people from China and the Pacific region.

However, immigration was seen as an important process, the catchphrase of the time being “settle or perish.” It reflects the opinion that only population growth can ensure the protection of the territory and its economic development.

The unification of the states in 1901 coincided with the implementation of the immigration law, which radically influenced the development of national culture. White-skinned Australians had to fight against the “yellow-faced” immigrants from Asian countries.

For much of the 20th century, immigrants were admitted to Australia based on the established power hierarchy of countries. The English were always at the top of the list. Government subsidies and programs were designed to encourage immigration from Albion to Australia.

Thus, immigration processes can be defined as a series of waves, dominated by the British until the 1940s, then Northern Europeans (mainly after the First World War), Southern Europeans (after the Second World War), and from 1972, after a change in political course, Asians began to come to Australia.

Immigration flows declined by the 1980s and it is now difficult to come to live in Australia. The question of the required number of immigrants is acute, especially in terms of uninvited refugees.

Australia's long history of immigration has led to increased ethnic diversity, stimulating public debate on national identity.

Many indigenous peoples and Asian immigrants still feel isolated from the rest of society, and in difficult economic times they are even made scapegoats. However, recently there have been efforts to portray these ethnic groups in a positive light of social inclusion.

The national culture of New Zealand is closely related to the Australian one. New Zealanders have special rights to enter the country, thanks to which two-way migration flows have been established between the two countries. Australians and New Zealanders actively compete in sports and cooperate closely in other areas of life.

A Australia , one of the highly developed countries in the world, attracts with its mild climate and equally lenient immigration laws. It opens its doors to experienced professionals and businessmen.

ANDmmigration to Australia - this is an opportunity not only to live in a highly developed country, but also, having passed the citizenship exam after 4 years of living in the country and having received citizenship, to move around the world without visas.

T well , being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost any person with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can understand them themselves.

E it's the only country in the world , occupying the territory of the entire continent of the same name, as well as about. Tasmania and surrounding islands. The country is located in the southern and eastern hemispheres, washed by the seas of the Pacific and Indian oceans. In the north it is washed by the Timor and Arafura Seas and the Torres Strait, in the east by the Coral and Tasman Seas, in the south by the Bass Strait and the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Indian Ocean. The coastline is slightly indented. The country has 3 time zones (ahead of Moscow by 6 - 8 hours). Time in Sydney is 7 hours ahead of Moscow in winter, and 8 hours in summer. In addition, time also varies from state to state, where sometimes half an hour is added to standard time.

AAustralia was open Billem Janszoon in 1606. The population of the country at that time was made up of Australian Aborigines, who settled there more than 42 thousand years ago. In 1770, the country was declared a colony of the English Empire, and in 1901, all Australian colonies united into the Commonwealth of Australia, fully subordinate to the Queen of England.

Australia flag Coat of arms of Australia National motto: No Anthem: "Move On Fair Australia" Independence date January 1, 1901 (from UK) Official language de facto English Capital Canberra The largest city Sydney Form of government A constitutional monarchy Queen Governor General Prime Minister Elizabeth II Michael Jeffery John Howard Territory . Total . % aq. surface 6th in the world 7,686,850 km? 1 % Population . Total (2001) . Density 52nd in the world 18 972 350 2 people/km? GDP . Total (2001) . Per capita 16th in the world 611 billion USD 29,893 Currency Internet domain .au Telephone code +61 Time Zones UTC +8 … +10

Australia is the sixth largest country in the world in terms of territory, and it is the only state that occupies an entire continent. The Commonwealth of Australia includes the Australian mainland and several islands, the largest of which is Tasmania. On the mainland, diverse nature coexists with modern, densely populated megacities. Although most of the continent is occupied by semi-deserts and deserts, Australia has a variety of landscapes: from alpine meadows to tropical jungles. Australia is home to unique species of flora and fauna, some of which are not found elsewhere on the planet. Many plants and animals, including giant marsupials, became extinct with the arrival of the aborigines; others (for example, the Tasmanian tiger) - with the advent of Europeans. The Australian continent is an ideal place for practicing any water sports. Surfing, wind surfing, diving, water skiing, rowing and yachting - all this is available to vacationers on the coast. If this doesn’t appeal to you, go for a walk through one of the many nature reserves, ride a bike or ride a horse. You can also go on a safari or go rock climbing. The attractiveness of Australia lies not only in the nature of the continent. Well-appointed cities and centers of cultural and business life of the state also contribute here. In all megacities - be it Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne or any other large city - historical landmarks coexist with skyscrapers, cozy parks coexist with crowded streets, and various museums coexist with chic shops. When you leave Australia, you will, of course, want to take something with you as a souvenir, something that will remind you of your trip to this wonderful country. In souvenir shops you can buy various handicrafts created by the Aboriginal people, clothing made from the finest sheep's wool, and in jewelry stores you can buy jewelry made from famous Australian opals, exquisite pearls or pink diamonds. Availability of immigration Australia, being one of the economically developed and stable countries in the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost any person with education and work experience can choose it as their place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are quite simple and understandable - everyone can understand them themselves. Climate of Australia The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climate zones of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (in the central part) and subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of the island of Tasmania is within the temperate zone. In winter, which occurs in June, July and August, snow sometimes falls, but it does not last long. The subequatorial climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern parts of the continent, is characterized by an even temperature range (during the year the average air temperature is 23 - 24 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm, and in some places more than 2000 mm). The further you go south, the more noticeable the change of seasons. In the central and western parts of the continent in summer (December-February) average temperatures rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes higher, and in winter (June-August) they drop to an average of 10-15 degrees. In the center of the continent in the summer, the temperature during the day rises to 45 degrees, at night it drops to zero or lower (-4-6 degrees).

Museums of Australia

Sydney
Sydney has a large number of interesting cultural sites - the famous Sydney Museum of Australian History and Anthropology, the War Memorial Art Gallery, the National Maritime Museum (a really interesting place - everything about the sea and watercraft is collected here - from Aboriginal boats to battleships and surfboards), Art Gallery of New South Wales, Museum of Applied Arts and Science, one of the most “daring” museums in the world - the Museum of Modern Art, Nicholson Museum of Antiquity, Australian Wildlife Park and Hyde Park.

Melbourne
Melbourne is often called the "cultural capital of the Southern Hemisphere". These days, Melbourne's compact city center is filled with museums, galleries and fine shops, but much of the city is occupied by parks, public gardens and the Royal Botanic Garden. Also of interest are the National Gallery and Museum of Victoria, the Museum of Contemporary Australian Art, St. Patrick's Cathedral, the James Cook Memorial and the city's old Mint.

Perth
You can visit the Gallery of Fine Arts of Western Australia, where works by foreign and Australian masters are exhibited, including masterpieces of traditional Aboriginal art, striking in their technique. No less interesting is the Museum of Western Australia, which tells about the nature of the state, its history, the largest meteorite crater in the world in Wolf Creek, and, of course, about the indigenous people - the Aborigines.

Darwin
In the city itself, it is interesting to visit the country's only Military Museum at East Point, the original Gallery of Aboriginal Art and Culture, a saltwater crocodile farm and the Darwin Botanical Garden.

Attractions

	Ayers rock The Uluru rock monolith, unusual in its red color, has long become the emblem of central Australia. This is the oldest and largest monolithic rock on earth (its age is about 500 million years). It makes an amazing impression both because it rises in the middle of an absolutely flat surface, and because it changes its shades at sunset and sunrise. Many tourists and photographers come to admire this magical play of light. This rock was and remains a sacred place for the Aborigines. On it you can see rock paintings.
	Great Barrier Reef One of Australia's most famous landmarks is the Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral structure in the world. This is a huge system of reefs and islets, stretching for 2,010 km. along the eastern coast of the country, from Cape York almost to Brisbane. The Barrier Reef has been a national park for over 20 years.
	Blue Mountains The Blue Mountains are a unique nature reserve near Sydney. Here, as in many other parts of Australia, nature is carefully preserved as it was thousands of years ago. Covered with eucalyptus forests, the mountains from afar appear really blue - due to the evaporation of eucalyptus oils. The observation decks offer magnificent panoramas of forested mountains, steep cliffs, deep valleys and canyons.
	Harbor Bridge It is also called “coat hanger” because it looks like a giant coat hanger. This is one of the longest bridges in the world (503 meters). It was opened in 1932 and by the time construction was completed it cost $20 million. Today, motorists heading into southern Sydney pay a $2 toll to cover the cost of maintaining the bridge. The bridge pylon closest to the Opera House is open to the public. The observation deck offers a 360-degree panorama of Sydney and is a convenient place for photo and video filming.
	Sydney Tower Sydney Tower is the tallest building in the Southern Hemisphere (height 304.8 m). There is an observation deck, rotating shops and restaurants.
	Sydney Opera House Of all the attractions in Australia, the Sydney Opera House attracts the most tourists. The famous sails of the Opera House are a symbol not only of Sydney, but of the whole of Australia. Some consider the Opera House to be a magnificent example of “frozen music”. The architect himself said that he created a sculpture inside which he placed theater rooms. “You will never get tired of it (the building), you will never get tired of it,” he predicted. And he was right - the opera building never ceases to amaze, no matter how much we admire it.
	Sydney Aquarium Sydney Aquarium - A magnificent marine park. Here you can observe strange fish and sea animals in picturesque aquariums or from underwater tunnels, where overhead

Australian economy: industry, foreign trade, agriculture

The Australian economy is a developed Western-style market system. The level of GDP per capita is close to the main Western European countries. The country was ranked third out of 170 in the Human Development Index (HDI) and sixth in quality of life by The Economist (2005). Economic growth continues despite the global economic crisis. One of the main reasons for the success is the economic reforms - privatization, deregulation and tax reform carried out by the Howard government.
Australia hasn't had a recession since the early 1990s. In April 2005, unemployment fell to 5.1%, its lowest level since the 1970s. Unemployment now stands at 4.3%. The services sector, which includes tourism, education and banking, accounts for 69% of GDP. Agriculture and natural resource extraction account for 3% and 5% of GDP, but still account for a significant share of exports. The main buyers of Australian products are South Korea and New Zealand. Many economists are concerned, however, about the large foreign trade deficit.

Energy Australia

Australia is relatively well endowed with energy mineral resources. The country accounts for 8% of the world's coal reserves and 15% of lignite reserves, and Australia's uranium reserves are probably the second largest in the world, behind only the former USSR. Australia's oil resources are limited, but gas resources are plentiful. The use of hydropower resources is possible only in the Snowy Mountains and Tasmania; this source provides 10% of all electricity generated in the country.

Transport Australia

Long distances are the main obstacle that the Australian economy has had to overcome. Sea freight has always been necessary for the movement of heavy bulk cargo, which was predominantly produced in Australia. In the 1995-1996 financial year, Australian ports handled almost 400 million tons of international bulk cargo (of which 70% were iron ore and coal) and 22 million tons of international non-bulk cargo. In terms of the scale of bulk cargo turnover, the leading positions were occupied by the ports of Dampier (iron ore), Port Hedland (iron ore), Newcastle (coal and iron ore) and Hay Point (hard coal). The capitals of all states are located on the coasts and are general cargo ports. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Fremantle (Perth outport) are the largest ports in terms of total cargo turnover. The most significant carrier is the state-owned company Ostrelien National Line, which owned 10 ships in 1996.
The first Australian railway was built in Melbourne in 1854. The uncoordinated construction of different gauge roads by colonial authorities resulted in a system that was inconvenient, expensive and inefficient. The first priority was to convert the national railway system to a single standard gauge. The redevelopment of the Adelaide-Melbourne railway line in 1995 was significant in this regard.
The Australian government saw railways as a means of developing the country. The maximum length - 42,000 km - was reached in 1921. Subsequently, the length of the network was slightly reduced, and in 1996 traffic was supported on state railways with a total length of 33,370 km. In addition, there were also private lines operated mainly by iron ore mining companies, including the 425 km Mount Newman Line and the 390 km Hamersley Line (both in the Pilbara region of Western Australia). The state railway system, long managed separately by different states, was reassigned to the National Railway Corporation in 1991.
Roads are vital for transporting goods and passengers. In 1995, there was one registered vehicle for every 1.65 people. The total length of the road network in 1997 was 803,000 km, but it is unevenly distributed. Only the eastern, south-eastern and south-western regions of the country are sufficiently provided with roads. Only 40% of all roads have a hard surface - asphalt or concrete. Many roads are only roughly graded or little different from trails, while others have gravel or loose stone surfaces. In rural and remote areas, road connections are sometimes disrupted for weeks during the wet season. Currently there is a paved ring road encircling the mainland and a Darwin-Adelaide submeridional road. Australia has a national highway system funded by the federal government. It includes more than 1000 km of toll roads, and in the 1990s the construction of toll roads by private contractors began (especially in the Melbourne area).
The development of air transport in Australia has helped to establish connections with the outside world and within the country. On domestic routes, passenger transportation is provided mainly by Kuontas and Ansett airlines. For decades, the principle of operating two airlines was carried out by the federal government, with one of them (Ansett) being private, and the other (Transostrelien Airlines or Ostrelien Airlines) being public. In addition, the state company Kuontas was engaged in international transportation. In the 1990s, Cuontas and Ostrelien Airlines merged and the combined company, Cuontas, was privatized and now operates both domestic and international flights. In addition, Ansett also began to serve international flights. Domestic lines are now open to competition, but none of the smaller companies can compete with Quontas and Ansett.
There are a total of 428 licensed aircraft arrival and departure sites in Australia, ranging from major international airports to airstrips serving sheep ranches. Thanks to air transport, mail, fresh fruits and vegetables are regularly delivered even to vast, sparsely populated areas of the country, and emergency medical care is also available. Airplanes are also used for planting seeds, fertilizing pastures, and transporting a wide variety of cargo.

Agriculture Australia

From 1795, when the first white settlers became partially self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs, until the end of the Second World War, agriculture, and especially sheep farming, formed the basis of the Australian economy. Although agriculture has lost its leading position as industry has developed, this industry still underlies the country's prosperity. In 1996-1997 it contributed almost 3% of the gross national product and 22% of export earnings.
The expression “Australia rides on the back of a sheep” justified itself for a hundred years - from 1820 to approximately 1920. Using several Spanish Merinos imported from the Cape of Good Hope in 1797, as well as others brought a little later from England, John MacArthur and his wife Elizabeth by Through careful crossbreeding, a new breed was developed - the Australian Merino. The mechanization of the English textile industry created a demand for fine-fiber wool, which Australia was able to satisfy from 1820. In 1850 there were 17.5 million sheep in this country. After 1860, money from Victoria's gold mines was used to expand sheep farming. In 1894, the sheep population exceeded 100 million. In 1970, the sheep population in Australia reached a record high level of 180 million. However, as a result of a sharp drop in wool prices on the world market in 1997, it dropped to 123 million.
In 1974, a proposal was adopted to introduce a lower level of auction prices for wool, and it was successfully in effect until 1991, when the sale of a huge supply of accumulated wool on the “free market” began. As a result, wool prices fell sharply. By that time, more than 4.6 million bales of unsold wool had accumulated in the country. Marketing these stocks, as well as the newly produced wool, has become a challenge for modern Australia. In 1996, 730 thousand tons of wool were produced, but prices dropped by 57% compared to the level of 1988-1989.
While Australian wool has had a market since the early 19th century, there has been no such market for meat for many years. Therefore, old and surplus sheep were slaughtered for skins and lard. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the invention of meat freezing technology in 1879 made it possible to export Australian lamb to England. The successful development of trade stimulated the breeding of new breeds of sheep, which produced meat of better quality than Merino sheep, but somewhat inferior wool. In 1996-1997, Australia produced 583 thousand tons of lamb, of which 205 thousand tons were exported. Over the last decade, the export of live sheep, which were slaughtered after delivery to the destination country, has been established. This product was mainly purchased by Muslim countries of the Middle East. In total, over 5.2 million sheep were exported from Australia in 1996-1997.
Since Australia has no large predators other than dingoes, cattle farming reached a significant scale during the colonial period, especially in drier and more remote areas where it outpaced sheep farming. However, the development of this industry was hampered by the inability to export products and the limited domestic market. The Victoria Gold Rush in the 1850s attracted thousands of people. A significant beef market arose there, which marked the beginning of the development of commercial beef cattle breeding. However, it was not until after 1890, when frozen Australian beef began to enter the English market, that further development of the industry was guaranteed. By that time, most of the continent, which is now used for cattle grazing, had been developed, and the total livestock population had reached approximately 10 million.
In 1997, there were 23.5 million head of beef cattle. Beef and veal production amounted to 1.8 million tons, of which 42% was exported. The opening of the Japanese market was of great importance for the expansion of Australian beef exports. As in sheep farming, the export of live cattle increased significantly during these years - more than 860 thousand heads in 1996-1997.
Australia's dairy farms are concentrated on the southeast coast, where there is sufficient rainfall or irrigation; The most important areas for the development of this industry are the south coast of Victoria, the Murray Valley near Echuca and the border area between Queensland and New South Wales. In 1997, there were 3.1 million head of dairy cattle. The size of this herd has declined since the early 1960s, but thanks to improvements in the composition and quality of pastures, as well as improved farming methods, the volume of dairy production has not decreased. In the 1990s, the number of dairy cattle increased again. This trend is partly due to the industry's successful adaptation to global market conditions following the decision in the mid-1980s that dairy prices should be in line with global prices. Currently, approximately half of Australian dairy products are exported (mainly to the Middle East and Asia) in the form of cheese, milk powder, butter and casein. In the past, dairy production was dependent on government subsidies, but now the industry is becoming increasingly self-sufficient.
Other livestock sectors, such as pig farming, poultry farming and beekeeping, are mainly oriented towards the domestic market, with only a few products being exported.
The cultivation of cereal crops is limited mainly to the eastern and south-eastern peripheral regions of Australia, and to a lesser extent developed in the south-west of Western Australia and Tasmania. After 1950, when 8 million hectares were sown, there was a significant increase in sown areas up to a record level of 22 million hectares in 1984. Subsequently, unfavorable climatic and economic factors led to a reduction in cultivated areas to 17 million hectares in 1991, but then began to expand again - to 19.4 million hectares in 1994.
Fertilizers are necessary to grow grain crops and maintain the functioning of many pastures. In 1995-1996 they were used on an area of ​​28.4 million hectares. Irrigation is playing an increasingly important role for Australian farmers. In 1994, the total area of ​​irrigated land was 2.4 million hectares. Most of these lands were concentrated in the Murray-Darling basin. In 1995-1996, the total value of crop production was AUD 14.7 billion. dollars. The most important among grain crops is wheat, grown in areas with an average annual precipitation of 380-500 mm. It accounts for over half of all sown areas. It is predominantly a winter crop, which is very sensitive to drought. In particular, in 1994-1995, when drought hit New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, the wheat harvest fell to 9 million tons, and two years later in 1996-1997 it almost tripled and reached 23.7 million. T.
Barley and oats are important winter grain crops. They are used as feed for livestock, and are also sown on stubble - such areas often serve as pastures. Australia is one of the world's leading exporters of oats; its collection in 1995-1996 amounted to 1.9 million tons on an area of ​​1.1 million hectares. South Australia is the leader in barley production. Part of the harvest of this crop is used for malt, the rest is used as livestock feed or exported. In 1995-1996, 5.8 million tons of barley were harvested on an area of ​​3.1 million hectares. Among other grain crops, there are corn (used mainly for fodder), sorghum (grown for grain and forage), triticale (a hybrid of rye and wheat), and oilseeds - groundnuts, sunflowers, safflower, rapeseed and soybeans. Canola plantings expanded in the 1990s.
The majority (98%) of rice is grown on irrigated land along the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers (lower valley) in southern New South Wales. Rice plantings are expanding in Queensland. In 1996-1997, the rice harvest amounted to 1.4 million tons on an area of ​​164 thousand hectares.
Sugarcane cultivation is limited to coastal areas in eastern Queensland and northern New South Wales. In 1995-1996, 4.9 million tons of sugar were produced, and most of it was exported. Cotton crops in Australia are confined mainly to irrigated lands. The main cotton-growing areas are the Namoi, Gwydir and Macintyre river valleys in New South Wales and the Burke district. In 1995-1996, 430 thousand tons of cotton fiber were produced (70% of which was exported). Australia meets its needs for short- and medium-staple cotton, but is forced to import long-staple cotton.
Vegetable farming meets Australia's needs and over the last decade the area under vegetables has increased and the range of these crops has expanded. In 1995-1996, vegetable crops occupied 130 thousand hectares. Although most of them for fresh consumption are still grown in small, intensively cultivated suburban farms, the development of transportation has facilitated the establishment of vegetable farms in areas with the most suitable soils and low land costs. The bulk of vegetables for canning and freezing are produced in irrigated areas.
In Australia, the demand for fruits and grapes is abundantly satisfied, but nuts and olives have to be imported. In terms of productivity, the irrigated lands along the valleys of the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers are most prominent, supplying grapes, citrus fruits and a variety of stone fruits, such as peaches, cherries and apricots. The main fruit exports are raisins, oranges, pears and apples. Tropical fruits such as pineapples, bananas, papayas, mangoes, macadamas and granadillas are grown in the belt between Coffs Harbor (New South Wales) and Cairns (Queensland) on the country's east coast.
Grapes are used in winemaking and for consumption in dried and fresh form. In 1995-1996, vineyards occupied an area of ​​80 thousand hectares. In recent years, wine production has increased and a significant part of it (more than 25%) has been exported. Australian wines are very diverse. In 1994, there were 780 wineries operating in the country. However, 80% of all production came from the four largest wine companies.
Forestry. Australia is poorly supplied with good timber. Only 20% of the country's area is covered by primary forests, with 72% of the forests located on public lands and the rest on private lands. Almost three-quarters of the forests are occupied by eucalyptus stands. Few species are suitable for wood pulp, the exceptions being rowan in Gippsland and curry in Western Australia. Local softwood species have particularly specific uses. To reduce the shortage, exotic softwood trees, predominantly the stately New Zealand pine, were planted on an area of ​​about 1 million hectares. However, Australia must import timber, mainly softwood, from Canada and the USA. In turn, Australia exports timber harvested in Tasmania and New South Wales.
Fisheries. Fishing is confined mainly to the southern and eastern parts of the shelf. It expanded greatly in the 1990s, with a significant portion of the catch being exported - mainly lobsters and shrimp to Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan. The total value of exported seafood in 1995-1996 exceeded 1 billion Australian dollars. dollars. In the same year, a total of 214 thousand tons of seafood were produced, of which the most important types of fish were bluefin tuna, Australian salmon, mullet and shark, and among crustaceans - shrimp and lobsters. Shrimp production amounted to 27.5 thousand tons, and lobster - 15.6 thousand tons. Prawn fishing is carried out by trawlers in the Gulf of Carpentaria, and lobsters are caught in many areas along the southern coast of Australia. The oyster and scallop fishery is focused primarily on the domestic market.
Since the early 1980s, aquaculture has begun to expand, and is now one of the fastest growing sectors of the fisheries industry. Currently, the main objects of this industry are oysters, tuna, salmon, shrimp and scallops. The cost of its production in 1995-1996 was 338 million Australian dollars. dollars, or twice as much as six years ago. The once prosperous pearl fishery has now almost ceased, but cultured pearl farms have been established in several (at least ten) places on the northern coast and provide considerable income. Rivers and streams in the mountains of Eastern Australia provide excellent trout fishing opportunities.

Manufacturing industry in Australia

The development of the manufacturing industry in Australia was greatly facilitated by the reduction in imports during the Second World War. The expansion of this industry continued in the 1950s and 1960s, and employment there increased by 70%. Manufacturing employment growth stalled in the 1970s, a trend that continues today. However, the manufacturing industry now accounts for approx. 14% of GDP, i.e. much less than 20 years ago, when this industry contributed 20% of GDP. At the end of the 1970s, approximately 1.2 million people were employed in the manufacturing industry, and in 1996 - approx. 925 thousand people, or 13% of the amateur population.

Mining industry in Australia

Mining in Australia has expanded over the past 40 years and the country is now a major supplier of minerals to the world market. Australia leads other countries in the production of bauxite, diamonds, lead and zircon and in the export of coal, iron ore, bauxite, lead, diamonds and zinc. Australia is the world's second largest exporter of bauxite and uranium and the third largest exporter of gold and aluminum. The largest mining industry is coal, with coal accounting for 10% of Australian exports. Overall, in 1995-1996, the mining industry contributed 4% of Australia's GDP, and its products accounted for 22% of exports. In addition to coal, iron ore, oil, copper, zinc ores and uranium were exported from Australia.
In the past, the most important mineral resource was gold. In 1851-1865, deposits in the states of Victoria and New South Wales, where gold was first discovered, annually produced an average of 70.8 tons of this noble metal. Gold deposits were later discovered in Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. Currently, gold is mined in many areas of the country, but mainly in Western Australia. In total, 264 tons of gold were mined in 1995-1996, with 78% in Western Australia, where the richest Kalgoorlie deposit stands out.
Since 1950, mineral exploration has expanded. The 1960s saw important discoveries, particularly in Western Australia's Precambrian shield and sedimentary basins. The result was the first huge mining boom since the gold rush of the 1850s. This campaign was financed from the capital of Japan, the USA, and Australia itself. The most active activity took place in Western Australia, especially in iron ore mining.
At one time, the export of iron ore was prohibited, as it was believed that its reserves in the country were limited. This policy was radically changed after huge deposits of this ore were discovered in 1964 in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. In 1995-1996, 137.3 million tons of iron ore were mined in Australia, 92% of which were exported. The main deposits are located in Western Australia - Mount Hamersley, Newman and Goldsworthy. Other deposits are Tallering Peak, Kulanuka and Kulyanobbing.
Australia has extensive reserves of bauxite, the main raw material for aluminum production, and since 1985 the country has produced at least 40% of the world's bauxite production. Bauxite was first discovered in 1952 on the Gove Peninsula (Northern Territory), and in 1955 in Weipa (Queensland). There are also deposits in Western Australia - in the Darling Range southeast of Perth and on the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley region; In all but the last one, development has begun. In 1995-1996, 50.7 million tons of bauxite were mined. Some bauxite is used to produce alumina, while the other part is processed into aluminum. Bauxite from the Weipa deposit is sent to Gladstone, where alumina is produced. Similar enrichment plants operate in Gove (Northern Territory); Queenan and Pinjarra (Western Australia) and Bell Bay (Tasmania). In 1995-1996, alumina production in Australia amounted to 13.3 million tons, most of it is exported. At the same time, Australian enterprises produced 1.3 million tons of aluminum through electrolysis.
The coalfields near Newcastle had been exploited since 1800, and coal was one of Australia's earliest exports. Anthracite and semi-anthracite coals are rare, but reserves of other types of coal are large. The main deposits of bituminous (coking and steam) coals are located in the Bowen basin (in Queensland) and Sydney (in New South Wales); some seams reach thicknesses of more than 18 m and can be mined by open-pit mining (especially in the Bowen Basin). It was such coals, particularly from the Queensland deposits located near Collinsville, Moura, Blair Athol and Bridgewater, that revived the Australian coal industry. Japan, the main importer of Australian coal, has invested heavily in coal mining in the Bowen Basin, where several new mines have been opened. In 1995-1996, 194 million tons of coal were mined in Australia (about half in Queensland and the same in New South Wales), 140 million tons of coal were exported (43% to Japan, 13% to Korea and 7% to Taiwan) . Currently, Australia is the leading supplier of coal to the world market.
Coking coal for the iron and steel industry is mined from deposits near Newcastle and Wollongong. Sub-bituminous coals are mined in the Ipswich and Cullaid areas of Queensland, Leigh Creek in South Australia and Fingal in Tasmania. Western Australia's main deposit is located at Collie, 320 km south of Perth. The Latrobe Valley in Victoria is home to large brown coal deposits: three main seams there are mined by highly mechanized open pit mining; Most coal is used in local thermal power stations to power southern Victoria. Other brown coal deposits are located west of Melbourne - in Anglesey and Bacchus Marsh. Large deposits of brown coal have been discovered: Kingston in the south-east of South Australia, Esperance in Western Australia and Rosevale in Tasmania.
Because the coal industry is so important economically, including for power generation, exports and employment issues, Australia long resisted implementing the UN resolution adopted at the Kyoto Climate Change Conference in December 1997. It eventually agreed to significantly reduce 2010 emissions of carbon-containing gases.
A government-sponsored petroleum exploration program that began in the 1950s has led to the clear identification of at least 20 sedimentary basins; Of these, nine are currently producing oil. The most important deposits are in the regions of Gippsland (Victoria), Carnarvon (Western Australia), Bonaparte (Northern Territory and Western Australia) and Cooper-Eromanga (South Australia and Queensland). In 1995-1996, 30 billion liters of oil were produced, incl. nearly half are from the Gippsland Basin. Australia has almost reached the level of self-sufficiency in petroleum products; exports of crude oil and condensate in 1994-1995 amounted to 35 million liters, and imports - 77 million liters, which is much less than the level of local production.
Natural gas, first discovered in the Roma region of Queensland in 1904, was of only local importance until 1961. In 1995-1996, almost 30 billion cubic meters were produced in Australia. m of gas, mainly from fields in the Gippsland region and the shelf off the north-west coast, with the latter region accounting for over half and being exported. All state capitals and many other cities are connected by pipelines to gas fields. Brisbane receives gas from the Roma-Surat fields; Sydney, Canberra and Adelaide from the Cooper-Eromanga Basin; Melbourne - from the Gippsland shelf; Perth - from the Dongara-Mandara fields and the shelf off the north-west coast; Darwin - from the Amadius Basin deposits.
Australia is gradually expanding its production of liquefied petroleum gas. In 1995-1996, 3.6 billion liters of this gas was produced, including 62% from fields in Bass Strait and 25% from the Cooper Basin.
Australia is a major producer of lead, which is often found together with. The most important mining area for these metals is Mount Isa - Cloncurry in western Queensland, from where the ore is supplied to processing plants in Mount Isa and Townsville. Older but still significant mining areas for these metals are Zean Dundas in Tasmania (since 1882) and Broken Hill in western New South Wales (since 1883). In terms of metal content, 774 thousand tons of lead ore were mined in 1995-1996. In the same year, 1.3 million tons of zinc were mined. The Mount Isa-Cloncurry area is also a major hotspot. The metal was first mined in the Kapanda-Barra region of South Australia in the 1840s. In 1991, Australia produced 1.3 million tons of copper in terms of copper concentrate.
Australia became a major producer after the metal was discovered in 1966 at Kambalda, south of the Kalgoorlie gold district in Western Australia. In 1991, 65.4 thousand tons of nickel were mined. After the discovery of diamond deposits in the north-east of Western Australia in 1979, Australia became the main producer. Diamond mining at the Argyle mine began in 1983, and it is now considered one of the largest in the world. Most of the diamonds mined are of industrial importance. In 1995-1996 Australia exported almost 7200 kg of diamonds. Significant quantities of opals and sapphires are also mined. The Coober Pedy, Andamooka and Mintabe mines in South Australia produce most of the world's precious opals; in New South Wales there are the Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs deposits. Sapphires are mined near Glen Innes and Inverell in New South Wales and Anakie in Queensland.
Australia has most of the world's reserves of rutile, zircon and thorium, contained in sands along the country's east coast between Stradbroke Island (Queensland) and Byron Bay (New South Wales) and on the Western Australian coast at Capel. In 1995-1996, 2.5 million tons of sands containing these minerals were mined. Manganese ore production far exceeds the country's needs, and most of the total production is exported. All manganese comes from Groot Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Australia has been a major supplier of tungsten in the past, and much of its production is still exported. Tungsten mines are located in north-east Tasmania and on King Island.
Australia owns 30% of the world's reserves of cheap uranium raw materials. The Labor government in power, guided by safety concerns, limited uranium production to two mines. Development of the Ranger-Nabarlek deposits near Jabiru in the Northern Territory began in 1979, and the Olympic Dam deposits in South Australia in 1988. In 1995-1996, 3.2 thousand tons were produced in the first area, and 1.85 thousand in the second. t. The coalition government that came to power in 1996 lifted restrictions on uranium mining. The Jabiluka mine in the Northern Territory has received government approval and the Beverley mine in South Australia is planned, although both projects face opposition from environmental groups.
Salt is produced by evaporation of sea water, as well as the waters of salt lakes. Four large plants of this kind, located in Western Australia (Dampier, Lake McLeod, Port Hedland and Shark Bay), produce almost 80% of the country's salt. Most of it is exported to Japan, where it is used in the chemical industry. For the domestic market, salt is produced in small factories located primarily in South Australia, Victoria and Queensland.

Australia's foreign trade

Australia has always depended on overseas markets for the produce of its ranches, farms, mines and, more recently, manufacturing plants. In 1996-1997, the value of exports amounted to almost AUD 79 billion. dollars, including finished products - 61.4%, mineral raw materials - 22.7% and agricultural products - 13.6%. In the same year, 75% of Australia's exports went to countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The main buyer of Australian goods was Japan (19% of export value), followed by South Korea (9%), New Zealand (8%), USA (7%), Taiwan (4.6%), China (4.5%) , Singapore (4.3%), Indonesia (4.2%) and Hong Kong (3.9%), while the UK accounted for only 3%.
Australia's trade balance in 1995-1996 was generally characterized by a slight deficit: exports - 78.885 billion Australian dollars. dollars, imports - 78.997 billion Australian dollars. dollars. The main imports were computers, airplanes, cars, chemical products (including oil), telecommunications equipment, medicines, clothing, shoes and paper. Australia's trade balance with different countries has developed differently. For example, there was a surplus with Japan (exports AUD 15.3 billion and imports AUD 10.2 billion), and a large deficit with the United States (exports AUD 5.5 billion). , and imports - 17.6 billion Australian dollars). In addition, there were surpluses with South Korea, New Zealand, Hong Kong (Hong Kong), Indonesia, Iran and South Africa and significant trade deficits with the UK, etc.
Economic ties between Australia and the United States have attracted particular attention. Australia is considered an active ally of the United States, but in terms of foreign trade the balance is not in favor of Australia - just as in trade between the United States and Japan, the latter wins (which in turn is inferior to Australia). Australia and the US are competitors in the export of some goods, such as grain. Government subsidies provided to American farmers who produce export products are seen in Australia as unfair competition.
Despite its relatively balanced foreign trade performance, Australia has a chronic deficit problem in its overall international balance sheet. This can be explained by successive deficits arising from non-trade factors such as interest payments on foreign loans, dividends to foreign investors, insurance costs and ship charter costs. In the 1996-1997 financial year, Australia's "current account deficit" reached AUD 17.5 billion. dollars, or 3.4% of GDP, which is much less than the level of 1994-1995, when it was 27.5 billion Australian dollars. dollars, or 6% of GDP.
In the 1996-1997 financial year, Australia's entire external debt was estimated at AUD 288 billion. dollars. Taking into account the value of Australian investments abroad (excluding shares), Australia's net external debt was AUD 204 billion. dollars. A country's overall international investment position can be determined by adding this external debt to its net investment in equities. In 1996-1997, Australia's gross liabilities in foreign shares amounted to AUD 217 billion. dollars, and the net liability for foreign shares is AUD 105 billion. Overall, Australia's international investment position, taking into account debt and equities, was characterized by a deficit of AUD 309 billion. Doll.
Australia's economy has always been heavily dependent on foreign investment. With the government's continued market orientation, a healthy economy and large-scale development projects, the influx of foreign capital continued. In the 1996-1997 financial year, total foreign investment amounted to AUD 217 billion. dollars, and the volume of Australian capital investments abroad is 173 billion Australian dollars. dollars Overall approx. 29% of the shares of Australian companies were owned by foreigners, and in private trading companies this figure reached 44%. The participation of foreign capital in the mining industry is especially high.
Throughout the 20th century. Australia tried to protect its industry by imposing tariffs on imported goods, while at the same time trying to establish free exports of goods. Since the early 1970s, customs duties have been sharply reduced, which has significantly affected production and employment in a number of sectors of the economy, for example, in the manufacturing industry - in the production of cars, clothing and footwear. As a result of these policies, Australia's economy has become more competitive and the share of manufactured goods in exports has increased significantly. Thanks to a more stable economic structure, Australia was able to overcome the severe shocks that erupted in the Asia-Pacific region by the end of 1998 without much loss. Australia has strengthened its position in the so-called. Cairns Group of Trading Partners and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, championing the principle of free trade. In the late 1990s, the Australian government, concerned about high unemployment and the reluctance of other Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation partners to continue the policy of reducing customs duties, itself introduced a moratorium on further reductions in duties until 2004.
Money circulation and banking. Australia has adopted a decimal monetary system since 1966. The Australian dollar is issued by the Reserve Bank of Australia, which regulates interest rates and controls the financial system. In recent years, regulation of the banking sector has gradually weakened. For example, since 1983 foreign banks have been allowed to operate in Australia, and fundamental differences between different types of banks and between banks and other financial institutions such as life insurance companies, building societies and superannuation funds have gradually been reduced or eliminated. As of June 1996, there were 50 Australian and foreign banks operating in the country, with more than 6.5 thousand branches. The four largest Australian banks - National Australia Bank, Union Bank of Australia, Westpac Banking Corporation and the Australian and New Zealand Banking Group - control more than half of all banking assets. The merger of these four large banks is prohibited by the government, which seeks to ensure the competitiveness of the banking sector.

Australian public finance

Despite the federal principle of government, which initially gave states significant financial autonomy, the dominant factor in Australia's public finance system is the federal government. In the 1995-1996 fiscal year, for example, the national government increased its share of public sector revenue by 73%, and its own expenditures (excluding subsidies to other government agencies) amounted to ca. 55% of total public sector expenditure. The draft federal budget for the 1998-1999 financial year provides for revenues of AUD 144.3 billion. dollars, of which 2.5% comes from tax revenues, and expenses in the amount of AUD 141.6 billion. dollars, which will amount to a budget surplus of AUD 2.7 billion. dollars. The main areas of budget expenditures are social insurance and social assistance (38% of total expenditures), healthcare (16%), defense (7%) and education (4%).
The surplus envisaged in the draft budget should end the 7-year period of budget deficit, which came after the Labor government managed to achieve a budget surplus for 4 years in a row (from 1987-1988 to 1990-1991). It is assumed that the country will have a deficit-free budget for the foreseeable future. As a result, within four years, the size of domestic public debt (statistics of which do not include indicators of state-owned business enterprises) should be reduced to zero. For comparison: in the 1995-1996 financial year, the amount of public debt reached its peak and amounted to 95.8 billion Australian dollars. dollars, or 19.5% of GDP. Total state and territory government revenues in 1995-1996 were AUD 74.4 billion. About 46% of this amount was received in the form of subsidies from the federal government, the rest was received in the form of payroll taxes, property taxes, financial transaction taxes and sales taxes. The main items of expenditure for state and territory governments are education (31% of expenditure), health care (20%), debt repayment (15%), police and security services (9%).
Tax system. In the taxation system, the most important place is occupied by income tax. Although overall tax levels in Australia are significantly lower than in other advanced industrial countries, income tax rates are quite high. In 1995-1996, income tax accounted for over 60% of taxes collected at all levels (with personal income tax accounting for 40%, and legal entities 13%). Individual income is calculated on a progressive scale, starting with a minimum rate of 20% levied on income that exceeds the tax-free annual income of AUD 5,400. dollars, and up to a maximum rate of 47% on income exceeding 50 thousand Australian dollars. dollars (data as of 1997-1998). Over the past decades, there has been a gradual reduction in the maximum income tax rate, which was previously 60%.
Property and estate taxes are relatively small, totaling 5% of total tax revenue, and there is no inheritance tax (inheritance tax was abolished in the 1970s). GST in 1995-1996 was approx. 23% of total tax revenues, which is slightly less compared to other industrialized countries, but the taxation mechanism in this area is quite complex. The federal government collects wholesale sales tax at varying rates (12% on some goods, 22% on others, and 32% on “luxury goods”). There is also a 37% wholesale sales tax on beer and spirits, a 41% tax on wine and a 45% tax on luxury cars. Food, clothing, building materials, books, magazines and newspapers, and medicines are not taxed. In addition, there is a federal excise tax on oil and some agricultural products. Until 1997, taxes and excise taxes were also levied on gasoline, alcoholic beverages and tobacco products, which were legally interpreted as taxes on franchises and working capital. In August 1997, the High Court ruled that these taxes were unconstitutional and violated the state monopoly on excise taxes, so measures were quickly taken to transfer these taxes to the category of state taxes that go to state budgets.
In 1985, the then Labor government supported the idea of ​​a simple and comprehensive consumption tax, but then had to withdraw the proposal under pressure from welfare advocates and trade unions who feared the regressive effects of the new tax mechanism. The proposal to introduce a flat goods and services tax (GST) was included in the radical platform of the Liberal National opposition in the 1993 elections, but the obvious unpopularity of this proposal was widely recognized as the reason for the defeat of the opposition coalition. However, in 1996, the same opposition coalition led by John Howard defeated Labor even though its program included the same unpopular thesis about the introduction of GST. At the same time, the Howard government promised that if it was re-elected in 1998, it would not only reduce the income tax rate (which was supposed to form the basis of the budget surplus planned by the government), but at the same time introduce a 10% GST on all goods and services (except for institutions health, education and kindergartens). With this tax reform program the Howard government won the election. However, the fate of the project to introduce GST remains unclear, since the government does not have a majority in the Senate. It is likely that if food is also excluded from the tax base, the GST will be supported by senators from minor parties and come into force in 2000.

Australian tax revenue distribution

The states that formed the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 became not only self-financing, but also self-governing entities. As the federal government strengthened and expanded its participation in the development and implementation of public financial policy (for example, a national pension program was adopted in 1908), it began to collect taxes that had previously been the prerogative of state governments (land tax, funeral duty, income tax and etc.), and compete with states in the field of capital construction lending.
At the dawn of the Union, a number of once most important revenue items in state budgets - taxes on public utilities, public transport and sold-off lands of the British crown - gradually lost their economic importance. On the other hand, the constitutional transfer of "customs and excise duties" to the federal government limited the ability of states to levy taxes in these areas. Although the transfer of these payments to the federal level was intended to stimulate domestic trade between states and establish uniform tariffs on imports, it gave impetus to the emergence of “vertical budget imbalances”, in which the amount of federal government revenue invariably exceeds the amount of its real expenditures and, accordingly, the states actually spend significantly more money than they are able to receive in taxes. As for “excise taxes,” the High Court insisted on a fairly broad interpretation of them, which deprived state budgets of many potential sources of revenue in the form of sales tax, consumption tax, and penalties and left states with a rather narrow tax base.
Throughout the 1920s, states had difficulty meeting their obligations to repay debts and pay interest on previous loans, causing them to run budget deficits. In 1927, a special mechanism was developed to coordinate government borrowing programs and eliminate competition between the federal center and states in the field of borrowing within the framework of a financial agreement between the states and the federal government, according to which a borrowing council was formed. All government borrowing (except for defense) now had to be made in agreement with a borrowing board, which included one representative from each state and central government. The federal government received two advisory votes and one casting vote on the council, so the government needed to enlist the support of two more states to make favorable decisions. But even without these additional votes, the federal government's financial superiority in other areas of the economy allowed it to consistently exert a decisive influence on the borrowing council's decisions. In 1928, the financial agreement received constitutional justification in a referendum that approved the inclusion of Article 105A in the constitution.
Finally, when the federal government managed to monopolize income tax collection in the 1940s, its financial power was firmly established. In the early 1940s, income taxes became a major source of government revenue, with income tax rates varying widely among states. During World War II, the federal government, ostensibly in an effort to find efficient and fair ways to raise budget revenues, proposed that states waive direct taxes for the duration of the war (in exchange for federal compensation payments) so that uniform tax rates could be established throughout the country. . But the state premiers did not agree with this proposal, and then in 1941 the federal parliament passed a law obliging the states to adopt the new scheme. As a result, states gained the right to compensatory transfers for lost revenues, but only on the condition that they did not impose their own income taxes. A number of states challenged the flat tax law, but in 1942 the High Court upheld it. In 1946, the federal parliament again passed the same law to maintain a single tax in peacetime (in 1957 this law was also upheld by the High Court). However, the federal government had no legal grounds to prevent states from imposing local income taxes. However, the practical effect of the new legislation was that the federal government secured a monopoly on the collection of income taxes, since imposing an income tax on a state would automatically deprive it of federal transfers and could result in “double taxation” in that state.
This tax system finally strengthened the financial basis of Australian federalism. Currently, income taxes are levied by the central government. The federal budget for 1998-1999 provides for the collection of income taxes in the amount of AUD 99 billion. dollars - of which 76% falls on individuals, 23% on legal entities. Another 15 billion AUD. dollars should come to the budget from the tax on wholesale sales and 14 billion Australian dollars. dollars - from excise taxes on petroleum products, etc.
In 1971, the vertical fiscal imbalance was partially corrected when the federal government gave states the right to levy a payroll tax (in exchange for a reduction in the general purpose transfer, although the states immediately legislated tax rates to increase and benefited from this reform). . The payroll tax has become the most important source of revenue for state budgets, being directly linked to the rate of economic growth. However, this tax is considered too burdensome for businesses, as it inhibits investment and employment.
In practice, the vertical budget imbalance is determined by the federal center, which returns budget funds to the states in the form of transfers (subsidies). The Union government makes proposals for next year's draft budget at the annual conference of state premiers. Heads of state governments participate in this partly ritual, partly competitive forum, making amendments and entering into special agreements with the government. At different stages of the country's modern history, the federal center was viewed by the states as either a generous or a tight-fisted creditor, although it must be recognized that the degree of generosity of the Union government invariably depended on the general guidelines of its economic strategy. Thus, in the first years after the war, budget revenues due to increased tax collection served as powerful financial support for strengthening the federal government. At the same time, the size of compensatory transfers to states was constantly decreasing.
The system of vertical budget imbalance also has its supporters. The country has a centralized and generally effective system for collecting income taxes, and the federal center's authority to determine the amount of government spending and borrowing, in turn, provides it with the ability to effectively manage the country's economy as a whole. On the other hand, it is argued that budget imbalances significantly disrupt the interdependence between government spending programs and the execution of budget revenues. According to opponents of the existing system, not only does this imbalance not contribute to the direct linking of decisions on public spending with responsibility for the execution of the budget revenues, but the social and financial responsibility of government structures is blurred.
State governments are, in principle, able to increase their budget revenues through local taxes. In the past, the central government has given states the option - notably in 1952 and 1977 - to take over some income tax collection functions. However, the states did not want to use the powers they received. When some local payments and taxes are increased, other taxes are simultaneously reduced or even eliminated. Thus, in most states the inheritance tax was abolished, land tax breaks were introduced, and in 1977 none of the states took advantage of the opportunity to introduce an income tax surcharge.
The Howard government promised that all income generated by the introduction of GST would be redistributed to the states. This measure should provide states with more accurately projected budget revenues, although it is unlikely to reduce vertical budget imbalances.
In the past, most federal grants to states were distributed as “untied” general purpose payments (called financial aid grants in the 1990s), allowing states to use the funds as they saw fit. Article 96 of the constitution states that the federal government “may provide financial assistance to any state on such terms and conditions as the federal parliament may deem acceptable.” And according to the decision of the High Court, the federal center, when allocating financial assistance to the states under certain conditions, has the right to determine among these conditions those that may relate to powers not transferred to the federal center under the constitution.
The first tax-sharing legislation of the 1940s required that federal reimbursement of income taxes collected from the states be made in the form of "decoupled" payments so that the states could dispose of them as freely as they had previously handled tax revenues. local income taxes. Since the late 1940s, however, the federal government has repeatedly increased the share of “tied” (i.e., targeted) payments, which now account for about half of all federal transfers.
Ten years after the formation of the Commonwealth of Australia, the federal government became a reliable source of financial assistance to states that had previously experienced severe financial difficulties. In 1933, when the practice of issuing government grants was firmly established, the central government created a permanent special body - the grant commission - to determine the amount and form of financial assistance to the states