Thomas Aquinas and his ideas. Thomas Aquinas doctrine of man - abstract

Thomas Aquinas (otherwise Thomas Aquinas, Thomas Aquinas, Thomas Aquinas, 1225, Roccasecca Castle, near Aquino - died March 7, 1274, Fossanuova Monastery, near Rome) - philosopher and theologian, systematizer of Orthodox scholasticism, church teacher, founder of Thomism, member of the Dominican Order .

Since 1879, he has been recognized as the most authoritative Catholic religious philosopher who connected Christian doctrine (in particular, the ideas of Augustine) with the philosophy of Aristotle. Formulated five proofs of the existence of God. Recognizing the relative independence of natural being and human reason, he argued that nature ends in grace, reason in faith, philosophical knowledge and natural theology, based on the analogy of existence, in supernatural revelation.

Thomas was born at Roccasecca Castle near Naples and was the seventh son of Count Landolf Aquinas. Thomas' mother Theodora came from a wealthy Neapolitan family. His father dreamed that he would eventually become the abbot of the Benedictine monastery of Montecassino, located not far from their family castle. At the age of five, Thomas was sent to a Benedictine monastery, where he stayed for nine years. In 1239-1243 he studied at the University of Naples. There he became close to the Dominicans and decided to join the Dominican order. However, the family opposed his decision, and his brothers imprisoned Thomas for two years in the fortress of San Giovani. Having gained freedom in 1245, he took monastic vows of the Dominican Order and went to the University of Paris. There Aquinas became a student of Albertus Magnus. In 1248-1250, Thomas studied at the University of Cologne, where he moved following his teacher.

In 1252 he returned to the Dominican monastery of St. James in Paris, and four years later was appointed to one of the Dominican positions as a teacher of theology at the University of Paris. Here he writes his first works - “On Essence and Existence”, “On the Principles of Nature”.

In 1259, Pope Urban IV summoned him to Rome. For ten years he taught theology in Italy - in Anagni and Rome, while writing philosophical and theological works. He spent most of this time as a theological adviser and “reader” to the papal curia.

In 1269 he returned to Paris, where he led the fight for the “purification” of Aristotle from Arab interpreters and against the scientist Siger of Brabant. The treatise “On the Unity of the Intellect against the Averroists” (Latin: De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas), written in a sharp polemical form, dates back to 1272. In the same year he was recalled to Italy to establish a new school of Dominicans in Naples.

Malaise forced him to interrupt teaching and writing towards the end of 1273. At the beginning of 1274, he died in the monastery of Fossanova on the way to the church council in Lyon.

Books (9)

Sum against the pagans. Book 1

The first book contains the doctrine of God.

Sum against the pagans. Book 2

The Summa Contra Gentiles is the second major systematic work of Saint Thomas Aquinas, an outstanding theologian and philosopher of the medieval West.

In total, Aquinas wrote three works of this kind. His first systematic presentation of the Christian teaching about God and the world - “Commentaries on the Sentences of Peter of Lombardy” - can be considered preliminary, and the third, most developed system - “Summa Theology” - remained unfinished. The four volumes of the Summa against the Pagans are a complete, complete exposition of Aquinas’s entire system of theology and philosophy.

In the second - the doctrine of creation: about the world and man.

Sum of Theology. Part 1. Questions 1-43

“Summa Theologica” (Summa Theologica) is one of the most famous works in the history of philosophy, the main work of the great Christian philosopher and theologian, the greatest scholastic and metaphysician St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), whose theology - according to Gilson’s apt definition - is the theology of the philosopher , and philosophy is the philosophy of a Christian saint.

The entire “Summa...” consists of three parts (the second, the largest, is divided into two more): the first part deals with God and His acts, or, as Aquinas himself said, “about the Prototype”; in the second, dedicated to “His likeness”, i.e. to a person, questions of ethics (“formal” and “material” are raised); the third - unfinished - talks about the Savior and the ways of salvation.

The book is a series of treatises, but the basis of the division is “questions” (in total there are 512 of them in Thomas’s “Summa ...", although in the so-called complete edition there are a hundred more questions; in order to exhaust all the provisions announced by Thomas in the third part, the work completed Aquinas's friend and secretary Reginald Pipernsky, using for this both a number of sketches for the “Summa ...” left by Thomas, and excerpts from his other, earlier works). Questions, in turn, consist of “sections”. The structure of "sections", which may seem somewhat unusual, was in fact quite common in Thomas's time and reflects the form of university debates. Thus, after announcing the topic, the opinions (“objections”) of Thomas’s opponents are first stated (existing judgments that the author intends to refute), then an opinion contradicting these “objections” is given, which, however, does not seem sufficiently convincing or exhaustive to Aquinas, and only then ( after the word “I answer”) the author’s own solution to the problem is stated, including refutations of the “objections.”

This book presents questions about the essence and attributes of God (the first 43 questions out of 119 that make up the first section of the “Summa...”). The second book will include questions dedicated to the act of Creation and angels, the third - questions dedicated to man and Providence.

Sum of Theology. Part 1. Questions 44-74

This book includes the 2nd volume of the 1st part of the Summa Theologica.

The volume consists of three treatises, respectively dedicated to Creation as such, to angels (here it is appropriate to remember that Thomas was recognized not just as a Doctor, i.e. an outstanding scientist of the Church, but as a Doctor “Angelic”, i.e. the greatest authority in the field of angelology ) and the works of the six days of Creation.

Sum of Theology. Part 1. Questions 75-119

This book is the 3rd and last volume of the 1st part of the “Summa Theology” - the main work of the famous philosopher and theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and includes two treatises, namely a treatise on man (questions 75-102) and a treatise on the conservation and government of creation (questions 103-119).

Sum of Theology. Part 2-1. Questions 1-48

This volume opens the most extensive - the second part of the Summa Theologica, which is more than twice as large as the first part. The second part as a whole is devoted to a detailed examination of the “image and likeness of God,” i.e., man. It, in turn, is usually divided into two more, namely part 2-1 and part 2-2.

Topic: “Thomas Aquinas: doctrine of man.”

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3 pages.

1.Biography of Thomas Aquinas……………………………………………………….…..4 pp.

2. Historical and philosophical origins……………………………..………..….6 p.

3. The ideas of Thomas Aquinas……………………………………..………......7 pp.

4. Works of Thomas Aquinas…………………………………………......8 pp.

5. The doctrine of man………………………………………………………..9 p.

Conclusion……………………………………………………………11 p.

List of used literature………………………...………………...12 pages.

INTRODUCTION

As part of my test, I will try to briefly talk about one of the largest scholastic philosophers of the Western European Middle Ages - Thomas Aquinas, about some specific provisions of the theocentric worldview that he developed and about its significance in philosophy.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas did not immediately gain universal recognition among the scholastic movements of the Middle Ages. Thomas Aquinas had opponents in the Dominican Order, among some members of the clergy, the Latin Averroists. However, despite the initial attacks, from the 14th century. Thomas becomes the highest authority of the church, which recognizes his doctrine as its official philosophy.

1. BIOGRAPHY OF THOMAS AQUINAS

Thomas Aquinas (otherwise Thomas Aquinas or Thomas Aquinas, lat. Thomas Aquinas) is the most prominent and influential scholastic philosopher of the Western European Middle Ages. Thomas's homeland was Italy. Born at the end of 1225. or early 1226 in the castle of Rocolleca, near Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. Thomas's father, Count Landolf, was a prominent Italian feudal lord in Aquino. Mother, Theodora, came from a wealthy Neapolitan family. In the 5th year of his life, Thomas was assigned to study at the Benedictine monastery in Monte Cassino, where he spent about 9 years, going through classical school, from which he learned excellent knowledge of the Latin language. In 1239 he returned to his home, taking off his monastic robe. In the autumn of the same year, he went to Naples, where he studied at the university under the guidance of mentors Martin and Peter of Ireland. In 1244, Thomas decided to join the Dominican order, refusing the position of abbot of Monte Cassino, which caused a strong protest from the family. Having taken monastic vows, he spends several months in a monastery in Naples. Here it was decided to send him to the University of Paris, which was at that time the center of Catholic thought. On the way to Paris, he was captured by a group of horsemen - his brothers and was returned to his father's castle and here, for preventive purposes, he was imprisoned in a tower. where he stayed for over a year. Subsequently, the family, without neglecting any means, tries to force their son to abandon his decision. But seeing that he was not inclined, she resigned herself and in 1245 he went to Paris. During his stay at the University of Paris (1245-1248), he listened to the lectures of his teacher Albert Bolstedt, later nicknamed Albert the Great, who had a huge influence on him. Together with Albert, Foma also spent 4 years at the University of Kelm; during classes, Foma did not show much activity and rarely took part in debates, for which his colleagues nicknamed him the Dumb Bull. In 1252 he returns to the University of Paris, where he successively goes through all the steps necessary to obtain the degree of master of theology and licentiate, after which he teaches theology in Paris until 1259. A number of his theological works and commentaries on the Holy Scriptures were published here, and he began work on the “Philosophical Summa.” In 1259 Pope Urban IV summoned him to Rome, where his stay lasted until 1268. The appearance of Thomas at the papal court was not accidental. The Roman Curia saw in him a person who was to perform important work for the church, namely, to give an interpretation of Aristotelianism in the spirit of Catholicism. Here Thomas completes the “Philosophical Summa” (1259-1269) begun in Paris, writes works, and also begins work on the main work of his life - “Theological Summa”. In the autumn of 1269 At the direction of the Roman Curia, Thomas goes to Paris, leads a fierce struggle against the Latin Averroists and their leader Siger of Brabant, as well as polemics against conservative Catholic theologians who still wanted to adhere only to the principles of Augustinianism. In this dispute, he took his own position, speaking out against both those and other Augustians, he reproached them for conservatism and rejection of new ideas. The philosophical views of the Averroists undermined the foundations of the Christian Catholic faith, the defense of which became the main meaning of Aquinas’s entire life. In 1272 Thomas was returned to Italy. He teaches theology in Naples, where he continues to work on the "Theological Summa", which he completes in 1273. Thomas is the author of a number of other works, as well as commentaries on the works of Aristotle and other philosophers. After 2 years, Aquinas leaves Naples to take part in the council convened by Pope Gregory X, which took place in Lyon. During the trip he became seriously ill and died on March 7, 1274. in the Bernardine monastery in Fossanuova. After his death, he was given the title "angelic doctor." In 1323, during the pontificate of Pope John XXII, Thomas was canonized, and in 1567. recognized as the fifth "teacher of the church".

2. HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS

The greatest influence on the philosophy of Thomas was exerted by Aristotle, who was largely creatively rethought by him; The influence of the Neoplatonists, Greek commentators Aristotle, Cicero, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, Augustine, Boethius, Anselm of Canterbury, John of Damascus, Avicenna, Averroes, Gebirol and Maimonides and many other thinkers is also noticeable.

3. IDEAS OF THOMAS AQUINAS

The system of Thomas Aquinas is based on the idea of ​​a fundamental agreement between two truths - those based on revelation and those derived by human reason: human reason is not able to reach some truths obtained from revelation (for example, the divine trinity, resurrection in the flesh, etc.) using its own means, however, these truths, although they surpass reason, do not contradict it. Theology starts from revealed truths and uses philosophical means to explicate them; philosophy moves from the rational understanding of what is given in sensory experience to the justification of the supersensible, for example. the existence of God, His unity, etc. (Commentary to “On the Trinity” by Boethius, II 3).

1. WORKS OF THOMAS AQUINAS

The works of Thomas Aquinas include two extensive treatises covering a wide range of topics - "Summa Theology" and "Summa against the Gentiles" ("Summa Philosophy"), discussions on theological and philosophical problems ("Debatable Questions" and "Questions on Various Subjects"), detailed comments on several books of the Bible, on 12 treatises of Aristotle, on the "Sentences" of Peter of Lombardy", on the treatises of Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius and on the anonymous "Book of Causes", as well as a number of small works on philosophical and religious topics and poetic texts for "Debatable Questions" and "Commentaries" were largely the fruit of his teaching activities, which, according to the tradition of that time, included debates and readings of authoritative texts, accompanied by commentaries.

5. TEACHING ABOUT MAN

As the first cause, God creates numerous kinds and kinds of things, endowed with varying degrees of perfection, required for the completeness of the universe, which has a hierarchical structure. A special place in creation is occupied by man, who contains two worlds - material and spiritual, which is the unity of the material body and soul as a form of the body. The material component of a person is constitutive and non-eliminable: it is matter that is the “principle of individuation” of representatives of the same species (including humans). Although the soul is not subject to destruction when the body is destroyed, due to the fact that it is simple and can exist separately from the body, due to the implementation of special activities independent of the functioning of the material organ, it is not recognized by Thomas as an independent entity; for its perfection, union with the body is required, in which Thomas sees an argument in favor of the dogma of resurrection in the flesh (On the Soul, 14). Man differs from the animal world in the presence of the ability of cognition and, on the basis of this, the ability to make a free, conscious choice: it is the intellect and free (from any external necessity) will that are the grounds for performing truly human actions (in contrast to the actions characteristic of both man and and animals) belonging to the ethical sphere. In the relationship between the two highest human abilities - intellect and will, the advantage belongs to the intellect (a position that caused controversy between the Thomists and Scotists), since the will necessarily follows the intellect, which represents for it this or that being as good; however, when an action is performed in specific circumstances and with the help of certain means, volitional effort comes to the fore (On Evil, 6). Along with a person’s own efforts, to perform good actions also requires divine grace, which does not eliminate the uniqueness of human nature, but improves it. Also, divine control of the world and the prediction of all (including individual and random) events does not exclude freedom of choice: God, as the highest cause, allows independent actions of secondary causes, including those entailing negative moral consequences, since God is able to turn to good is evil created by independent agents.

CONCLUSION

At the conclusion of the test, I consider it necessary to draw a conclusion that would outline the main views of F. Aquinas.

From the difference in forms, which are the likeness of God in things, Thomas derives a system of order in the material world. The forms of things, regardless of the degree of their perfection, are involved in the creator, due to which they occupy a certain place in the universal hierarchy of existence. This applies to all areas of the material world and society.

It is necessary for some to be engaged in agriculture, others to be shepherds, and still others to be builders. For the divine harmony of the social world it is also necessary that there be people engaged in spiritual labor and working physically. Each person performs a certain function in the life of society, and everyone creates a certain good.
Differences in the functions performed by people are the result not of the social division of labor, but of the purposeful activity of God. Social and class inequality is not a consequence of antagonistic relations of production, but a reflection of the hierarchy of forms in things. All this essentially served Aquinas to justify the feudal social ladder.
The teachings of Thomas enjoyed great influence in the Middle Ages, and the Roman Church officially recognized it. This teaching is revived in the 20th century under the name of neo-Thomism - one of the most significant movements in Western Catholic philosophy.

The son of Landalf, Count of Aquinas, Saint Thomas Aquinas was born around 1225 in the Italian city of Roccasecca, in the Kingdom of Sicily. Thomas was the youngest of nine children in the family. Despite the fact that the boy's parents came from the line of Emperors Frederick I and Henry VI, the family belonged to the lower class of the nobility.

Before the birth of his son, the holy hermit predicted to the boy's mother that the child would enter the Order of Friars and Preachers and become a great scientist, achieving an incredible degree of holiness.

Following the traditions of that time, at the age of 5 the boy was sent to the Abbey of Monte Cassino, where he studied with the Benedictine monks.

Thomas will stay in the monastery for up to 13 years, and after that a change in the political climate in the country will force him to return to Naples.

Education

Thomas spends the next five years in a Benedictine monastery, completing his primary education. At this time, he diligently studied the works of Aristotle, which would later become the starting point of his own philosophical searches. It was in this monastery, which worked closely with the University of Naples, that Thomas developed an interest in monastic orders with progressive views, preaching a life of spiritual service.

Around 1239, Thomas studies at the University of Naples. In 1243 he secretly entered the Dominican order, and in 1244 he took monastic vows. Having learned about this, the family kidnaps him from the monastery and holds him prisoner for a whole year. However, Thomas does not give up his views and, freed in 1245, returns to the Dominican shelter.

From 1245 to 1252, Thomas Aquinas continued to study with the Dominicans in Naples, Paris and Cologne. Justifying the prophecy of the holy hermit, he becomes an exemplary student, although, ironically, his modesty often leads to misconceptions about him as a narrow-minded person.

Theology and philosophy

Having completed his studies, Thomas Aquinas devotes his life to wanderings, philosophical works, teaching, public speeches and sermons.

The main subject of medieval thought is the dilemma of reconciling theology (faith) and philosophy (reason). Thinkers cannot in any way combine the knowledge obtained through divine revelations with the information that is obtained naturally, using reason and feelings. According to Averroes' "theory of double truth", the two types of knowledge are completely contradictory to each other. Thomas Aquinas's revolutionary views are that "both kinds of knowledge ultimately come from God" and are therefore compatible with each other. And they are not only compatible, but also complementary: Thomas argues that revelation can guide reason and protect it from error, while reason can purify and free faith from mysticism. Thomas Aquinas goes further, discussing the role of faith and reason, both in comprehending and in proving the existence of God. He also defends with all his might the image of God as an omnipotent being.

Thomas, one of a kind, speaks of the connection between proper social behavior and God. He believes that government laws are essentially a natural product of human nature and are therefore an integral part of social welfare. By strictly following the laws, a person can earn the eternal salvation of his soul after death.

Works

Thomas Aquinas, a very prolific writer, penned about 60 works, from short notes to huge volumes. Manuscripts of his works were distributed to libraries throughout Europe. His philosophical and theological works cover a wide range of topics, including commentaries on biblical texts and discussions on the natural philosophy of Aristotle.

Soon after the death of Thomas Aquinas, his works gained wide recognition and received warm support among representatives of the Dominican Order. His “Summa Teologica” (“Sum of Theology”), displacing “Sentences in Four Books” by Peter of Lombardy, became the main textbook on theology in universities, seminaries and schools of that time. The influence of the works of Thomas Aquinas on the formation of philosophical thought is so great that the number of commentaries written on them to date is at least 600 works.

Last years and death

In June 1272, he accepted an offer to go to Naples to teach Dominican monks in the monastery adjacent to the university. He still writes a lot, but the significance in his works is becoming less and less.

During the celebration of St. Nicholas in 1273, Thomas Aquinas has a vision that takes him away from his work.

In January 1274, Thomas Aquinas went on a pilgrimage to France, to attend services in honor of the Second Council of Lyons. However, along the way he was struck down by an illness, and he stopped at the Cistercian monastery of Fossanova in Italy, where he died on March 7, 1274. In 1323, Thomas Aquinas was canonized by Pope John XXII.

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Thomas Aquinas (Aquinas)

(1225 – 1274)

Real name: Tommaso d'Aquino. Medieval theologian and scholastic philosopher. Major works: "Summa against the pagans"; "Summa Theology".

According to the theologians themselves, Thomas Aquinas (another name is Aquinas) was the first independent philosopher of the Christian West. He began a tradition that was continued by modern philosophers, in particular Descartes and Leibniz. The problem for Thomas, as for the entire church, was the need to adapt the dominant philosophy of Aristotle at that time in the West and East to Catholic orthodoxy, in order to eliminate the danger of its distortion and deviation from religious dogmas. The scholastic of the Dominican Order, Thomas Aquinas, solved this problem brilliantly. He became the founder of the leading movement in Catholic philosophy, called Thomism. This direction was gradually recognized as the official doctrine of the church.

Tommaso d'Aquino was born at the beginning of 1225 in the family castle of Rocca Secca ("Dry Rock") into a rich and influential aristocratic family. He was the youngest of seven sons of Count Landulf of Aquinas, lord of the city of Aquino near Naples. Thomas's family was related to noble European families: the German Emperor Barbarossa was the future thinker's great-uncle, and the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II was his second cousin.

According to family tradition, Thomas, who was raised in the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino from the age of five to fourteen, was supposed, as the youngest son of a local lord, to devote himself to a spiritual career and become an abbot, then, perhaps, a bishop and even a cardinal. To prepare for this career, young Thomas took a course of science in Naples, where, under the guidance of the prominent theologian Peter of Ireland, he studied Aristotle. However, after the death of his father in 1243, Aquinas, completely unexpectedly for his relatives, joined the newly created order of mendicant monastic preachers, founded by St. Dominic.

Having taken monastic vows, Thomas decided to walk from Naples to Paris, which was then the center of Catholicism. But on the way, an emergency happened: the young monk was attacked by several horsemen, who tied him up and took him away. It turned out that these were not robbers at all, but Thomas’s brothers, who decided to return the “prodigal son” to his father’s roof. Thomas was imprisoned in the castle, trying in every possible way to persuade him to abandon his decision. One day, even a beautiful courtesan was brought to his cell so that the newly minted Dominican, succumbing to carnal temptation, would compromise himself and his spiritual title. But it was not there. Foma, who fell into a rage, grabbed a smoldering brand and began to threaten to set the castle on fire. After this incident, he was left alone, and the mother, convinced of her son’s inflexibility, submitted to his will. Tradition tells that in the fall of 1245, Thomas, having climbed out of the tower using a rope to which loving sisters had tied a basket, nevertheless went to Paris to study theology.

His first teacher was the outstanding theologian Albertus Magnus. In 1248, he took a student with him to Cologne am Rhein, where he planned to organize a school for the study of theology. For four years Thomas was under the tutelage of Albert, showing considerable ability in the study of philosophy. Outwardly, he was a very slow, meek and generous young man, enormous in stature, incredibly fat and clumsy, completely alien to any love interests. Thomas preferred philosophical reflection and reading books to human passions, mainly, of course, the works of Aristotle.

In 1252, the order, on the recommendation of Albert, sent Thomas as a bachelor of liberal arts to Paris to teach at the department founded by the Dominicans. For four years, Aquinas commented on the Holy Scriptures and the “Sentences” of the theologian Peter of Lombardy to students. The last commentary constituted Thomas's first great work. In 1256, having completed all the steps necessary to obtain the degree of Master of Theology, Thomas received the right to be called a teacher with the opportunity to teach theology, which he did until 1259.

The general course given by Thomas Aquinas was called “Summa against the Gentiles.” In this work, the philosopher acted as the founder of Thomism, the main direction of orthodox scholasticism. Thanks to the work of Thomas, the church found in the interpreter of Aristotle’s works not an enemy, but a strong ally. According to Aquinas, the world has greatness and dignity insofar as it was created by an omnipotent and all-good God. Not by blind chance, not by elemental force, not by evolution, thanks to which the lower creates the higher, but by the omniscient Mind, Love as such. God is the most perfect Creator, and therefore all his creations must be perfect. The thinker distinguished two ways of knowledge. The theological leads down from God to creation, from cause to effect. And the path of rational, natural knowledge leads upward, from feelings to the spiritual world, from consequences to cause, from creation to God. Thus, philosophy for Aquinas is an ascension. It was Aristotle, in the eyes of Thomas, who started from the lower and went to the higher, as befits rational philosophy.

For Thomas, Aristotelian philosophy turned out to be the most suitable tool to build a rational foundation for theology. The ending of the first volume of “Summa against the Pagans” is noteworthy, as if summing up his research: “False, earthly happiness is only a shadow of the most perfect happiness. It, according to Boethius, is composed of five elements: pleasure, wealth, power, rank and fame. And God receives incomparable joy from himself, from all the good that is in the Universe. Instead of wealth, he has all kinds of satisfaction with goods in himself. Instead of power, he has endless power. Instead of ranks - primacy and kingdom over all things. Instead of fame, there is admiration for every mind that could, at least to some extent, know him.”

In 1259, Pope Urban IV invited Thomas to Rome to teach in the papal curia. There was also a deeper meaning to this invitation. The Curia saw in Aquinas a thinker who was able to interpret the philosophy of Aristotle in the spirit of Catholicism. Eleven years of teaching culminated in another major work of Thomas, the Summa Theologica, which continued the development of Catholic dogmatics and became the main work of all scholastic theology. In sum, the philosopher clearly defined the areas of science and faith. The task of science, in his opinion, comes down to explaining the laws of the world. Above the kingdom of knowledge stands the kingdom that theology deals with and which cannot be penetrated by the power of thinking alone. This area of ​​the mystery of the Christian faith remains for Thomas outside of philosophical reason and knowledge. And although Christian truth stands above reason, it does not contradict it, for it comes from God. The existence of God can be proven by reason, which is what Thomas Aquinas did, identifying five principles of such proof. All of them are based on understanding God through his creations.

The first proof is that if everything in the world moves, then there is a First Principle of this movement. The second proof comes from the essence of causes. It is impossible for something that happens to cause itself, because then it must be before itself, which is absurd. Therefore, any reason comes from God. The third proof follows from the relationship between the accidental and the necessary. As a result, it turns out that the accidental depends on the necessary, and the very first necessity, again, is God. The fourth proof is the degrees of quality following each other. Only God can be the highest degree of perfection. And finally, the fifth proof is teleological. It is based on the utility inherent in all nature. Therefore, in all this there is a certain purpose, which is comprehended through God.

As for the virtues, Thomas added three more Christian virtues to the traditional four ancient Greek ones (wisdom, courage, moderation, justice) - faith, hope and love. The philosopher saw the meaning of life in happiness, which, in the spirit of his worldview, he understood as knowledge and contemplation of God.

The external concern of a person, according to Thomas, is the achievement of heavenly bliss. Each living person is led to it not by the state, but by the church, represented by priests and the vicar of God on earth - the Pope. Secular power, of course, must be subordinate to spiritual power, and comprehensive power belongs only to the church.

In 1268, at the suggestion of the Roman Curia, Thomas Aquinas returned to the University of Paris, where disputes between the extreme currents of Catholicism had reached extreme tension. For four years he worked in Paris, conducting discussions with theologians of various persuasions. At the same time, he completed the second part of the Summa Theologica and commentaries on the works of Aristotle. In general, over the 49 years of his life, Thomas Aquinas wrote a fantastic amount. In addition to three systematic works, Thomas wrote many commentaries on individual books and epistles of the Old and New Testaments, on liturgical texts, theological and philosophical works. An important part of his legacy is the discussion “Questions”, combined into thematic collections. In addition, Thomas Aquinas left many special theological and polemical treatises, sermons, letters and poems.

The breadth of Aquinas's erudition was astonishing. As a theologian and philosopher, he spent his life studying the Holy Scriptures and Aristotle, studying logic, physics, natural sciences, mathematics, astronomy, architecture, music and zoology. As Count d'Aquino, he was always aware of European politics, and he himself actively participated in religious and church politics. The only thing that Thomas did not like was the social receptions for which Paris was already famous then. Tradition tells of one funny incident that happened to Thomas at the time of writing the Summa against the Gentiles. The Dominican Order recommended that Thomas accept the invitation of King Louis the Saint to the court, which was considered a great mercy towards the mendicant monk. At the reception, Foma sat silently, plunged into deep thought and not paying attention to anyone. Those around him saw clear signs of bad manners in his behavior. Suddenly the philosopher, hitting the table with his fist, exclaimed: “This is what will bring the Manichaeans to their senses,” and fell silent again. The most amazing thing is that the king did not get angry, but quietly ordered the courtiers to sit closer to Thomas and write down what he meant by his exclamation. Even for kings, Aquinas' thoughts had lasting value.

In 1274, Thomas left Naples, where he spent two years after his stay at the University of Paris, and, at the invitation of Pope Gregory X, went to Lyon to participate in the Council. On the way, Thomas suffered a heart attack and was transported to one of the nearby monasteries. There the philosopher confessed, took communion, and died on March 7, 1274. In 1323, during the pontificate of Pope John XXII, Thomas Aquinas was canonized, and in 1368 his remains were transported to Toulouse.

On August 4, 1879, Pope Leo XIII, in his encyclical, declared the teachings of Thomas Aquinas binding on the entire Catholic Church. But his philosophical works were not forgotten. In the same XIX century. Based on the doctrines of Aquinas, a philosophical movement arose, called “neo-Thomism,” which is an equally significant fact of recognition of the merits of the great theologian and thinker.

THOMAS AQUINAS(c. 1224, Rocca Secca, Italy - 1274, Fossanova, Italy) - medieval theologian and philosopher, Dominican monk (from 1244). He studied at the University of Naples, in Paris, and from 1248 with Albertus Magnus in Cologne. In 1252–59 he taught in Paris. He spent the rest of his life in Italy, only in 1268–72 he was in Paris, conducting polemics with the Parisian Averroists regarding the interpretation of the Aristotelian doctrine of the immortality of the active mind-intellect ( noosa ). The works of Thomas Aquinas include "Summa Theologica" And "Summa against the Gentiles" (“Summa Philosophy”), discussions on theological and philosophical problems (“Debatable Questions” and “Questions on Various Topics”), detailed comments on several books of the Bible, on 12 treatises of Aristotle, on “Sentences” Peter of Lombardy , on the treatises of Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, anonymous "The Book of Reasons" and others. “Debatable Questions” and “Commentaries” were largely the fruit of his teaching activities, which included, according to the tradition of that time, debates and reading authoritative texts. The greatest influence on the philosophy of Thomas was exerted by Aristotle, who was largely rethought by him.

The system of Thomas Aquinas is based on the idea of ​​a fundamental agreement between two truths - those based on Revelation and those deduced by human reason. Theology starts from the truths given in Revelation and uses philosophical means to reveal them; philosophy moves from the rational understanding of what is given in sensory experience to the justification of the supersensible, for example. the existence of God, His unity, etc. (In Boethium De Trinitate, II 3).

Thomas identifies several types of knowledge: 1) absolute knowledge of all things (including individual, material, random), carried out in a single act by the highest mind-intellect; 2) knowledge without reference to the material world, carried out by created immaterial intelligentsia and 3) discursive knowledge, carried out by the human intellect. The theory of “human” knowledge (S. th. I, 79–85; De Ver. I, 11) is formed in polemics with the Platonic doctrine of ideas as objects of knowledge: Thomas rejects the independent existence of ideas (they can only exist in the divine intellect as prototypes of things, in individual things and in the human intellect as a result of the knowledge of things - “before a thing, in a thing, after a thing”), and the presence of “innate ideas” in the human intellect. Sensory knowledge of the material world is the only source of intellectual knowledge that uses “self-evident grounds” (the main one is the law of identity), which also do not exist in the intellect before knowledge, but are manifested in its process. The result of the activity of the five external senses and internal senses (“general sense”, which synthesizes the data of external senses, imagination, which preserves phantasmatic images, sensory assessment – ​​the ability to make specific judgments inherent not only in humans, but also in animals, and memory, which preserves the assessment of the image) are “sensible species”, from which, under the influence of the active intellect (which is part of man, and not an independent “active intelligentsia”, as the Averroists believed), “intelligible species”, completely cleared of material elements, are abstracted, perceived by the “possible intellect” (intellectus possibilis ). The final phase of cognition of a specific thing is a return to the sensory images of material things stored in fantasy.

Knowledge of non-material objects (truth, angels, God, etc.) is possible only on the basis of knowledge of the material world: thus, we can deduce the existence of God based on the analysis of certain aspects of material things (movement ascending to a motionless prime mover; cause-and-effect relationship , ascending to the root cause; various degrees of perfection, ascending to absolute perfection; the randomness of the existence of natural things, requiring the existence of an absolutely necessary being; the presence of expediency in the natural world, indicating the rational management of it (S. p. G. I, 13; S. th . I, 2, 3; "Compendium of Theology" I, 3; "On Divine Power" III, 5). Such a movement of thought from what is known in experience to its cause and ultimately to the first cause gives us knowledge not of what this the first cause, but only that it exists. Knowledge about God is primarily negative in nature, but Thomas strives to overcome limitations apophatic theology : “to be existing” in relation to God is a definition not only of the act of existence, but also of essence, since in God essence and existence coincide (being different in all created things): God is being itself and the source of being for all that exists. God as a being can also be predicated transcendentals – such as “one”, “true” (existent in relation to the intellect), “good” (existent in relation to desire), etc. The opposition “existence-essence”, actively used by Thomas, covers traditional oppositions act and potency And form and matter : form, which gives existence to matter as pure potency and is the source of activity, becomes potency in relation to a pure act - God, who gives existence to form. Based on the concept of the difference between essence and existence in all created things, Thomas argues with the widespread concept of the total hylemorphism Ibn Gebirol, denying that the higher intelligentsia (angels) consist of form and matter (De ente et essentia, 4).

God creates numerous kinds and kinds of things required for the completeness of the universe (which has a hierarchical structure) and endowed with varying degrees of perfection. A special place in creation is occupied by man, who is the unity of the material body and soul as a form of the body (in contrast to the Augustinian understanding of man as a “soul using the body,” Thomas emphasizes the psychophysical integrity of man). Although the soul is not subject to destruction when the body is destroyed due to the fact that it is simple and can exist separately from the body, it acquires its perfect existence only in connection with the body: in this Thomas sees an argument in favor of the dogma of resurrection in the flesh (“On the Soul” , 14).

Man differs from the animal world in his ability to cognize and, therefore, make free, conscious choice, which lies at the basis of truly human – ethical – actions. In the relationship between intellect and will, the advantage belongs to the intellect (a position that gave rise to polemics between Thomists and Scotists), since it is the intellect that represents this or that being as good for the will; however, when an action is performed in specific circumstances and with the help of certain means, volitional effort comes to the fore (De malo, 6). To perform good actions, along with a person’s own efforts, divine grace is also required, which does not eliminate the uniqueness of human nature, but improves it. Divine control of the world and the prediction of all (including random) events do not exclude freedom of choice: God allows independent actions of secondary causes, incl. and entailing negative moral consequences, since God is able to turn to good the evil created by independent agents.

Being the first cause of all things, God is at the same time the ultimate goal of their aspirations; the ultimate goal of human action is the achievement of beatitude, which consists in the contemplation of God (impossible, according to Thomas, within the limits of this life), all other goals are evaluated depending on their focus on the final goal, deviation from which constitutes evil (De malo, 1). At the same time, Thomas paid tribute to activities aimed at achieving earthly forms of bliss.

The beginnings of actual moral acts on the internal side are virtues, and on the external side – laws and grace. Thomas analyzes the virtues (skills that allow people to consistently use their abilities for good - S. th. I–II, 59–67) and their opposing vices (S. th. I–II, 71–89), following the Aristotelian tradition, however he believes that in order to achieve eternal happiness, in addition to virtues, there is a need for the gifts, beatitudes and fruits of the Holy Spirit (S. th. I–II, 68–70). Thomas does not think of moral life without the presence of theological virtues - faith, hope and love (S. th. II-II, 1-45). Following the theological ones are four “cardinal” (fundamental) virtues - prudence and justice (S. th. II–II, 47–80), courage and moderation (S. th. II–II, 123–170), which are associated with other virtues.

Law (S. th. I–II, 90–108) is defined as “any command of reason which is proclaimed for the common good by those who care for the public” (S. th. I–II, 90, 4). The eternal law (S. th. I-II, 93), by means of which divine providence governs the world, does not make superfluous other types of law flowing from it: natural law (S. th. I-II, 94), the principle of which is the fundamental the postulate of Thomistic ethics - “one should strive for good and do good, but evil should be avoided”; human law (S. th. I–II, 95), which specifies the postulates of natural law (defining, for example, the specific form of punishment for evil committed) and the power of which Thomas limits to the conscience that opposes the unjust law. Historically established positive legislation - a product of human institutions - can be changed. The good of the individual, society and the universe is determined by the divine plan, and a person’s violation of divine laws is an action directed against his own good (S. p. G. III, 121).

Following Aristotle, Thomas considered social life natural for man and identified six forms of government: fair - monarchy, aristocracy and “polity” and unjust - tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. The best form of government is monarchy, the worst is tyranny, the fight against which Thomas justified, especially if the tyrant’s regulations clearly contradict divine regulations (for example, forcing idolatry). The unity of a just monarch must take into account the interests of various groups of the population and does not exclude elements of the aristocracy and polity. Thomas placed ecclesiastical authority above secular authority.

The teachings of Thomas Aquinas had a great influence on Catholic theology and philosophy, which was facilitated by the canonization of Thomas in 1323 and his recognition as the most authoritative Catholic theologian in the encyclical Aeterni patris of Pope Leo XIII (1879). Cm. Thomism , Neo-Thomism .

Essays:

1. Full collection Op. – “Piana” in 16 volumes. Rome, 1570;

2. Parma edition in 25 volumes, 1852–1873, reprint. in New York, 1948–50;

3. Opera Omnia Vives, in 34 volumes. Paris, 1871–82;

4. "Leonina". Rome, since 1882 (since 1987 - republication of previous volumes); published by Marietti, Turin;

5. edition of R. Bus Thomae Aquinatis Opera omnia, ut sunt in indice thomistico, Stuttg. – Bad Cannstatt, 1980;

6. in Russian trans.: Discussion questions about truth (question 1, ch. 4–9), On the unity of the intellect against the Averroists. – In the book: Goodness and truth: classical and non-classical regulators. M., 1998;

7. Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics (Book I. Introduction, Sent. 7–11). – In the book: Philosophy of nature in Antiquity and the Middle Ages, part 1. M., 1998;

8. About mixing elements. – Ibid., part 2. M., 1999;

9. About the attack of demons. – “Man”, 1999, No. 5;

10. About existence and essence. – In the book: Historical and Philosophical Yearbook – 88. M., 1988;

11. About the rule of sovereigns. – In the book: Political structures of the era of feudalism in Western Europe 6th – 17th centuries. L., 1990;

12. About the principles of nature. – In the book: Time, truth, substance. M., 1991;

13. Summa of Theology (Part I, Question 76, Art. 4). – “Logos” (M.), 1991, No. 2;

14. Summa Theologija I–II (question 18). – “VF”, 1997, No. 9;

15. Proofs of the existence of God in the Summa against the pagans and the Summa Theology. M., 2000.

Literature:

1. Bronzov A. Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas in relation to their teaching on morality. St. Petersburg, 1884;

2. Borgosh Yu. Thomas Aquinas. M., 1966, 2nd ed. M., 1975;

3. Dzikevich E.A. Philosophical and aesthetic views of Thomas Aquinas. M., 1986;

4. Gretsky S.V. Problems of anthropology in the philosophical systems of Ibn Sina and Thomas Aquinas. Dushanbe, 1990;

5. Chesterton G. Saint Thomas Aquinas. - In the book: It's him. Eternal man. M., 1991;

6. Gertykh V. Freedom and moral law in Thomas Aquinas. – “VF”, 1994, No. 1;

7. Maritain J. Philosopher in the world. M., 1994;

8. Gilson E. Philosopher and theology. M., 1995;

9. Swierzawski S. Saint Thomas read anew. – “Symbol” (Paris) 1995, No. 33;

10. Copleston F.C. Aquinas. Introduction to the philosophy of the great medieval thinker. Dolgoprudny, 1999;

11. Gilson E. Saint Thomas d'Aquin. P., 1925;

12. Idem. Moral Values ​​and Moral Life. St. Louis – L., 1931;

13. Grabmann M. Thomas von Aquin. Münch., 1949;

14. Sertillanger A.D. Der heilige Thomas von Aquin. Köln–Olten, 1954;

15. Aquinas: A collection of Critical Essays. L. - Melbourne, 1970;

16. Thomas von Aquin. Interpretation und Rezeption: Studien und Texte, hrsg. von W. P. Eckert. Mainz, 1974;

17. Aquinas and Problems of his Time, ed. by G.Verbeke. Leuven – The Hague, 1976;

18. Weisheipl J. Friar Thomas Aquinas. His Life, Thought, and Works. Wash., 1983;

19. Copleston F.C. Aquinas. L., 1988;

20. The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. by N. Kretzmann and E. Stump. Cambr., 1993.

K.V. Bandurovsky