What is a language system and its structure? What levels does the Russian language as a system consist of?

The definition of language as a system of systems, most fully developed by the Prague School of Functional Linguistics, is undoubtedly justified, but it should not be given the absolute character that we see in in this case. Individual “circles or tiers of linguistic structure” appear in A. A. Reformatsky as self-contained systems, which, if they interact with each other (forming a system of systems or a system of language), then only as separate and integral unities. It turns out something like a coalition of allied nations whose troops are united common task military operations against a common enemy, but are under the separate command of their national military commanders.

In the life of a language, things are, of course, different, and the individual “tiers or systems” of a language interact with each other not only frontally, but to a large extent, so to speak, with their individual representatives “one on one.” So, for example, as a result of the fact that the series English words during the period of the Scandinavian conquest had Scandinavian parallels, a splitting of the sound form of some words of common origin occurred. This is how doublet forms were created, separated by natural processes in the phonetic system of Old English, which ended before the Scandinavian conquest. These doublet forms also created the basis for differentiating their meanings.

Thus, the difference arose between skirt and shirt (<др.-англ. scirt) — «рубашка», а также такие дублетные пары, как egg — «яйцо» и edge (

In a similar way, the German Rappe - “black horse” and Rabe - “raven” (both from the Middle High German form of garre), Knappe - “squire” and Knabe - “boy”, etc., split into two; Russian ashes - gunpowder, harm - vered, having a genetically common basis. An even more striking example of the natural interaction of elements of different “tiers” is the phonetic process of reduction of final elements, well known from the history of Germanic languages ​​(which in turn is associated with the nature and position of the Germanic force stress in a word), which caused extremely important changes in their grammatical system.

It is known that the stimulation of analytical tendencies in the English language and the deviation of this language from the synthetic structure is directly related to the fact that reduced endings turned out to be unable to express with the necessary clarity the grammatical relationships of words. Thus, a purely concrete and purely phonetic process gave rise to new not only morphological, but also syntactic phenomena.

This kind of mutual influence of elements included in different “tiers” or “homogeneous systems” can be multidirectional and go both along an ascending (i.e., from phonemes to elements of morphology and vocabulary) and descending line. Thus, according to J. Vahek, the different fate of paired voiced final consonants in Czech (as well as Slovak, Russian, etc.), on the one hand, and in English, on the other hand, is determined by the needs of the higher planes of the respective languages. In Slavic languages, due to neutralization, they were deafened, but in English the contrast p - b, v - f, etc. was preserved, although the contrast in voicing was replaced by the contrast in tension.

In Slavic languages ​​(Czech, etc.), the appearance of new homonymous pairs of words, due to the deafening of final voiced consonants, did not introduce any significant difficulties in understanding, since in the sentence they received a clear grammatical characteristic and the sentence model in these languages ​​was not functionally overloaded . And in the English language, precisely because of the functional overload of the sentence model, the destruction of the opposition of final consonants and the resulting emergence of a large number of homonyms would lead to significant difficulties in the communication process.

In all such cases, we are dealing with the establishment of individual connections between elements of different “tiers” - phonetic and lexical.

Regular relationships are thus established not only between homogeneous members of the language system, but also between heterogeneous ones. This means that systemic connections of linguistic elements are formed not only within one “tier” (for example, only between phonemes), but also separately between representatives of different “tiers” (for example, phonetic and lexical units). In other words, the natural connections of the elements of a language system can be multidirectional, which does not exclude, of course, special forms of systemic relationships of language elements within the same “tier”.

V.A. Zvegintsev. Essays on general linguistics - Moscow, 1962.

Language is a system of socially determined sound signs. This system is capable of expressing the entire body of human knowledge and ideas about the world and functions as a means of communication.

Language is the most complex of all sign systems. A linguistic sign represents the unity of the signified (content) and the signifier (form). The signifier of a word is a chain of sounds, the signified is a certain mental content.

Language functions:

1) Communicative

2) Cognitive (epistemological, cognitive)

3) Rechargeable

4) Emotional (interjections)

Parts of language - levels

1) Sound, phonetic (a sound that has a meaning-separating function - Phoneme)

2) Morphemic - significant parts of the word

3) Lexical, word – sign (verbal)

4) Syntactic:

A) The phrase has a nominative function

B) Sentence is a communicative function

The word is the basic unit of language

The language system is dynamic. Principles of language development:

1. saving pronunciation effort. The desire to achieve a goal with minimal effort leads to a reduction of the signifier to certain limits

Examples: now - right now, academic leave - academic leave - academician. The limit of savings is distortion of information

2. The principle of analogy – likening one linguistic form to another (rector-rector, by analogy with doctor);

3. The influence of extralinguistic factors (borrowing process: killer - killer).

Russian language is an Indo-European family. The northernmost is Icelandic, the southern is Sinhala, the west is Portuguese, the east is Sakhalin, Russian)

Europeans are not an autochthonous population (relating to their original habitats)

The concept of modern Russian literary language.

A narrow interpretation is the Russian language of the last fifty years. Wide - from the era of Pushkin’s creativity

Three Calm Theory: High (tragedy), Medium, Low (comedy). High calm is borrowed from the ancient Russian language

938 - creation by Cyril and Methodius of the Cyrillic alphabet in Thessalonica for the southern Slavs, the eastern ones borrowed it.

Pushkin was the first to mix the East Slavic and Southern languages. - The emergence of diglossia (bilingualism)

Literary language is a form of generally accepted language that serves all areas of activity of the entire group of speakers. The main feature of a literary language is the presence of norms, the universality of norms and their codification.

More on the topic 1. Language as a system. The concept of modern Russian literary language:

1. 1. Language as a system. The concept of modern Russian literary language. Standard of literary language. Changing language norms. Violation of language norms.
2. L.L. Kasatkin, L.P. Krysin, M.R. Lvov, T.G. Terekhova. Russian language. Textbook for pedagogical students. Institute for specialties No. 2121 “Pedagogy and methods of beginning. training." In 2 parts. Part I. Introduction to the science of language. Russian language. General information. Lexicology of the modern Russian literary language. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling / L. L. Kasatkin, L. P. Krysin, M. R. Lvov, T. G. Terekhova; Ed. L. Yu. Maksimova. - M.: Education, 1989. - 287 pp., 1989
3. modern Russian language. National language and forms of its existence. Literary language as the highest form of the national language.

Functions of language and their implementation in speech.

The term “function” in linguistics is used in several meanings:

1) the purpose, the role of language in human society, 2) the purpose of the role of language units.

In the first case, they talk about the functions of language, in the second – about the functions of linguistic units (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences).

The functions of language are a manifestation of its essence. Language researchers do not agree on the number and nature of functions. However, the core basic features make everything stand out. The main functions include communicative and cognitive.

The communicative function is manifested in the purpose of language to serve as a tool, a means of transmitting information, exchanging thoughts and communicating about experienced emotions. Of course, along with verbal language (verbal), we also use means of non-verbal communication (gestures, facial expressions, postures), which complement auditory speech, expressing a feeling or encouraging action. However, they cannot express dissected concepts and coherent thoughts.

The cognitive (thought-forming) function is closely related to the first.

The basic functions of language are manifested in particular ones: emotive, aesthetic, metalinguistic, appellative, contact-establishing, in the function of storing and transmitting national identity, traditions, history of the people and some others.

The emotive function is manifested in the expression of moods and emotions through the selection of words and the use of a certain type of intonation: He has such a face!

The metalinguistic function is discovered when the need arises to explain an incomprehensible word or some linguistic fact: A syllable is the minimum pronounceable unit.

The appellative function is observed in cases where the speaker encourages the listeners to take some action: Take the pen, please.

The contact-establishing function is the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors. It is usually expressed in words and phrases of speech etiquette: Hello! How are you doing? All the best.

The aesthetic function is manifested in the aesthetic impact of the language of fiction on the reader.

The function of storing and transmitting national experience is found in many linguistic phenomena, and in particular in the meanings of words and in phraseological units such as caftan, heavy Monomakh's hat.

In speech, particular functions can be combined.

Language as a system. Basic units of language. Language as a system

Language is a material means of communication between people, or, more specifically, a secondary material or sign system that is used as a tool or means of communication. Without language there can be no communication, and without communication there can be no society, and thus no person.

Language is the product of a number of eras, during which it is formed, enriched, and polished. Language is associated with human production activity, as well as with any other human activity in all areas of his work.

It should be noted that there are many opinions regarding the definition of the concept “language”, but all these definitions can be reduced to some general idea. Such a general idea is the idea that language is a functional material system of a semiotic, or sign, nature, the functioning of which in the form of speech is its use as a means of communication.

Language, as an extremely complex entity, can be defined from different points of view depending on which aspect or aspects of language are emphasized. Definitions are possible: a) from the point of view of the function of language (or functions of language): language is a means of communication between people and, as such, is a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts; b) from the point of view of the structure (mechanism) of language: language is a set of certain units and rules for using these units, that is, a combination of units, these units are reproduced by speakers at the moment; c) from the point of view of the existence of language: language is the result of a social, collective skill of “making” units from sound matter by pairing some sounds with some meaning; d) from a semiotic point of view: language is a system of signs, that is, material objects (sounds) endowed with the property of denoting something that exists outside of themselves; e) from the point of view of information theory: language is the process by which semantic information is encoded.

The above definitions complement each other and partially overlap and duplicate each other. Since it is hardly possible to give a sufficiently complete description of the language in a single definition, therefore, it is necessary to rely on the most general definition, specifying it as necessary with certain special characteristics that are universal. One of the universal characteristics is the systematic nature of the language.

Language as a secondary material system has a structure, understood as its internal organization. The structure of the system is determined by the nature of the relationships between elementary objects, or elements of the system. The structure of a system can be defined differently as a set of intrasystem connections. If the concept of a system refers to a certain object as an integral formation and includes elements of the system and their relationships, then the concept of the structure of a given system includes only intra-system relationships in abstraction from the objects that make up the system.

Structure is an attribute of some system. Structure cannot exist outside the substance or elements of the system.

The elements of language structure differ qualitatively, which is determined by the different functions of these elements.

sounds are material signs of language, and not simply “audible sounds.”

Sound signs of a language have two functions: 1) perceptual - to be an object of perception and 2) significative - to have the ability to distinguish higher, significant elements of language - morphemes, words, sentences.

Words can name things and phenomena of reality; This is a nominative function.

Sentences serve to communicate; This is a communicative function.

In addition to these functions, language can express the emotional states of the speaker, will, desire, directed as a call to the listener.

Basic units of language:

morpheme (part of a word)-- the shortest unit of language that has meaning. The central morpheme of a word is the root that contains the main lexical meaning of the word. The root is present in every word and can completely coincide with its stem. The suffix, prefix and ending introduce additional lexical or grammatical meanings.

There are derivational morphemes (forming words) and grammatical (forming forms of words). The word krasnovaty, for example, has three morphemes: the root krasn- has a characteristic (color) meaning, as in the words red, blush, redness; the suffix -ovat- denotes a weak degree of manifestation of the characteristic (as in the words blackish, rude, boring); the ending -й has the grammatical meaning of masculine, singular, nominative case (as in the words black, rude, boring). None of these morphemes can be divided into smaller meaningful parts.

Morphemes can change over time in their form and in the composition of speech sounds. Thus, in the words porch, capital, beef, finger, the once prominent suffixes merged with the root, simplification occurred: derived stems turned into non-derivative ones. The meaning of the morpheme can also change. Morphemes do not have syntactic independence.

Word -- the main significant, syntactically independent unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties. A word is the material for a sentence, and a sentence can consist of one word. Unlike a sentence, a word outside of a speech context and speech situation does not express a message.

A word combines phonetic (its sound shell), morphological (the set of its constituent morphemes) and semantic (the set of its meanings) characteristics. The grammatical meanings of a word materially exist in its grammatical form.

Most words are ambiguous: for example, the word table in a particular speech stream can denote a type of furniture, a type of food, a set of dishes, or an item of medical equipment. The word can have variants: zero and zero, dry and dry, song and song.

Words form certain systems and groups in a language: based on grammatical features - a system of parts of speech; based on word-formation connections - nests of words; based on semantic relations - a system of synonyms, antonyms, thematic groups; from a historical perspective - archaisms, historicisms, neologisms; by area of ​​use - dialectisms, professionalisms, jargons, terms.

Phraseologisms, as well as compound terms (boiling point, plug-in construction) and compound names (White Sea, Ivan Vasilyevich) are equated to the word according to its function in speech.

Word combinations are formed from words - syntactic constructions consisting of two or more significant words connected according to the type of subordinating connection (coordination, control, adjacency).

Collocation along with the word, it is an element in the construction of a simple sentence.

Sentences and phrases form the syntactic level of the language system. A sentence is one of the main categories of syntax. It is contrasted with words and phrases in terms of formal organization, linguistic meaning and functions. A sentence is characterized by an intonation structure - the intonation of the end of the sentence, completeness or incompleteness; intonation of message, question, motivation. A special emotional connotation, which is conveyed by intonation, can turn any sentence into an exclamation.

Offers there are simple and complex ones.

A simple sentence can be two-part, having a subject group and a predicate group, and one-part, having only a predicate group or only a subject group; may be common or uncommon; can be complicated, containing homogeneous members, circulation, introductory, plug-in construction, separate circulation.

A simple two-part unextended sentence is divided into a subject and a predicate, an extended one into a subject group and a predicate group; but in speech, oral and written, there is a semantic division of the sentence, which in most cases does not coincide with the syntactic division. The proposal is divided into the initial part of the message - the “given” and what is stated in it, the “new” - the core of the message. The core of a message or statement is highlighted by logical stress, word order, and ends the sentence. For example, in the sentence The hailstorm predicted the day before broke out in the morning, the initial part (“given”) is the hailstorm predicted the day before broke out, and the core of the message (“new”) appears in the morning, the logical emphasis falls on it.

A complex sentence combines two or more simple ones. Depending on the means by which the parts of a complex sentence are connected, compound, complex and non-conjunct complex sentences are distinguished.

4. The concept of literary language and language norms The Russian language in the broadest sense of the word is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, everyone who speaks Russian as their native language.

The Russian national language is heterogeneous in its composition. Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. This is the highest form of the national language, determined by a whole system of norms. In linguistics, norms are the rules for the use of words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation rules in force during a given period of development of a literary language. The norms cover all its aspects: written and oral varieties, spelling, vocabulary, word formation, grammar. For example, in literary language you cannot use forms such as “you want”, “my last name”, “they ran away”; you have to say: “you want”, “my last name”, “they ran”; you should not pronounce e[g]o, skuk[h]no, but should pronounce e[v]o, skuk[sh]no, etc. The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms, etc.).

The norm is approved and supported by the speech practice of cultural people, in particular, writers who draw treasures of speech from the language of the people.

Literary language, written and oral, is the language of radio and television, newspapers and magazines, government and cultural institutions.

The Russian literary language is divided into a number of styles depending on where and for what it is used.

So, in everyday life, when communicating with loved ones, we often use words and sentences that we would not use in official business papers, and vice versa. For example, in a statement, in an explanatory note, the following phrase is quite appropriate: Due to the lack of the required number of vehicles, the unloading of arriving wagons with construction materials was delayed for one day.

When addressing work colleagues, the same thought is expressed, for example, like this: There were few cars today. There was a day delay in unloading the wagons.

The speech of a cultured, educated person should be correct, accurate and beautiful. The more correct and precise the speech, the more accessible it is to understanding; the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger its impact on the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to follow the norms of your native language.

5 Dictionaries of the Russian language. A dictionary is a book in which information is organized into small articles, sorted by title or topic.

With the development of computer technology, electronic dictionaries and online dictionaries are becoming more common.

Typology of dictionaries

L. V. Shcherba was the first in Russian science to address the problem of dictionary typology. He proposed a classification of dictionaries based on 6 opposites:

Academic type dictionary - reference dictionary. An academic dictionary is normative, describing the lexical system of a given language: it should not contain facts that contradict modern usage. In contrast to academic dictionaries, reference dictionaries can contain information about a wider range of words that go beyond the boundaries of the standard literary language.

Encyclopedic Dictionary - general dictionary. Contrasting encyclopedic (describe a thing, reality) and linguistic dictionaries (describe words)

Thesaurus is a regular (explanatory or translation) dictionary. Thesauruses are dictionaries that list all the words that appear in a given language at least once.

An ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary is an ideological (ideographic) dictionary. In an ideological dictionary, words must be in order

Explanatory dictionary - translation dictionary

Historical dictionary - non-historical dictionary

Particularly noteworthy is the distinction between linguistic (primarily explanatory) and encyclopedic dictionaries, which, first of all, lies in the fact that in encyclopedic dictionaries concepts are described (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, more or less detailed scientific information is given), in explanatory ones - linguistic meanings. There are many dictionary entries in encyclopedic dictionaries in which the heading word is proper nouns.

The following dictionaries can be considered the largest dictionaries of the Russian language in terms of vocabulary composition:

Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language (Dal) - approx. 200,000 words.

Consolidated dictionary of modern Russian vocabulary - approx. 170,000 words.

Russian spelling dictionary (Lopatin) - approx. 200,000 words.

Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language (Tikhonov) - approx. 145,000 words.

Dictionary of modern Russian literary language (large academic dictionary) - approx. 120,000 words.

Large explanatory dictionary of the Russian language (Kuznetsov) - approx. 130,000 words.

Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, in 3 volumes (Efremova) - approx. 160,000 words.

(is in the testing stage) Large Russian dictionary-directory of synonyms (Trishin) - St. 500,000 words and approx. 2 million synonymous connections.

6. The concept of speech culture, its social aspects Speech culture is part of a person’s general culture. By the way a person speaks or writes, one can judge the level of his spiritual development, his internal culture. A person’s mastery of speech culture is not only an indicator of a high level of intellectual and spiritual development, but also a unique indicator of professional suitability for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, school and university teachers, radio and television workers, journalists, managers, etc. Speech culture is important for everyone who, by the nature of their work, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, teaches, educates, conducts business negotiations, and provides various services to people.

What does the concept of “speech culture” mean?

The phrase “culture of speech” is used in three main meanings:

1. Speech culture is a branch of philological science that studies the speech life of society in a certain era and establishes, on a scientific basis, the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, a tool for the formation and expression of thoughts. In other words, the phrase “culture of speech” in this meaning is the doctrine of the totality and system of communicative qualities of speech.

2. Speech culture is some of its signs and properties, the totality and systems of which speak of its communicative perfection.

3. Speech culture is a set of human skills and knowledge that ensures the expedient and easy use of language for communication purposes, “mastery of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, stylistics), as well as the ability to use expressive means of language in various communication conditions in accordance with the goals and content of speech.”

The first meaning of the phrase “culture of speech” determines the subject of study of a certain branch of philology. The second and third meanings define speech culture as a set and system of its normative communicative qualities, knowledge and mastery of which is the goal of students studying this discipline. In this sense, “culture of speech” is identical to the concept of “cultured speech”, “good speech”.

Researchers identify three aspects of speech culture: normative, communicative and ethical. The first, most important aspect is normative. A linguistic norm is the central concept of speech culture. The culture of speech, first of all, presupposes compliance with the norms of the literary language, which are perceived by its speakers, speakers or writers, as an “ideal”, a model. The norm is the main regulator of people's speech behavior. However, this is a necessary but insufficient regulator, because compliance with the norms alone is not enough for oral or written speech to be completely good, that is, to satisfy all communication needs. One can cite a large number of texts of varied content, impeccable from the point of view of literary standards, but not achieving the goal. This is ensured by the fact that the norm regulates to a greater extent the purely structural, symbolic, linguistic side of speech, without affecting the most important relations of speech to reality, society, consciousness, and behavior of people. Therefore, the second important quality of speech culture is communicative expediency - this is the ability to find an adequate linguistic form in the language system to express specific content in each real situation of speech communication. The choice of linguistic means necessary for a given purpose and in a given situation is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech.

The third aspect of speech culture is also closely related to communicative expediency. Communicative expediency as a criterion of speech culture concerns both the form of expression of thought and its content. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations in such a way as not to humiliate the dignity of the participants in communication. Ethical standards of communication include compliance with speech etiquette. Speech etiquette is a system of means and ways of expressing the attitude of those communicating towards each other. Speech etiquette includes speech formulas for greetings, requests, questions, thanks, congratulations, addresses to “you” and “you”, choice of a full or abbreviated name, address formulas, etc. The ethical component of speech culture imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication and other forms that offend the dignity of participants in communication or surrounding people. All of the above allows us to accept the definition of speech culture proposed by E. N. Shiryaev: “Speech culture is such a choice and organization of linguistic means that, in a certain communication situation, while observing modern language norms and communication ethics, make it possible to ensure the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks.”

A characteristic feature of speech culture as an expression of a certain level of social culture is that it always affects the consciousness, behavior and activities of people.
Social aspects of speech culture (age, level of education, gender, profession, social status), along with other aspects of speech culture, are of equal importance for the communicative improvement of speech, since they have a decisive impact on speech behavior as the process of choosing the best option for building a socially correct statements.
First of all, various units of speech etiquette are used depending on the social roles assumed by the participants in communication. Here, both the social roles themselves and their relative position in the social hierarchy are important. When communicating between two students; between student and teacher; between superior and subordinate; between spouses; between parents and children - in each individual case, etiquette requirements can be very different.
These aspects of speech behavior are also influenced by differences in the use of units of speech etiquette among representatives of different social groups. These groups can be distinguished according to the following criteria: age, education and upbringing, gender, membership in specific professional groups.

The concept of "system"

A system is a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

The term “system” denotes both real and abstract objects and is widely used to form other concepts, for example, banking system, information system, circulatory system, political system, system of equations, etc.

A linguistic system, a language system, is a set of language elements connected to each other by certain relationships, forming a certain unity and integrity. Each component of the language system exists in opposition to other elements, which gives it significance.

Units of the language system, their hierarchy

The language system has a hierarchical structure: units of higher levels are combinations of units of lower levels. The language system distinguishes between a dictionary as an inventory of ready-made units and a grammar as a mechanism for their combination.

The linguistic concept of levels in its various varieties in the ontological understanding of levels also uses the concepts of higher and lower, understanding by lower levels the organization of simpler units, for example, phonemes, into a certain subsystem, and by higher levels, the organization of more complex units, for example, words. Phonemes, morphemes, words, etc. and the subsystems they form are characterized by qualitative originality. In other words, there is a qualitative uniqueness in the “entry” of less complex units into more complex ones.

Branches of the science of language

Vocabulary words (lexemes)

Phraseology set expressions

Phonetics sounds

Graphics methods of transmitting sounds in writing

Orthoepy stress, pronunciation

Morphemics composition of words (morphemes)

Word formation ways to form words

Syntax (grammar) of phrases and sentences

Morphology (grammar) of parts of speech

Speech science text, types of speech, means of expression

Spelling spelling words

Punctuation and punctuation marks

Stylistics of the sphere of language use

Complexity, beauty and harmony of the language system

The beauty of the language system is that there are no barriers to understanding in dialogue. Various synonyms, antonyms, phraseological units can give a person a lot in development if he reads, writes and speaks correctly.

Complexity in the language system may arise due to the fact that a person is simply afraid to get into the world of incomprehensible things and explanations, but the most interesting thing is that if you put everything unnecessary aside, you can perfectly know several languages. Also, complexity can come from changing the places of the phrases themselves, but the meaning will still remain the same.

The beauty of a language is its very essence and its birth, its complexity and beauty of sounds, its perception - complex and uncomplicated, pronunciation itself - all this was born in the process of the enormous work of civilizations.

The fundamentally important thing is that they do not exist on their own, but are closely related to each other. This is how a single and integral system is formed. Each of its components has a certain significance.

Structure

It is impossible to imagine a language system without units of signs, etc. All these elements are combined into a common structure with a strict hierarchy. Less significant ones together form components that belong to higher levels. The language system includes a dictionary. It is considered an inventory that includes ready-made The mechanism for combining them is grammar.

In any language there are several sections that differ greatly in their properties. For example, their systematicity may also differ. Thus, changes in even one element of phonology can change the entire language as a whole, whereas this will not happen in the case of vocabulary. Among other things, the system includes the periphery and the center.

Concept of structure

In addition to the term “language system”, the concept of linguistic structure is also accepted. Some linguists consider them synonymous, some do not. The interpretations differ, but some of them are the most popular. According to one of them, the structure of a language is expressed in the relationships between its elements. The comparison with a frame is also popular. The structure of a language can be considered a set of regular relationships and connections between language units. They are determined by nature and characterize the functions and originality of the system.

Story

The attitude towards language as a system has developed over many centuries. This idea was laid down by ancient grammarians. However, in the modern sense, the term “language system” emerged only in modern times thanks to the works of such outstanding scientists as Wilhelm von Humboldt, August Schleicher, and Ivan Baudouin de Courtenay.

The last of the above linguists identified the most important linguistic units: phoneme, grapheme, morpheme. Saussure became the founder of the idea that language (as a system) is the opposite of speech. This teaching was developed by his students and followers. This is how a whole discipline appeared - structural linguistics.

Levels

The main tiers are the levels of the language system (also called subsystems). They include homogeneous linguistic units. Each level has its own set of rules according to which its classification is based. Within one tier, units enter into relationships (for example, they form sentences and phrases). At the same time, elements of different levels can enter into each other. Thus, morphemes are made up of phonemes, and words are made up of morphemes.

Key systems are part of any language. Linguists distinguish several such tiers: morphemic, phonemic, syntactic (relating to sentences) and lexical (i.e. verbal). Among others, there are also higher levels of language. Their distinctive feature lies in “bilateral units,” that is, those linguistic units that have a plane of content and expression. This highest level, for example, is semantic.

Types of levels

The fundamental phenomenon for constructing a language system is the segmentation of the speech stream. Its beginning is considered to be the selection of phrases or statements. They play the role of communication units. In the language system, the speech flow corresponds to the syntactic level. The second stage of segmentation is the division of statements. As a result, word forms are formed. They combine heterogeneous functions - relative, derivational, nominative. Word forms are identified into words, or lexemes.

As mentioned above, the system of linguistic signs also consists of the lexical level. It is formed by vocabulary. The next stage of segmentation is associated with the selection of the smallest units in the speech stream. They are called morphs. Some of them have identical grammatical and lexical meanings. Such morphs are combined into morphemes.

Segmentation of the speech stream ends with the selection of tiny segments of speech - sounds. They differ in their physical properties. But their function (meaning-distinguishing) is the same. Sounds are identified into a common linguistic unit. It is called a phoneme - the minimum segment of language. It can be thought of as a tiny (but important) brick in a huge linguistic edifice. With the help of a system of sounds, the phonological level of language is formed.

Units of language

Let's look at how the units of a language system differ from its other elements. Because they are indecomposable. Thus, this step is the lowest on the linguistic ladder. Units have several classifications. For example, they are divided by the presence of a sound shell. In this case, units such as morphemes, phonemes and words fall into one group. They are considered material, since they are distinguished by a permanent sound shell. In another group there are models of the structure of phrases, words and sentences. These units are called relatively material, since their constructive meaning is generalized.

Another classification is based on whether a part of the system has its own meaning. This is an important sign. Material units of language are divided into one-sided (those that do not have their own meaning) and two-sided (those endowed with meaning). They (words and morphemes) have another name. These units are known as the higher units of language.

The systematic study of language and its properties does not stand still. Today, a tendency has already emerged according to which the concepts of “units” and “elements” have begun to be meaningfully separated. This phenomenon is relatively new. The theory is gaining popularity that, as a plan of content and a plan of expression, the elements of language are not independent. This is how they differ from units.

What other features characterize the language system? Language units differ from each other functionally, qualitatively and quantitatively. Thanks to this, humanity is familiar with such deep and widespread linguistic diversity.

Properties of the system

Supporters of structuralism believe that the linguistic system of the Russian language (like any other) is distinguished by several features - rigidity, closedness and unambiguous conditionality. There is also the opposite point of view. It is represented by comparativists. They believe that language as a linguistic system is dynamic and open to change. Similar ideas are widely supported in new areas of linguistic science.

But even supporters of the theory of the dynamism and variability of language do not deny the fact that any system of linguistic means has some stability. It is caused by the properties of the structure, which acts as a law of connection between a variety of linguistic elements. Variation and stability are dialectical. They are opposing tendencies. Any word in a language system changes depending on which of them has more influence.

Unit Features

Another factor important for the formation of a language system is the properties of linguistic units. Their nature is revealed when interacting with each other. Linguists sometimes call properties functions of the subsystem they form. These features are divided into external and internal. The latter depend on the relationships and connections that develop between the units themselves. External properties are formed under the influence of the relationship of language with the surrounding world, reality, human feelings and thoughts.

Units form a system due to their connections. The properties of these relationships are varied. Some correspond to the communicative function of language. Others reflect the connection of language with the mechanisms of the human brain - the source of its own existence. Often these two views are represented as a graph with horizontal and vertical axes.

Relationship between levels and units

A subsystem (or level) of a language is identified if, as a whole, it has all the key properties of the language system. It is also required to meet constructability requirements. In other words, units of the level must participate in the organization of the tier located one step higher. In language, everything is interconnected, and not a single part of it can exist separately from the rest of the organism.

The properties of a subsystem differ in their qualities from the properties of the units that construct it at a lower level. This point is very important. The properties of a level are determined only by language units that are directly included in its composition. This model has an important feature. Attempts by linguists to present language as a multi-tiered system are attempts to create a scheme characterized by ideal ordering. Such an idea can be called utopian. Theoretical models differ markedly from actual practice. Although every language is highly organized, it does not represent an ideal symmetrical and harmonious system. This is why in linguistics there are so many exceptions to the rules that everyone knows from school.