Smoke-forming substances. Chemical Warfare I
Characteristics of incendiary weapons. Incendiary substances, their composition and combat properties. Methods and means of using incendiary weapons
Characteristics of incendiary weapons
Incendiary weapon- a means of destroying enemy personnel and military equipment, the action of which is based on the use of incendiary substances. Incendiary weapons include incendiary ammunition and fire mixtures, as well as means of delivering them to the target.
Incendiary substance- a special selected substance or mixture of substances that can ignite, burn steadily and ensure maximum manifestation of the damaging factors of incendiary weapons during combat use.
The main damaging factor of incendiary weapons is the release of thermal energy and combustion products toxic to humans.
An important distinctive combat property incendiary weapons (IW) is its ability to cause secondary fire processes, which in terms of thermal power and the scale of manifestation of damaging factors can be many times greater than the primary fire effect on the target.
The second important feature The damaging effect of ZZH in relation to manpower is the “production” of a huge number of burn wounds, entailing the incapacitation of manpower and long-term hospitalization, i.e., as a rule, irreversible losses.
The third feature The destructive effect of the ZZZH is the high moral and psychological impact on the enemy’s manpower.
Incendiary substances, their composition and combat properties
All modern incendiary substances, depending on their composition, are divided into three main groups: incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products, metallized incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products, and incendiary mixtures based on thermite.
A special group of incendiary substances consists of ordinary and plasticized phosphorus, alkali metals, and a self-igniting mixture based on triethylene aluminum.
Incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products- are divided into unthickened (liquid) and thickened (viscous).
Unthickened incendiary mixtures- prepared from gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricating oils. They ignite well and are used from backpack flamethrowers.
Thickened incendiary mixtures- viscous gelatinous substances consisting of gasoline or other liquid fuel mixed with various thickeners. They were called napalm. They are a viscous mass that adheres well to various surfaces and resembles rubber glue in appearance. The color of the mass ranges from pink to brown depending on the thickener.
Napalm is highly flammable, but burns with a combustion temperature of 1100-12000C and a duration of 5-10 minutes. In addition, napalm B has increased adhesion even to wet surfaces and, when burned, emits toxic fumes that cause irritation to the eyes and respiratory system. It is also lighter than water, which allows it to burn on its surface.
When light metals (sodium) are added to napalm, the mixture is called "super napalm", which spontaneously ignites on a target, especially water or snow.
Metallized mixtures based on petroleum products (pyrogels) are a type of napalm mixtures with the addition of aluminum, magnesium powders or heavy petroleum products (asphalt, fuel oil) and some types of flammable polymers.
By appearance- a thick mass with a grayish tint, burning with flashes with a combustion temperature of up to 16000C, a burning time of 1-3 minutes.
Pyrogels are distinguished according to the quantitative content of the combustible base
Thermite compounds- are powdery mixtures of iron oxide and aluminum. Their compositions may include barium nitrate, sulfur, and binders (varnishes, oils). Ignition temperature 13000C, combustion temperature 30000C. burning thermite is a liquid mass that does not have an open flame, burning without access to air. Capable of burning through sheets of steel and duralumin, and melting metal objects. Used to equip incendiary mines, shells, small-caliber bombs, hand-held incendiary guarantors and checkers.
White phosphorus- a solid, waxy substance that ignites spontaneously in air and burns with the release of thick, acrid white smoke. Ignition temperature 340C, combustion temperature 12000C. It is used as a smoke-forming substance, as well as an igniter for napalm and pyrogel in incendiary ammunition.
Plasticized phosphorus- a mixture of white phosphorus with a viscous solution of synthetic rubber. It is pressed into granules, which, when broken, are crushed, acquiring the ability to stick to vertical surfaces and burn through them. It is used in smoke ammunition (aircraft bombs, shells, mines, hand grenades) as an igniter in incendiary bombs and fire mines.
Electron is an alloy of magnesium, aluminum and other elements. Ignition temperature 6000C, combustion temperature 28000C. burns with a dazzling white or bluish flame. Used for the manufacture of casings for aircraft incendiary bombs.
Self-igniting incendiary mixture- consists of polyisobutylene and triethylene aluminum (liquid fuel).
Methods and means of using incendiary weapons
According to current views, ZZhO can be used independently or in combination with other means of destruction. It should be used massively, in the main direction, which ensures the greatest effectiveness of its combat use. At the same time, the use of ZZZH is organized and carried out in a system of complex fire destruction of the enemy to solve the following combat missions:
1. Rapid defeat on land and water of large masses of open and partially hidden enemy manpower.
2. Damage to transport (landing) vehicles and special equipment, both on the battlefield and in places of their accumulation and concentration.
3. Creation of extensive landscape and facility fires that destroy manpower, military equipment and material assets.
4. Destruction of buildings and structures.
5. Ensuring the effective destruction of specific targets in the tactical depth of enemy combat formations, especially when fighting in populated areas.
6. Psychological influence on enemy personnel with the aim of demoralizing him.
To solve problems of combat use in the army of a potential enemy, the following are used:
In the Air Force - incendiary bombs, incendiary tanks, cassettes;
In the ground forces - artillery shells, mines, tank, self-propelled, backpack flamethrowers, incendiary grenades, fire mines.
Incendiary aircraft munitions are divided into napalm (fire) incendiary bombs and incendiary cassettes and cassette installations.
Napalm bombs- thin-walled containers made of steel and aluminum alloys with a thickness (0.5 - 0.7 mm) filled with napalm.
Napalm bombs that do not have stabilizers and an explosive projectile are called tanks. They are used on fighter-bombers and attack aircraft.
Aviation cassettes (create fires over large areas) They are disposable shells containing from 50 to 600-800 small-caliber incendiary bombs and a device that ensures their dispersion. Used in aircraft and helicopter aviation.
Artillery incendiary ammunition used in multi-barrel rocket launchers (made from thermite, electron, napalm, phosphorus).
Backpack flamethrowers, the action of which is based on the release of a fire mixture using compressed air.
Rocket launchers In addition to the incendiary grenade, they have in their ammunition a cumulative and a chemical grenade filled with a CS toxic substance.
Rifle incendiary bullets- are intended mainly to destroy manpower, as well as to ignite engines, fuel and flammable materials. Firing range - 120 m.
Incendiary smoke cartridge- is an individual infantry weapon and is designed to combat manpower and armored vehicles. It is loaded with a mixture of powdered phosphorus and magnesium. Flame temperature 1200°C. throwing range 100 m, effective 50-60 m. When burning, a large amount of smoke is released.
Fire bombs- designed to destroy manpower, equipment, as well as to strengthen explosive and non-explosive obstacles.
Incendiary weapons mean incendiary substances and means of their combat use. They are designed to defeat personnel, destroy and
damage to weapons, equipment, structures and other objects. Incendiary substances include petroleum-based incendiary compositions, metallized incendiary mixtures and thermite compositions (the latter are capable of burning through sheets of steel).
To use incendiary substances in the armies of capitalist states, incendiary bombs, aviation incendiary tanks, artillery incendiary shells, tank and backpack flamethrowers, fire mines and hand-held incendiary grenades and checkers are used.
The most reliable protection of personnel from incendiary weapons are fortifications. Short-term protection can be provided by personal protective equipment, as well as an overcoat, peacoat, quilted jacket, and raincoat.
If incendiary agents come into contact with clothing or exposed skin, they must be immediately removed or extinguished. Quickly remove flammable clothing, and cover those parts of burning clothing that cannot be quickly discarded with cloth or damp soil. On Apply a bandage to the burned skin surface moistened with water or a 2% solution of copper sulfate.
If incendiary substances come into contact with weapons and equipment, extinguishing the fire is carried out with standard fire extinguishers, as well as by filling fires with earth, snow, knocking down the flames with freshly cut tree branches, and raincoats.
Smoke weapons supplied to reconnaissance units are hand-held smoke grenades, checkers, thermal smoke equipment and a system for launching smoke grenades on combat vehicles.
6. ENGINEERING PREPARATION Engineering equipment terrain
In order to improve the protective and camouflage properties of the terrain, the department is equipped with single trenches (Fig. 92), a trench or a covered road for personnel and a trench for combat weapons. The window with all-round fire (Fig. 93) should be of such depth that it would be possible to fire from the armament of the vehicle, standing at the bottom, over the parapet.
The bsln trench for bmp (btr) is made in frozen or rocky pears; ":-;, and for tearing off the pit they use explosive vep^s-k";: (Gi). Commander oh! division identifies two - four people.^"uk for o;|)1,"p;-l| turfov, gogsvgggg four charges with a cap^" \"";. !! ; ^" m;! 0!res|^:m!1 /[.tinting cord
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inserting into one!! 1 "tro;pdg:^.yu saber of each charge the end of the detonating "pn\"r."! with a detonator stick^ L(^"th end of the cord u1,n>o;"5!t;"a 1!".ne!^\iost11. Careful, do not hit with lumps gr\""!t:) [" o z-"1 ;;1.\! shu;;; 1 "?) 1 fall asleep Squad commander nrpsp^d""^^""! ^-."about""gple |\o":.!1-,1 children"!""1" of the 2nd cord to the children's capsule -.at the igniter's pipe and orders everyone to hit the \kr"d"ne or retreat to a safe distance (300 m). Having convinced that there is no one within a radius of 300 m, he sets fire to the igniterEdg/yu tr\"bk \- and also goes into hiding. After the explosion, only the commander approaches the pit. He examines the kptlopap and, eh ^li! -: “the hoops exploded, calls the department, which (urgently separates the parapet and masks the osprey.
When performing combat missions, reconnaissance troops install anti-tank weapons and infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry and infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry and infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry and infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry infantry and infantry infantry infantry militia infantry infantry infantry and anti-tank weapons. Most often, pgo-p^.t"""""" ^ь"? 1 pptt^track mines are used with force: "slave--p!" -.;1^ "."; -- "OO;:, (- (2^-5 kN) TLC-B (lere-vyansh^n cop;;\"^) g; TC-"" / ^ ; et:^ll^^ t: "skpy body). When installing mppa ^:" : Rice. 92. Single "trenches: in-for shooting from machine gun while standing; b- for loading from a machine gun while standing; V- per? indoor July per department (crew) Rice. 93. Trench with all-round shelling: a-for SGR; b-for BMGT (BRM) underneath with the lid, disguise the mine as shown in ^c. 94. Rice. 94. Anti-tank mine TM-57: a-general view; b-section; /-metal body of the mine: 2 - pressure cover; 3 - explosive: 4, 5 -
intermediate detonators; 6 -
fuse: 7 - socket for side fuse; V- placing a mine in the ground ^Anti-personnel mines, when exploded, inflict destruction on enemy personnel with a high-explosive effect - NMD 6M, PMN mines (Fig. 95) and fragment mines PSZHZ-2M and OZM-4 (Fig. 96) with a continuous damage radius of 4 and 13 m, respectively High-grade mines, when exploded, usually hit a person; Rice. 95. High-explosive anti-personnel mines PMD-6M and PMN: A - general form; b - section; / - mine cover: 2 -
spewer; 3 -
mine body; 4 -
explosive ischssti; 5 - safety pin Before defusing mines, they are pulled from their place with a cat from a distance of 25-30 m to make sure that they do not An important place in the system of conventional weapons belongs to incendiary weapons, which are a set of weapons based on the use of incendiary substances. According to the American classification, incendiary weapons are classified as weapons of mass destruction. The ability of incendiary weapons to have a strong psychological effect on the enemy is also taken into account. The use of incendiary weapons by a potential enemy can lead to massive damage to personnel, weapons, equipment and other materiel, the occurrence of fires and smoke over large areas, which will have a significant impact on the methods of action of troops and will significantly complicate their performance of their combat missions. Incendiary weapons include incendiary substances and means of their use. The basis of modern incendiary weapons are incendiary substances, which are used to equip incendiary ammunition and flamethrowers. All US Army incendiaries are divided into three main groups: A special group of incendiary substances consists of ordinary and plasticized phosphorus, alkali metals, as well as a mixture based on triethylene aluminum, which is self-igniting in air. a) Incendiaries based on petroleum products are divided into unthickened (liquid) and thickened (viscous). To prepare the latter, special thickeners and flammable substances are used. Napalm is the most widely used petroleum-based incendiary. Napalms are incendiary substances that do not contain an oxidizer and burn when combined with oxygen in the air. They are jelly-like, viscous substances with strong adhesion and a high combustion temperature. Napalm is obtained by adding a special thickener powder to liquid fuel, usually gasoline. Napalm usually contains 3 - 10 percent thickener and 90 - 97 percent gasoline. Gasoline-based napalms have a density of 0.8-0.9 grams per cubic centimeter. They have the ability to easily ignite and develop temperatures of up to 1000 - 1200 degrees. The duration of napalm burning is 5 - 10 minutes. They easily stick to various types of surfaces and are difficult to extinguish. The most effective is napalm B, adopted by the US Army in 1966. It is characterized by good flammability and increased adhesion even to wet surfaces, and is capable of creating a high-temperature (1000 - 1200 degrees) fire with a burning duration of 5 - 10 minutes. Napalm B is lighter than water, so it floats on its surface, while retaining the ability to burn, which makes it much more difficult to eliminate fires. Napalm B burns with a smoking flame, saturating the air with caustic hot gases. When heated, it liquefies and acquires the ability to penetrate shelters and equipment. Contact with unprotected skin of even 1 gram of burning napalm B can cause severe injuries. Complete destruction of openly located manpower is achieved at a napalm consumption rate 4 - 5 times less than high-explosive fragmentation ammunition. Napalm B can be prepared directly in the field. b) Metallized mixtures are used to increase the spontaneous ignition of napalm on wet surfaces and on snow. If you add powdered or shavings of magnesium to napalm, as well as coal, asphalt, saltpeter and other substances, you get a mixture called pyrogel. The combustion temperature of pyrogens reaches 1600 degrees. Unlike ordinary napalm, pyrogens are heavier than water and burn for only 1 to 3 minutes. When pyrogel gets on a person, it causes deep burns not only on open areas of the body, but also on those covered by uniform, since it is very difficult to remove clothes while the pyrogel is burning. c) Thermite compounds have been used for a relatively long time. Their action is based on a reaction in which crushed aluminum combines with the oxides of refractory metals, releasing a large amount of heat. For military purposes, the powder of a thermite mixture (usually aluminum and iron oxides) is pressed. Burning thermite heats up to 3000 degrees. At this temperature, brick and concrete crack, iron and steel burn. As an incendiary, thermite has the disadvantage that when it burns, no flame is formed, so 40-50 percent of powdered magnesium, drying oil, rosin and various oxygen-rich compounds are added to thermite. d) White phosphorus is a white, translucent, wax-like solid. It is capable of self-ignition when combining with oxygen in the air. Combustion temperature 900 - 1200 degrees. White phosphorus is used as a smoke-forming substance and also as an igniter for napalm and pyrogel in incendiary ammunition. Plasticized phosphorus (with rubber additives) acquires the ability to stick to vertical surfaces and burn through them. This allows it to be used for loading bombs, mines, and shells. e) Alkali metals, especially potassium and sodium, have the property of reacting violently with water and igniting. Due to the fact that alkali metals are dangerous to handle, they have not found independent use and are used, as a rule, to ignite napalm. Modern US Army incendiary weapons include: a) Napalm bombs are thin-walled containers filled with thickened substances. Currently, US air forces are armed with napalm bombs ranging from 250 to 1000 pounds in caliber. Unlike other ammunition, napalm bombs create a three-dimensional lesion. At the same time, the area affected by 750-pound caliber ammunition of openly located personnel is about 4 thousand square meters, the rise of smoke and flame is several tens of meters. b) Aviation incendiary bombs of small calibers - from one to ten pounds - are used, as a rule, in cassettes. They are usually loaded with thermites. Due to their insignificant mass, bombs of this group create separate sources of fire, thus being incendiary ammunition. c) Aviation incendiary cartridges are intended to create fires over large areas. They are disposable shells containing from 50 to 600 - 800 small-caliber incendiary bombs and a device that ensures their dispersion over a large area during combat use. d) Aviation cassette installations have a purpose and equipment similar to aviation incendiary cassettes, but unlike them, they are reusable devices. e) Artillery incendiary ammunition is made on the basis of thermite, napalm, and phosphorus. Thermite segments, tubes filled with napalm, and pieces of phosphorus scattered during the explosion of one ammunition can cause the ignition of flammable materials over an area of 30 - 60 square meters. The duration of burning of thermite segments is 15 - 30 seconds. f) Flamethrowers are effective incendiary weapons for infantry units. They are devices that emit a stream of burning fire mixture using compressed gas pressure. g) Rocket incendiary grenade launchers have a much longer firing range and are more economical than grenade launchers. Fire (incendiary) land mines are intended to be used mainly to destroy manpower and transport equipment, as well as to strengthen explosive and non-explosive barriers. Based on materials freely distributed on the Internet Lesson No. 1 “Classification of incendiary substances and their properties.” Concepts about incendiary weapons. Classification of incendiary agents (napalm, pyrogens, electron, thermite, white phosphorus) and their properties 2. Means of using incendiary substances Introduction. Fire is one of the most ancient types of weapons. For more than seven centuries, until the 15th century, “Greek fire” was used on the battlefields, which was a mixture of flammable oils, resins, sulfur, saltpeter and other substances with which vessels were equipped and thrown to the enemy’s location by throwing machines. And with the advent of firearms, incendiary substances did not lose their importance. During the First World War, designs were developed for a thermite-segmented projectile and a high-explosive flamethrower with a powder pressure generator, which are still the basis for the design of modern incendiary ammunition and means of their use. Before and during the Second World War, tank, high-explosive and backpack mortars were created. A well-known leap in the development of incendiary weapons was made in 1942, when a flammable mixture based on gasoline with a thickener consisting of aluminum salts of naphthenic and palmitic acids was developed and proposed for military use. Since then, incendiary mixtures based on hydrocarbon fuel containing thickeners are commonly called NAPALMS. American aviation widely used napalm in combat operations against Japan on an island in the Pacific Ocean, and after the Second World War - in the war in Korea and South Vietnam. In 1980, the United Nations Conference on Restricting the Use of Incendiary Weapons on Civilians took place in Geneva. The conference protocol prohibits the use of incendiary weapons against civilians and civilian objects. Currently, capitalist countries continue to develop new incendiary compounds and more effective means of their combat use. Incendiary weapon(ZZhO) – incendiary substances and means of their combat use. Incendiary weapons are used to defeat enemy personnel, destroy their weapons, military equipment, material reserves, and to create fires in combat areas. The main damaging factors of LZH are: thermal energy and combustion products toxic to humans. ZZhO has damaging factors that act in time and space and can be divided into primary and secondary. The primary factors include: thermal energy, smoke and combustion products of incendiary mixtures that are toxic to humans immediately at the time of application of the fire-fighting liquid. The time they influence the target lasts from several seconds to several minutes. Secondary damaging factors are: released thermal energy, smoke and toxic products as a result of fires. The time they influence the target can last from several minutes and hours to days and weeks. The damaging factors of ZZH determine its damaging effect, which manifests itself in a burn effect in relation to the skin and respiratory tract of a person, in an incendiary effect in relation to flammable materials of clothing, military and other equipment, terrain, buildings, etc.; in a burning action in relation to combustible and non-combustible materials, in deoxygenation of the atmosphere, heating and saturating it with gaseous combustion products toxic to humans. In addition, ZZhO has a great demoralizing moral and psychological effect on manpower, reducing its ability to actively resist. The basis of modern LZZ is incendiary substances, which are used to equip incendiary ammunition and flamethrowers. An incendiary substance or an incendiary mixture is a substance or a mixture of substances that can ignite, burn steadily and release a large amount of thermal energy. Incendiary substances and incendiary mixtures in service with the armies of a potential enemy are divided into the following main groups: Incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products (napalm); Metallized incendiary mixtures (pyrogels); Thermite and thermite compounds. A special group of incendiary substances consists of ordinary white phosphorus and plasticized phosphorus, a self-igniting mixture based on triethylene aluminum, alkali metals and electron alloy. According to combustion conditions, incendiary substances and mixtures can be divided into two main groups: - burning in the presence of atmospheric oxygen (napalm, white phosphorus); - burning without access to air oxygen (thermite, thermite compounds). Incendiary mixtures based on petroleum products can be unthickened (liquid) and thickened (viscous). This is the most common type of mixture and can cause burns and ignite flammable materials. Unthickened incendiary mixtures are prepared on the basis of gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricating oils. They are easily flammable and are used from backpack flamethrowers in cases where thickened mixtures are not available or a long flamethrowing range is required. Thickened incendiary mixtures (napalms) are a thick sticky gelatinous mass of pink or brown color, consisting of gasoline or other liquid hydrocarbon fuel (kerosene, benzene and their mixtures) mixed in a certain ratio with various thickeners. Thickeners are substances. imparting a certain viscosity to mixtures when dissolved in a flammable base. As thickeners, a mixture of aluminum salts of naphthenic, palmitic, oleic acids and coconut oil acids is used in napalm; rubber (napalm “B”) or other polymeric substances. Typically napalms contain 3-10% thickener and 90-96% gasoline. Napalms adhere well to various surfaces and are retained on them and are difficult to extinguish. To increase the viscosity and stickiness of napalm, a catalyst is added to it - teptizor, which contains cresol and alcohol. Gasoline-based napalms have a density of 0.8-0.9 g/cm 3 (floats in water). The combustion temperature is 1000-1200 0 C, the burning duration is 5-10 minutes. The most effective is napalm “B”, adopted by the US Army in 1966. It is characterized by good flammability and increased adhesion even to wet surfaces. Napalm burns with a large, smoky flame, forming a cloud of black suffocating smoke that irritates the respiratory tract, which often leads to poisoning. To increase the burning temperature of napalm, magnesium is added to it. The burning time of one drop is 30 minutes. When heated, napalm “B” liquefies and acquires the ability to penetrate shelters and equipment. Recently, the armies of a potential enemy have adopted self-igniting napalm, which is made from organic compounds. This napalm spontaneously ignites in air and reacts violently with water and snow. Thermite aerial bombs of instant or delayed action, as well as tanks, are equipped with napalm. The shell of such a bomb is made of metal or plastic. The capacity of large tanks is 100-600 liters, small ones - 5-10 liters. When dropped, the napalm bomb explodes (breaks), the napalm ignites from the ignition charge, incendiary compositions are scattered, stick to surrounding objects and ignite. When napalm ignites, the flame rises as if in an explosion and is red in color. Metallized incendiary mixtures(pyrogels) are obtained by adding magnesium, sodium, phosphorus and aluminum, oxidizing agents, coal, liquid asphalt, saltpeter and heavy oils to napalm in the form of powder or shavings. Pyrogels are a dough-like sticky mass of dark gray color; they burn more intensely than napalm, forming hot slag that can burn through thin metal and char wood. The combustion temperature of pyrogens reaches 1600 0 C. Pyrogels are heavier than water, their combustion takes only 1-3 minutes. Thermite and thermite compounds– a general name for mixtures containing iron oxide and ignition compounds. In practice, iron is most often used - aluminum thermite - it consists of a mixture of compressed iron oxide powder (Fe 2 O 3) - 75% and aluminum powder - 25%. In addition, thermite compositions may include barium nitrate, sulfur and binders (varnishes, oils). Thermite is gray in color and is very resistant to mechanical stress: friction, impact, bullet penetration. It is not flammable; it does not ignite from a burning match. Thermite and thermite compositions ignite from special ignition devices and, when burning, develop a temperature of up to 2500-3000 0 C, which causes ignition of surrounding materials, melting and burning of metal coatings, and metal parts of military equipment. Burns without oxygen without forming a flame. It is impossible to extinguish a burning thermite with a small amount of water, because the water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen, forming an explosive gas that explodes and scatters the burning thermite, thereby increasing the radius of the fire. It is advisable to cover the burning thermite with dry soil (sand) or pour plenty of water. Thermite burning does not stop with this extinguishing method, but the spread of fire to surrounding objects is prevented. Thermite is used to fill mines, aerial bombs, small-caliber incendiary and armor-piercing incendiary shells (2-5 kg), and hand grenades. It is used when it is necessary to set fire to objects that are difficult to ignite. White phosphorus– a solid, translucent, waxy, toxic substance similar to wax that is both an incendiary and a smoke generator. It dissolves well in liquid organic solvents and is stored under a layer of water. It ignites easily in air and does not require any fuses for ignition. It burns with the release of a large amount of caustic white smoke (small drops of phosphoric acid), developing a temperature of up to 900-1200 0 C, which ensures the arson of flammable objects. The ignition temperature of powdered phosphorus is 34 0 C. Extinguishing burning phosphorus can be done with water, covered with earth (sand), as well as a 5-10% solution of copper sulfate. Plasticized phosphorus is a mixture of ordinary white phosphorus with a viscous solution of synthetic rubber. It is more stable during storage. When used, it is crushed into large, slowly burning pieces, and is capable of sticking to vertical surfaces and burning through them. Burning phosphorus causes severe, painful burns that take a long time to heal. Used in artillery shells and bombs or in mixtures. Electron– a silver-colored metal alloy consisting of 96% magnesium, 3% aluminum and 1% other elements. It ignites at a temperature of 600 0 C and burns with a dazzling white or blue flame, developing a temperature of up to 2800 0 C. Combustion occurs only in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. The electron, despite its ability to develop high temperatures, does not have a burning effect towards iron during combustion. For this reason, it is advisable to use it in conjunction with thermite, as well as for the manufacture of casings for aviation incendiary bombs. Self-igniting incendiary mixture– is a polyisobutene-thickened triethylaluminum (organometallic compound). In appearance, this mixture resembles ordinary napalm, but has the ability to spontaneously ignite in air. The mixture is also flammable on wet surfaces and snow due to the addition of sodium, potassium, magnesium or phosphorus. Incendiary compositions based on cerium and barium nitrate have similar properties. Alkali metals, especially potassium and sodium, have the property of reacting violently with water and igniting. Due to the fact that alkali metals are dangerous to handle, they have not found independent application and are used, as a rule, to ignite napalm. The use of smoke agents will greatly contribute to the successful conduct of military operations by troops. According to the regulations of foreign armies, using smoke agents it is recommended: To solve the above problems, it is planned to fire artillery smoke shells and mines, rifle smoke grenades, carry out bombing strikes by aircraft, use smoke-forming substances from devices installed on airplanes and helicopters, and create smoke screens using smoke bombs and smoke machines. Foreign regulations and instructions provide for the installation of blinding, horizontal and vertical smoke screens or the creation of haze. Blinding smoke screens are usually placed in enemy territory to make it difficult for them to observe and conduct targeted fire. A horizontal smoke screen complicates the maneuver and combat activities of troops, preventing the enemy from observing from the air, conducting targeted bombing and shelling. A vertical curtain is used, as a rule, at the front line of defense in order to hide the actions and location of friendly troops from the enemy, as well as to complicate ground observation. The purpose of setting up the haze is to hide the actions of friendly troops from the enemy’s ground and air surveillance and prevent him from conducting targeted fire using ground forces. According to foreign experts, haze impedes the maneuver of units less than a horizontal smoke screen. Smoke screens are created using various smoke-forming substances. Their main characteristics are given in Table 1. Table 1 For the use of smoke-forming substances in ground forces abroad, there are artillery shells, rockets, mines, rifle grenades, smoke machines, checkers and landmines. In aviation, including the army, bombs, cassettes, aviation pouring devices, and aviation smoke devices are intended for these purposes. Smoke artillery shells (Fig. 1) and mines are intended for setting up camouflaging vertical and blinding smoke screens (see), as well as target designation and signaling on the battlefield. They are manufactured in almost all calibers and are equipped with white or plasticized white phosphorus. According to the principle of action, these projectiles are divided into explosive action, bottom ejection and bottom ignition. When exploding smoke shells are detonated, phosphorus is scattered, interacts vigorously with air moisture, and forms a white cloud. In bottom ejection projectiles, smoke briquettes are pushed out after ignition at the final section of the trajectory. Discarded briquettes act as smoke bombs. Bottom ignition shells are no different in principle from conventional smoke bombs. When falling to the ground, they form a smoke cloud within 1-2 minutes. Foreign experts believe that smoke screens can be placed both on one’s own territory and on territory occupied by the enemy. Hand-held smoke grenades are either explosive or smoking, designed to mask the actions of personnel and equipment in close combat, and are filled with white phosphorus, hexachloroethane or colored smoke mixtures. Their outer shell is made of sheet steel, aluminum alloys or plastic. When an explosive grenade explodes, a smoke cloud instantly forms. In smoking grenades, a smoke cloud is formed when the smoke-forming substance burns for 1-2 minutes. An exception is the West German DM-19 incendiary-smoke grenade (Fig. 2), which is loaded with an incendiary mixture that creates not only thick black smoke, but also flames. With the help of this grenade it is supposed to blind the crews of armored vehicles with fire and smoke, set fire to flammable military equipment, and smoke the enemy out of defensive structures. Smoke grenades, fired from automatic rifles (Fig. 3) and grenade launchers (Fig. 4), consist of a cylindrical body filled with a smoke-forming substance, a tube with a stabilizer, a fuse or fuse. Sometimes hand smoke grenades are used instead of a rifle grenade, for which special attachments, stabilizing devices and special firing cartridges are used (Fig. 5). To create horizontal smoke screens, the armed forces of capitalist countries are equipped with small (weight 1.0 - 3 kg) and large (up to 20 kg or more) smoke bombs. Sometimes, to quickly create smoke, bombs are dropped to the ground from low-flying helicopters. The metal body of the checker is made in the form of a cylinder with two covers; they are equipped with a hexachloroethane mixture or petroleum oils. For ignition, grating or electric fuses are used. The burning time (depending on the weight of the checkers) is 2-6 minutes. Floating bombs (Fig. 6) have a special device for flooding after the smoke mixture has completely burned out. In recent years, armored vehicles equipped with special multi-barrel grenade launchers (mortars) have been entering service with the British, French, West German, Italian and other armies. To fire from them, special smoke grenades with an electric fuse are used; the vehicle commander controls the installation of the curtain using a special control panel. At 40-70 m from the armored vehicle, a smoke screen is created in 2-5 s, which remains on the ground for 1-2 minutes. Using similar means and smoke rockets, foreign instructions recommend installing horizontal smoke screens. According to the regulations of the armies of capitalist countries, smoke machines in a stationary or mobile (on a car, armored personnel carrier, boat, boat or other vehicle) must be used to camouflage large-sized area objects, important targets and crossings. In the latter case, the smoke screen is placed from a place or while moving. The smoke machine has the following main components: The army aviation of capitalist states is equipped with smoke bombs, cassettes, pour-out and smoke aviation devices. Smoke bombs of various calibers are filled with white, plasticized white phosphorus or hexachloroethane smoke mixture. They are designed to blind the enemy's fire system, hinder the maneuver of troops, camouflage the attack and maneuver of friendly troops. After a bomb explosion, a smoke cloud 10-15 m high and 30-40 m wide appears. A secondary cloud of smoke is formed from scattered phosphorus within 5-8 minutes. Phosphorus smoke bombs cause not only blinding weapons, but also fires. The main purpose of airborne pouring and smoke devices is to set up vertical curtains to camouflage friendly troops from enemy fire and ground surveillance. The aircraft discharge device consists of a metal body, an air breather, a discharge pipe and an electrical wiring system. It is activated by simultaneous detonation of the membranes in the air breather and the outlet pipe. The smoke-forming substance flows out of the device under the influence of its own weight and the oncoming air flow entering through the breather. Using one device, a vertical smoke screen 400-500 m long is created. After use, the device can be dropped from an airplane. The aviation smoke device is equipped with aluminum spherical ampoules (up to 500 pieces) with a diameter of 70 mm with holes. Air is first pumped out of the device body and ampoule, and then they are filled (under vacuum) with a solution of sulfuric anhydride in chlorosulfonic acid. When electric detonators are detonated, the membranes in the head and tail parts are destroyed, and the oncoming flow pushes out ampoules with the mixture, which, falling to the ground, form a smoke screen. The design of the device allows you to create a vertical smoke screen of relatively high height with the lower edge on the ground surface. With a helicopter flight altitude of up to 60 m and a speed of 60 km/h, one device can create a curtain up to 350 m long, the duration of effective camouflage is 15 minutes. To set up smoke screens in the army aviation of capitalist countries, special suspended cassette installations with small smoke bombs or grenades (200 - 300 pieces) are also used. The installation has several barrels; a smoke screen is created by throwing out various numbers of smoke bombs or grenades. In table Table 2 shows the main characteristics of individual samples of smoke products in service with the armies of NATO countries. table 2 The consumption of the smoke-forming substance is 100-190 l/h. As noted in the foreign press, in recent years the army commands of many capitalist states have paid great attention to the improvement, development and use of various smoke agents. American troops used smoke agents during the aggression in South Vietnam. Foreign experts believe that. Thus, experts have found that setting up a smoke screen 10 minutes before a nuclear explosion can reduce the impact of light radiation by three to eight times (depending on the distance to the epicenter). It is believed that with the help of timely placement of a dense smoke screen between the center of a nuclear explosion and the object, it is possible to reduce the dose of light radiation energy falling on it by 10 - 12 times. A variety of smoke-forming (aerosol-forming) substances and compositions are supposed to be used to protect and camouflage targets not only from optical, but also from infrared, radar and laser devices. As reported in the American press, for a long time specialists from the US military chemical arsenals have been studying the possibility of using various plastics. To produce smoke, foaming plastic is injected into a stream of gases whose temperature is higher than the temperature at which foams are formed. Sources of hot gases include gas turbines, internal combustion engines and jet engines. The process of smoke formation is that plastic droplets injected into a stream of hot gases flowing at high speed acquire a cellular structure and then harden. In this way, smoke is obtained, consisting of large particles with a low settling rate. The low density of the smoke cloud means that fumes produced from plastics remain suspended longer than fumes produced by other methods. The most promising substances for producing fumes are polyester-based polyurethanes, as well as various phenol-formaldehyde resins. Simultaneously with the improvement of standard ones, new smoke ammunition is being developed in many armies of capitalist countries. Thus, in the USA a new universal smoke element has been created for loading artillery shells and other smoke ammunition. It is a sheet of lamellar white phosphorus rolled into a tube, reinforced with cotton fabric (Fig. 7). Such elements, tightly packed into the ammunition body, are pushed out by the expelling charge when approaching the ground and dissipate. Each element acts as a smoke bomb with a long effective smoke release time.1. Incendiary substances
- based on petroleum products;
- metallized incendiary mixtures;
- thermite and thermite compounds.2. Means of application
- napalm (fire) bombs;
- aviation incendiary bombs;
- aviation incendiary cassettes;
- aviation cassette installations;
- artillery incendiary ammunition flamethrowers;
- rocket-propelled incendiary grenade launchers;
- fire (incendiary) landmines.Concepts about incendiary weapons. Classification of incendiary agents (napalm, pyrogens, electron, thermite, white phosphorus) and their properties.
It is believed that smokes can be used both day and night. In the latter case, they provide camouflage of troops and rear facilities from enemy observation using night vision devices and artificial lighting. 
Rice. 1. American 105-mm smoke projectile M84 bottom ejection (A - smoke-forming substance)
Rice. 2 West German incendiary smoke grenade DM-19
Rice. 3. American rifle smoke grenade
Rice. 4. American 88.9 mm rocket-propelled smoke grenade
Rice. 5. Belgian rifle smoke grenade
Rice. 6. American floating smoke bomb
When a smoke machine operates, low-viscosity smoke-forming oil evaporates in a stream of hot gases from a gasoline or jet engine, and then these vapors condense in the atmosphere. Under normal meteorological conditions, one smoke machine can smoke an area 40-50 m wide and 4-6 km long. The chemical forces of foreign armies have battalions and separate smoke camouflage companies. A company usually has up to 50 smoke machines, with the help of which, under favorable conditions, it is possible to ensure smoke coverage of a strip of 4-6 km along the front and up to several kilometers in depth. 
Rice. 7. American smoke shell XM761: 1 - fuse; 2 - expelling charge; 3 - knockout plate; 4 - tubular guide; 5 - bottom part; 6 - smoke element
