Methods of armed struggle. Means of armed struggle
INTRODUCTION
An analysis of the military-political situation in the world shows that the beginning of the 21st century will be characterized by the manifestation of two main trends in domestic and international relations:
First - a departure from military-power politics to the development of relations of trust and cooperation in the military-political field.
Second - the opposite trend, which consists in expanding the reasons and reasons for the use of military power politics. The crisis nature of the economic development of a large group of states, the real growth of the gap between economically developed and backward countries, provokes the political regimes of some countries to attempt to solve economic and internal political problems by armed means.
These trends are due to the following reasons:
· increasing shortage of raw materials and energy in developed countries;
· transfer of social-class confrontation to the area of national contradictions;
· strengthening the struggle for leadership in the new order in the regions and in the world as a whole;
· growing need to reform the existing world order by changing the status of new world powers;
· entry into the political arena of forces professing terrorism as a way to change the world order.
Existing contradictions between states and peoples will push various radical and extremist movements to use force.
Consequently, even the final passing of the Cold War relapses into the past does not mean that military-political confrontation will be excluded from international practice. Abandoning ideological confrontation will not cancel geopolitical interests, as well as national priorities in the foreign policy of any state.
3.2 POSSIBLE CHARACTER OF A FUTURE WAR
When analyzing threats to Russia's security, one should focus on the sources of military danger, which can develop into military threats of various scales (global, regional, local).
The global military danger to Russia comes and will continue to come from countries that have strategic nuclear weapons (USA, China, France, UK, Pakistan). In turn, Russia, which possesses the same weapons, is a source of global military danger in relation to other countries of the world. At the same time, the military-strategic situation in the world shows that the potential military danger on a global scale is decreasing and has all positive trends towards further decline.
Thus, the military-strategic situation in the world at the beginning of the 21st century is characterized by a tendency to reduce the existing military threat to Russia from countries with nuclear weapons. The same goes for Russia – to these countries.
The characteristic features of modern wars today include:
· the use of various forms and methods of combat operations, including unconventional ones;
· combination of military actions (conducted in accordance with the rules of military science) with partisan and terrorist actions;
· widespread use of criminal groups;
· transience of military operations (30-60 days);
· selectivity of hitting objects;
· increasing the role of long-distance combat using high-precision radio-controlled equipment;
· delivering targeted strikes on key facilities (critical elements of economic facilities);
· a combination of powerful political-diplomatic, informational, psychological and economic influence.
The sources of potential regional danger for Russia and other neighboring countries are the states bordering the territory of the former USSR in the south, which are capable of individually creating quite powerful groupings of troops against their northern neighbors. In addition, the source of regional military danger is the growing territorial and religious contradictions in the north-west and east of Russia. At the same time, regional military dangers of various types have been mitigated to a certain extent by bilateral agreements and have practically not developed into a military threat to Russia, although they have great explosive potential.
Local military danger currently has a more mobile nature, more pronounced and specific symptoms of contradictions and a shorter process in terms of time of transition to an immediate military threat or armed conflict.
Currently, trends in increasing military danger within the CIS and Russia are playing an increasingly important role, which can develop into armed conflicts of varying scale and intensity.
A) The first is the discrepancy between the ethnic and administrative borders of a number of CIS states and Russia. The same problem occurs within the Russian Federation and between its subjects.
B) Second, political and economic contradictions both within Russia and with the CIS countries can provoke armed conflicts.
C) The third is the desire of the nationalist power structures of some autonomies for complete sovereignty and the creation of their own national formations.
Thus, for Russia there are currently sources of military danger in the European, Central Asian, and Asia-Pacific regions.
A brief analysis of trends in the development of military-political relations between states and sources of military danger shows that with unfavorable development, a sharp aggravation of existing contradictions between Russia and states near and far abroad is possible. This can lead to the emergence of armed conflicts (wars), varying in their goals and scale.
Based on military threats, dangers and measures to ensure the security of Russia, the alignment of military and political forces in the world and states neighboring Russia, as well as the possible geopolitical goals of the aggressor, military conflicts of the early 21st century can develop according to Fig. 1
Military conflicts will be characterized as:
· border wars– where the aggressor will pursue goals: breaking through the state border to allow smugglers, terrorists or a flow of refugees through; implementation of territorial claims against Russia; support for separatist movements in neighboring territories; provoking NATO to enter the conflict on the side of the aggressor; gaining access to the resources of the Russian economic zone;
· local wars, which can be tied to the following goals: the implementation of territorial claims against the Russian Federation; support for armed separatist movements on Russian territory with the goal of separating certain regions from it, as well as ousting peacekeeping contingents and Russian military bases in other states;
· regional wars– wars of a larger scale, which will be carried out with the goals of: defeating the main military forces of the Russian Federation on the territory of the theater of military operations; seizure of significant territory; weakening the military-political leadership of the state and promoting the territorial disintegration of the Russian Federation; weakening of the international positions of the Russian Federation; the final erosion and collapse of the CIS and the system of international relations;
· large scale (world) war, where the aggressor is a state, a coalition of states or a bloc of them, will pursue the goals of the military and economic defeat of the Russian Federation and its allies, the dismemberment and liquidation of Russia as a state subject of international relations.
Sources of military danger for Russia can be divided into two groups: A) Existing within the CIS and Russia, and B) Coming from other states.
Currently within the CIS and Russia The following contradictions remain, causing trends in increasing military danger, which can develop into armed conflicts of varying scale and intensity:
1) The discrepancy between the ethnic and administrative borders of a number of CIS states and Russia (the same problem also occurs within the Russian Federation between its subjects).
2) Political and economic contradictions both within Russia and with the CIS countries.
3) The desire of the nationalist power structures of some autonomies for complete sovereignty and the creation of their own national formations.
| Interethnic armed conflict | ||
| Local war in one strategic direction | ||
| Regional conflict in 2-3 strategic directions | ||
| World war using only conventional weapons | ||
| 2-3 weeks | 2-3 months | |
| The escalation of a war with the use of conventional weapons into a war with the limited use of nuclear weapons and other means of mass destruction | ||
| World nuclear war |
Options for the development of a military conflict
From the outside so-called states far abroad the most likely military threat is a border, local and regional war.
Border and local military danger can currently arise in any region that contains important economic or political significance. This military danger has a more mobile nature, more pronounced and specific symptoms of contradictions and a shorter process in terms of time of transition to an immediate military threat or armed conflict.
The sources of potential regional danger for Russia and other neighboring countries are the states bordering the territory of the former USSR in the south, which are capable of individually creating quite powerful groupings of troops against their northern neighbors. In addition, the source of regional military danger is the growing territorial and religious contradictions in the north-west and east of Russia.
At the same time, regional military dangers of various types have been mitigated to a certain extent by bilateral agreements and have practically not developed into a military threat to Russia, although they have great explosive potential.
However, we should not forget that based on military threats, dangers, the balance of military and political forces in the world and states neighboring Russia, as well as the possible geopolitical goals of the aggressor, military conflicts of the early 21st century can develop up to a world war with the use of all types of weapons .
What the nature of each specific war will be is determined by: the capabilities of the states participating in it, the military-political goals and the strategic objectives set to achieve them.
Thus, for Russia there are currently sources of military danger in almost all regions surrounding the state: in the European, Central Asian, and Asia-Pacific regions.
The strategic nature of modern wars is determined by the capabilities of the states participating in them, the military-political goals and the strategic objectives set to achieve them.
It is important to note that modern wars are fundamentally different from all previous wars in history. The characteristic features of modern wars today include:
1) the secrecy of preparation and the suddenness of the outbreak of aggression, elements of which have already been observed in the wars of the twentieth century;
2) the transience of military operations (30-60 days);
3) the constant threat of expanding the scale of the conflict;
4) conducting armed struggle in all spheres of the globe - on land, in the air, at sea, with the increasing role of aerospace attack means;
5) the use of various classical and previously unknown forms and methods of warfare, including unconventional ones;
6) selectivity of hitting objects;
7) massive use of high-precision weapons, electronic warfare equipment, and, in the future, weapons based on new physical principles;
8) increasing the role of long-distance combat using high-precision radio-controlled equipment;
9) fire destruction of the most important objects and elements of the infrastructure of the state and a group of troops to the entire depth of their formation; maneuverable actions of troops with the widespread use of airmobile forces, landing forces and special forces;
10) carrying out targeted strikes on key objects (critical elements of economic objects);
11) a combination of military operations (conducted in accordance with the rules of military science) with partisan and terrorist actions;
12) widespread use of criminal groups;
13) active struggle to gain strategic initiative and superiority in management;
14) a combination of powerful political-diplomatic, informational, psychological and economic influence.
Their most characteristic features will be: the secrecy of preparation and the suddenness of the unleashing of aggression; massive use of high-precision weapons, electronic warfare equipment, and, in the future, weapons based on new physical principles; the use of previously unknown forms and methods of warfare; conducting armed struggle in all spheres - on land, in the air, at sea, with the increasing role of aerospace attack means; active struggle to gain strategic initiative and superiority in management; fire destruction of the most important objects and elements of the infrastructure of the state and a group of troops to the entire depth of their formation; maneuverable actions of troops with the widespread use of airmobile forces, landing forces and special forces; the constant threat of expanding the scale of the conflict. All this puts forward new demands on the structure of the state’s military organization, including civil defense and the system of medical care for the population in wartime.
Characteristic of modern wars is the fact that even with the participation of large military formations over large territories, war, as a rule, is not declared, martial law is not introduced in the state, and full-scale mobilization measures are not carried out. In other words, there is no clear legal boundary between the peaceful and military situation in a country in which, in essence, there is a war.
In the same time, even in a limited military conflict the state must take measures to protect civilian population, material and cultural values from the effects of enemy weapons, i.e. conduct civil defense activities and use its strengths and means.
All this puts forward new requirements both for the structure and organization of work of military units, formations and associations of the state, and for the structure and organization of work of civil defense forces and means.
In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in the combat potential of developed countries due to the quantitative and qualitative buildup of conventional weapons. A priority role is given to the use of high-precision conventional weapons, mainly by remote control from long distances with virtually no full-scale ground operations.
In a likely war, a decisive role will be played by high-precision weapons and weapons based on new physical principles of destruction, and created on the basis of the latest technologies. The development of weapons based on new physical principles is being carried out most intensively. Their destructive properties and combat effectiveness have increased sharply. The further development of scientific and technological progress in the military field finds its concentrated expression in the computerization of the armed forces. A new term “computer-technotronic war” has been introduced into everyday use.
These types of weapons will significantly devalue the role of nuclear weapons and destroy the barrier that has long separated nuclear and conventional weapons.
These weapons will inevitably change the nature of war and, as a result, require changes in the organization of civil defense work.
Thus, it is obvious that probable wars against Russia will be carried out using modern conventional weapons. Qualitatively new means of armed struggle, created on the basis of the latest technologies, will inevitably change the nature of war. The decisive role is assigned not to manpower, not to nuclear weapons, but to high-precision conventional weapons and weapons based on new physical principles. These types of weapons will significantly devalue the role of nuclear weapons and destroy the barrier that has long separated nuclear and conventional weapons.
3.3 NUCLEAR WEAPONS. ITS Striking FACTORS. BRIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAR DAMAGE SITE
In modern warfare, nuclear weapons occupy a special place. It is the main means of destruction, the main means of waging war. Tactical-technical and military-economic characteristics may allow the widespread use of nuclear weapons both to strike industrial, political and administrative centers, transport hubs and military facilities deep in enemy territory, and to hit the population. According to their purpose, a distinction is made between strategic and tactical nuclear weapons. This distinction is to a certain extent arbitrary, since the same nuclear weapons can be used for different purposes.
Table 10
Indicators of sanitary losses during the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Table 11
Structure of sanitary losses during the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (%)
The development and improvement of nuclear weapons have a great influence on the means and methods of warfare, which in turn affects the organization and equipment of the armed forces, strategy, operational art and tactics of combat operations, including medical support for troops, as well as for medical care of the civilian population injured during hostilities or as a result of these actions
Nuclear weapons are ammunition (bombs, shells, missile warheads, land mines, etc.), the destructive effect of which is due to intranuclear energy released during explosive nuclear reactions. The production of nuclear energy is achieved through the fission of the nuclei of atoms of some heavy elements (uranium, plutonium) or the synthesis of the nuclei of atoms of the lightest elements into heavier ones, for example, isotopes of hydrogen into helium.
Type of nuclear weapon
- Atomic weapons (charge up to 500 Kt TNT equivalent)
Chain reaction of fission of nuclei of heavy elements
U 233, U 235 (30 kg), Pu 238 (60 kg)
- Thermonuclear weapons
Synthesis of nuclei of light elements H 2 + H 3 = He 4 + n 0
- Combined charges (charges up to 50-100 Mt TNT equivalent)
- Neutron weapons
- Radiological weapons
Atomic munitions
In atomic weapons, nuclear fission and the release of intranuclear energy are carried out due to the action of neutrons on the nuclei of atoms. In this case, the nucleus of a heavy element breaks up, as a rule, into two “fragments”, which are the nuclei of elements located in the middle part of Mendeleev’s periodic table, and a greater amount of energy is released.
That is, an atomic bomb is two masses of nuclear matter, each less than a critical mass, which quickly combine during the use of weapons, causing a nuclear explosion.
During a fission reaction, two or three neutrons are emitted that can cause further nuclei to fission. If the resulting neutrons are captured by other nuclei, which in turn fission with the release of 2-3 new neutrons, it will spontaneously increase in an avalanche-like manner. As a result, a chain reaction will occur with an instant release of energy, i.e. nuclear explosion.
Some neutrons can escape from the reaction sphere without causing atomic fission.
The critical mass required for an explosion can be obtained from the non-critical mass in two ways: either by adding a certain amount of fissile material, or by increasing its density.
To do this, fissile material of subcritical mass is placed in the center of a spherical charge of a conventional explosive, detonated from the outside by a system of detonators. An inward detonation wave occurs, which compresses the fissile material, as a result of which its mass becomes supercritical and a nuclear explosion occurs.
Thermonuclear munition
3 1 H + 2 1 H 4 2 He + 1 0 n
In thermonuclear weapons, the release of an intranuclear reaction occurs when the nuclei of light elements fuse to form heavier nuclei. These reactions can occur at ultra-high temperatures (several tens of millions of degrees).
The main part of the starting reagents in large-caliber thermonuclear ammunition is represented by lithium deutride. Under the influence of neutrons generated during the explosion of the initiating charge based on the fission reaction, a reaction occurs with the formation of tritium from lithium:
lithium + neutron --- helium + tritium + 4.8 MEV
The result is the components necessary for the development of various thermonuclear reactions. The reaction between deuterium and tritium is most easily initiated:
In general, fusion reactions release approximately three times more energy than the fission reaction of the same amount of uranium or plutonium.
Thus, a thermonuclear weapon combines in one body a charge based on a fission reaction and a charge based on a fusion reaction, and a thermonuclear explosion has two instantaneous phases: fission of uranium-235 (plutonium-239) nuclei + synthesis of helium nuclei from isotope nuclei hydrogen.
In combined type ammunition, the thermonuclear charge is enclosed in a shell of uranium-238. This makes it possible for neutrons released during thermonuclear reactions and having high energy to cause fission of uranium-238 nuclei, which is hundreds of times cheaper fissile material than all others, because it remains as waste at nuclear industry enterprises during the production of the uranium-235 isotope.
Thus, the explosion develops in three stages: a chain reaction of fission of uranium-235 (plutonium-239) - synthesis of helium nuclei from nuclei of hydrogen isotopes - chain reaction of fission of uranium-238 shell nuclei. Moreover, it should be noted that more than 80% of the explosion energy of the combined ammunition is released precisely due to the fission of uranium-238 nuclei
Neutron ammunition
Neutron munitions are thermonuclear devices of low and ultra-low power. Unlike thermonuclear and combined charges of large caliber, the main part of their charge consists of heavy isotopes of hydrogen-tritium and deuterium. To heat a mixture of deuterium and tritium to the temperature at which their nuclei begin to fuse, a fission chain reaction or a special laser device can be used.
The thermonuclear reaction has the following character:
deuterium + tritium --- helium + neutron + 17.58 MEV
The chain reaction occurs in 2 stages:
1. Division 235 U or 239 Pu
2.Hydrogen fusion with the formation of a large number of neutrons
Conventional weapons and their varieties
The term “conventional weapons” came into use after the advent of nuclear weapons, which had immeasurably higher combat properties. However, at present, some types of conventional weapons, based on the latest achievements of science and technology, are very close in their effectiveness to weapons of mass destruction.
Conventional weapons include all fire and strike weapons using artillery, anti-aircraft, aviation, small arms and engineering ammunition and missiles in conventional ammunition, incendiary ammunition and fire mixtures.
Conventional weapons can be used independently and in combination with weapons of mass destruction to destroy enemy personnel and equipment, as well as to destroy and destroy various particularly important objects (chemical plants with explosive weapons, nuclear power plants, hydraulic structures, etc.).
The most effective means for destroying small-sized and dispersed targets in combat conditions using conventional weapons are fragmentation, high-explosive, cumulative, concrete-piercing, incendiary and volumetric explosion ammunition.
Cluster and cumulative munitions
Cluster munitions are designed primarily to kill people. The most effective ammunition of this type are ball bombs, which are dropped from aircraft in cassettes containing from 96 to 640 bombs. Above the ground, such a cassette opens, and the bombs scatter and explode over an area of up to 250 thousand square meters. The lethal force of the destructive elements (metal balls with a diameter of 2-3 mm) of each bomb is maintained within a radius of up to 15 m.
Cluster munitions can be filled, in addition to balls, with needle elements, shrapnel, etc.
Cumulative ammunition designed to destroy armored targets. Their principle of operation is based on burning through an obstacle with a powerful jet of explosive detonation products with a temperature of 6 - 7 thousand degrees and a pressure of more than 5·10 in 5 degrees. kPa (5 – 6 thousand kgf/cm2).
Focused detonation products are capable of burning holes in armored floors several tens of centimeters thick and causing fires.
To protect against cumulative ammunition, you can use screens made of various materials located at a distance of 15–20 cm from the main structure. In this case, all the energy of the jet is spent on burning through the screen, but the main structure remains intact.
Concrete-piercing ammunition designed to destroy high-strength reinforced concrete structures, as well as to destroy airfield runways. The ammunition body contains two charges - cumulative and high-explosive and two detonators. When it encounters an obstacle, an instantaneous detonator is activated, which detonates the cumulative projectile. With some delay (after the ammunition passes through the ceiling), the second detonator is triggered, detonating the high-explosive charge, which causes the main destruction of the object.
Volumetric explosion ammunition.
The principle of operation of such ammunition is as follows: liquid fuel with a high calorific value (ethylene oxide, diborane, acetic acid peroxide, propyl nitrate), placed in a special shell, during an explosion splashes, evaporates and mixes with oxygen in the air, forming a spherical cloud of fuel-air mixture with a radius of about 15 m and a layer thickness of 2 - 3 m. The resulting mixture is detonated in several places with special detonators. In the detonation zone, a temperature of 2500 - 3000°C develops in a few tens of microseconds. IN
At the moment of explosion, a relative void is formed inside the shell from the fuel-air mixture. Something similar to an explosion of the shell of a ball with evacuated air (“vacuum bomb”) occurs.
Volumetric explosion ammunition has only one damaging factor - a shock wave. They do not have a fragmentation or cumulative effect on a target.
In terms of their power, volumetric explosion ammunition occupies an intermediate position between nuclear and conventional (high-explosive) ammunition. Excess pressure in the shock wave front of the explosive explosive device, even at a distance of 100 m from the center of the explosion, can reach 100 kPa (1 kgf/cm2). Volumetric explosion ammunition is 5-8 times stronger than conventional explosives in terms of shock wave strength and has colossal lethality. However, they are not a universal means and the extent of their use depends on what type of ammunition or weapon is appropriate and most effective in each specific case.
For a volumetric explosion, a large free volume and free oxygen are required; in strong winds or heavy rain, the fuel-air cloud either does not form at all or is greatly dispersed.
Precision weapons
High-precision weapons began to be actively developed in the 60s of the last century. Its goal is to destroy small, well-protected objects using a minimum number of weapons.
This includes weapons systems in which the accuracy of determining the coordinates of targets, the reaction time of the weapon and the quality of guidance ensure that the target is hit with the first shot or salvo with a probability of at least 0.5. This is achieved by the high speed and technical perfection of automated reconnaissance equipment and the use of guided or homing munitions and missiles.
Precision weapons include:
Reconnaissance and strike (fire) complexes (RUK);
Anti-tank missile systems (ATGM);
Homing field artillery shells. Currently, such systems include the “Smelchak” and “Centimeter” artillery systems. As a means of guidance, they use a laser beam to point at the target for several seconds after the shot. In 2-3 seconds. before approaching the target, the automatic guidance system in the artillery shell is activated, the trajectory of movement is automatically adjusted and hits the target with a coefficient of about 0.3;
Guided missiles of various classes;
Guided aerial bombs and cassettes.
The newest type of high-precision weapons are reconnaissance-strike complexes (RUK). When creating this weapon system, military experts set themselves the goal of achieving guaranteed destruction of small, well-protected objects with minimal means. In them, high-precision reconnaissance weapons and high-precision weapons are combined by an automated control system, which makes it possible to solve reconnaissance and destruction tasks almost simultaneously.
According to the foreign press, the RUK, designed to combat radio-emitting targets (objects), is capable of hitting 150-180 targets in one hour.
RUK, designed to detect and destroy group armored objects of the second echelons and reserves - 150-300 targets such as tanks, infantry fighting vehicles with a probability of destruction of 0.8-0.9.
The complexes include four conjugate main elements:
1. automated reconnaissance and guidance system (automated fire control system);
2. mobile ground control center (fire control point);
3. precision weapons;
4. system for accurately determining the location of complex elements.
The accuracy of determining the coordinates of targets RUK is 10-30 m. The accuracy of guidance is 10-50 m; target reconnaissance range up to 600 km. Reconnaissance assets are usually placed on aircraft that fly at altitudes of up to 25 km with a range of 100-150 km from the line of combat contact between the parties.
The RUK control center can be located at a distance of up to 300 km from the line of contact between the parties.
High-precision means of destruction of the RUK are homing and guided surface-to-surface and air-to-air missiles, guided cluster aircraft bombs with homing warheads.
Nuclear weapons and their damaging factors.
Nuclear weapon- weapons of mass destruction with explosive action, based on the use of fission energy of heavy nuclei of some isotopes of uranium and plutonium, or in thermonuclear reactions of synthesis of light nuclei of hydrogen isotopes of deuterium and tritium into heavier nuclei of helium isotopes.
Warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aircraft and depth charges, artillery shells and mines can be equipped with nuclear charges. Nuclear weapons are classified according to their power: ultra-small (less than 1 kt), small (1-10 kt), medium (10-100 kt), large (100-1000 kt) and super-large (more than 1000 kt). Depending on the tasks being solved, it is possible to use nuclear weapons in the form of underground, ground, air, underwater and surface explosions. The characteristics of the destructive effect of nuclear weapons on the population are determined not only by the power of the ammunition and the type of explosion, but also by the type of nuclear device. Depending on the charge, they are distinguished: atomic weapons, which are based on the fission reaction; thermonuclear weapons - when using a fusion reaction; combined charges; neutron weapons.
This includes weapons systems in which the accuracy of determining the coordinates of targets, the reaction time of the weapon and the quality of guidance ensure that the target is hit with the first shot or salvo with a probability of
Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion.
The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination and electromagnetic pulse.
Shock wave. The main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. About 60% of the energy of a nuclear explosion is spent on it. It is an area of sharp air compression, spreading in all directions from the explosion site.
The damaging effect of a shock wave is characterized by the magnitude of excess pressure. Excess pressure is the difference between the maximum pressure at the front
shock wave and normal atmospheric pressure in front of it. It is measured in kilopascals - 1 kPa = 0.01 kgf/cm2.
With excess pressure of 20-40 kPa, unprotected people can get mild injuries. Exposure to a shock wave with an excess pressure of 40-60 kPa leads to moderate damage. Severe injuries occur when excess pressure exceeds 60 kPa and are characterized by severe contusions of the entire body, fractures of the limbs, and ruptures of internal parenchymal organs. Extremely severe injuries, often fatal, are observed at excess pressure above 100 kPa.
Light radiation. It is a stream of radiant energy that includes visible ultraviolet and infrared rays. Its source is a luminous area formed by the hot products of the explosion. Light radiation spreads almost instantly and lasts, depending on the power of the nuclear explosion, up to 20 seconds. Its strength is such that, despite its short duration, it can cause fires, deep skin burns and damage to the organs of vision in people.
Light radiation does not penetrate through opaque materials, so any barrier that can create a shadow protects against the direct action of light radiation and prevents burns. Light radiation is significantly weakened in dusty (smoky) air, fog, and rain.
Penetrating radiation. This is a stream of gamma radiation and neutrons. The impact lasts 10-15 s. The primary effect of radiation is realized in physical, physicochemical and chemical processes with the formation of chemically active free radicals (H, OH, HO 2) with high oxidizing and reducing properties. Subsequently, various peroxide compounds are formed, inhibiting the activity of some enzymes and increasing others, which play an important role in the processes of autolysis (self-dissolution) of body tissues. The appearance in the blood of decay products of radiosensitive tissues and pathological metabolism when exposed to high doses of ionizing radiation is the basis for the formation of toxemia - poisoning of the body associated with the circulation of toxins in the blood. Of primary importance in the development of radiation injuries are disturbances in the physiological regeneration of cells and tissues, as well as changes in the functions of regulatory systems.
Radioactive contamination of the area. Its main sources are nuclear fission products and radioactive isotopes formed as a result of the acquisition of radioactive properties by the elements from which nuclear weapons are made and those that make up the soil. A radioactive cloud is formed from them. This cloud is transported by air masses over considerable distances. Radioactive particles falling from the cloud onto the ground form a zone of radioactive contamination, the length of which can reach many kilometers.
A type of nuclear weapon is a neutron weapon, which is a small-sized thermonuclear weapon with a power of up to 10 kt, designed primarily to destroy enemy personnel through the action of neutron radiation. Neutron weapons are classified as tactical nuclear weapons.
determination of the radioactive properties of the elements from which nuclear weapons are made and those included in the soil. A radioactive cloud is formed from them. It rises to a height of many kilometers and is transported with air masses over considerable distances. Radioactive particles falling from the cloud to the ground form a zone of radioactive contamination (trace), the length of which can reach several hundred kilometers. Radioactive substances pose the greatest danger in the first hours
after loss, since their activity during this period is highest.
Electromagnetic pulse. This is a short-term electromagnetic field that occurs during the explosion of a nuclear weapon as a result of the interaction of gamma radiation and neutrons emitted during a nuclear explosion with atoms of the environment. The consequence of its impact is burnout or breakdown of individual elements of radio-electronic and electrical equipment.
People can only be harmed if they come into contact with wire lines at the time of the explosion.
Biological weapons, concept of quarantine and observation
Biological weapons- these are special ammunition and combat devices with delivery vehicles, equipped with biological agents.
BW is a weapon of mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants, the action of which is based on the use of pathogenic properties of microorganisms and their metabolic products - toxins. In 1972, the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Biological and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction was signed. However, as often happens, this only gave new impetus to the development and production of tank weapons in many countries. In this regard, the threat of its use in modern wars and armed conflicts continues to persist.
The basis of the damaging effect of biological weapons are biological agents specially selected for combat use - bacteria, viruses, rickettsia, fungi and toxins.
Causative agents of plague, cholera, anthrax, tularemia, brucellosis, glanders and smallpox, psittacosis, yellow fever, foot-and-mouth disease, Venezuelan, Western and Eastern American encephalomyelitis, epidemic typhus, KU fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever and tsutsugamushi fever, coccidioidomycosis, nocardiosis, histoplasmosis, etc. Among microbial toxins, botulinum toxin and staphylococcal enterotoxin are most likely to be used for biological warfare.
Paths of penetration of pathogenic microbes and toxins into the human body can be as follows:
1. Aerogenic - with air through the respiratory organs.
2. Nutritional - with food and water through the digestive organs.
3. Transmissible route - through the bites of infected insects.
4. Contact route - through the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes, as well as damaged skin.
The main ways of using BO are:
a) aerosol - this method of application is the main one. Using special devices, ground air is contaminated by spraying liquid or dry biological formulations. Currently, the potential enemy has a modern system of technical means for using biological formulations and means of delivering them to the target;
b) vector-borne - dispersion of artificially infected blood-sucking carriers in the target area;
c) sabotage method - contamination of air, water, food with the help of sabotage equipment.
BW is intended for mass destruction of troops and the population, weakening the military-economic potential, and disorganizing the system of state and military administration. Tank weapons have a number of significant advantages:
It is the cheapest of all weapons to produce;
High efficiency;
The difficulty of timely diagnosis, the possibility of spreading the epidemic beyond the affected area;
The strongest psychological impact on the population exposed to the risk of infection;
The ability to use different types of combat recipes to create a suitable type of fireplace;
Diversion of significant organizational, financial, medical forces and resources to eliminate the consequences of the use of tanks. weapons;
At the same time, tank weapons are not without disadvantages, they are associated with:
The difficulty of practical study of its combat properties;
Limited shelf life of combat formulations;
Great dependence on natural and climatic conditions during its use (wind direction, temperature, air humidity, etc.).
Characteristics of the focus of bacteriological infection.
A source of bacteriological contamination is a territory with people on it that has been exposed to bacteriological weapons.
Depending on the type of combat formulation used, lesions will form. They can be divided into two types.
In the first, the combat formulation uses pathogens of highly contagious, especially dangerous infections - plague, smallpox, anthrax, etc. In this case, persistent foci are formed with a tendency to spread due to the transmission of infection from the affected to the population located outside the affected area.
In the second, pathogens of non-contagious or slightly contagious infectious diseases are used in the combat recipe. These include tularemia, brucellosis, myeloidosis, cholera, epidemic typhus and others. In this case, the disease occurs when inhaling virulent doses of pathogens, or after drinking contaminated water and food. Further spread of infection from sick people to healthy people does not occur, and if it does, it is through the involvement of intermediate hosts in the epidemic process - rodents, arthropod insects, or through gross violation of sanitary norms and rules.
The main anti-epidemic measures when an epidemic outbreak occurs are:
1) registration and notification of the population;
2) carrying out sanitary and epidemiological reconnaissance;
3) identification, isolation and hospitalization of sick people;
4) regime-restrictive or quarantine measures;
5) general and special emergency prevention;
6) disinfection of the epidemic focus;
7) identification of bacteria carriers and enhanced medical surveillance;
8) sanitary and explanatory work.
Organization and implementation of isolation and restrictive measures.
Isolation and restrictive measures include quarantine and observation.
Quarantine is a set of strict regime-restrictive measures aimed at complete isolation, localization and elimination of the source of damage.
Quarantine is established in military units by order of the commander of the formation, among the civilian population by the head of the region when the enemy uses pathogens of infectious diseases as a bacteriological weapon.
To organize quarantine measures, a headquarters is created, the necessary forces and means of the medical service are attracted, and armed guards are assigned to the quarantine zone. The main activities carried out in the quarantine zone include:
Establishment of a strict anti-epidemic regime;
Active identification of sick people, their isolation, hospitalization and treatment in specialized medical institutions deployed in the quarantine zone;
Isolation of persons exposed to the risk of infection in provisional hospitals deployed in the outbreak. Medical observation of contacts in order to timely identify sick people;
Carrying out emergency, specific and nonspecific prevention;
Fencing the quarantine zone and deploying armed guards.
Quarantine is established for a period of at least two maximum incubation periods after the last sick person has been cured.
If a pathogen of a not particularly dangerous infection is used as a weapon, an observation mode is introduced in the outbreak.
Observation- This is a set of organizational, restrictive, medical and anti-epidemic measures aimed at preventing the spread of the outbreak, its speedy localization and elimination.
The observation includes the following activities:
Enhanced medical surveillance of persons exposed to the risk of infection in order to timely identify sick people among them;
Isolation, hospitalization and treatment of sick people;
Carrying out specific and nonspecific prevention;
Strengthening the sanitary and epidemiological regime.
Non-lethal weapons and their types.
Military experts note that in the last decade, when developing the concept of modern wars, the countries of the NATO bloc have attached increasing importance to the creation of fundamentally new types of weapons. Its distinctive feature is its damaging effect on people, which, as a rule, does not lead to death.
Non-lethal weapons- this is a weapon that is capable of neutralizing or depriving the enemy of the opportunity to conduct active combat operations without significant irreversible losses of manpower and destruction of material assets.
Non-lethal weapons include:
Laser weapons;
Electromagnetic pulse weapon;
Sources of incoherent light;
Electronic warfare equipment;
Microwave weapons;
Meteorological, geophysical weapons;
Infrasonic weapons;
Biotechnological means;
New generation chemical weapons;
Information warfare means;
Psychotropic weapons;
Parapsychological methods.
New means of armed struggle, according to military experts, will be used not so much for conducting military operations, but to deprive the enemy of the possibility of active resistance by destroying his most important economic and infrastructure facilities, destroying the information and energy space, and disturbing the mental state of the population .
Beam weapon- this is a set of devices (generators), the destructive effect of which is based on the use of highly directed beams of electromagnetic energy or a concentrated beam of elementary particles accelerated to high speeds. The damaging effect of a laser beam is achieved as a result of heating the materials of an object to high temperatures, leading to their melting. The action of a laser beam is characterized by stealth, high accuracy, straightness of propagation, and almost instantaneous action.
Radio frequency weapons- means whose destructive effect is based on the use of electromagnetic radiation of ultra-high (microwave) or extremely low frequencies (the range of ultra-high frequencies ranges from 300 MHz to 30 GHz, extremely low frequencies include frequencies less than 100 Hz).
The target of radio frequency weapons is living force, which refers to the known ability of ultra-high and extremely low frequency radio emissions to cause damage to vital human organs and systems - such as the brain, heart, central nervous system, endocrine system and circulatory system.
Radio frequency radiation can also affect the human psyche, disrupt the perception and use of information about the surrounding reality, cause auditory hallucinations, synthesize disorienting speech messages introduced directly into the human consciousness,
Geophysical weapons- a set of various means that make it possible to use the destructive forces of inanimate nature for military purposes through artificially induced changes in the physical properties and processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth.
The possibility of large-scale changes in the temperature regime is being studied by spraying substances that absorb solar radiation, reducing the amount of precipitation designed for weather changes unfavorable for the enemy (for example, drought). The destruction of the ozone layer in the atmosphere could presumably make it possible to direct the destructive effects of cosmic rays and ultraviolet radiation from the sun into areas occupied by the enemy.
Weather weapons was used during the Vietnam War in the form of seeding supercooled clouds with microcrystals of silver iodide. The purpose of this type of weapon is to purposefully influence the weather in order to reduce the enemy’s ability to meet his needs for food and other types of agricultural products.
Climate weapons is a means of influencing for military purposes the local or global climate of the planet and is intended for long-term changes in the characteristic weather patterns in certain territories. Even small climate changes can seriously affect the economy and living conditions of entire regions - lead to a decrease in the yield of the most important agricultural crops and a sharp increase in the incidence of the population.
Currently, theoretically substantiated methods (by carrying out underground explosions) of artificially initiating volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami waves, avalanches, mudflows and landslides, and other natural disasters that can lead to massive losses among the population.
Conclusion:
Knowledge of the features of modern wars and conflicts, as well as the types and damaging factors of weapons of war, can help medical specialists in a number of specialties better understand the features of combat trauma, the mechanism of its occurrence and indicate the further direction of the development of medical science aimed at saving the lives of people injured in wars and armed conflicts.
Control questions
1. The main goal of developing the military organization of the state.
2. Basic principles for the development of the military organization of the state.
3. The main priorities for the development of the state’s military organization.
4. The main directions of development of the military organization of the state.
5. Structure of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation.
6. Basic principles of ensuring the military security of the Russian Federation.
7. Purpose of use of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
8. Definition of local war.
9. Definition of regional war.
10. Definition of large-scale war.
11. Conventional weapons, types of conventional weapons.
12. Characteristics and purpose of cluster and cumulative munitions.
13. Characteristics and purpose of concrete-piercing ammunition. 14.
14. Characteristics and purpose of volumetric explosion ammunition,
15. Characteristics and purpose of precision weapons, types of precision weapons.
16. Brief description of nuclear weapons, their purpose, types of nuclear weapons.
17. Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion.
18. Biological (bacteriological) weapons, their purpose, methods of use.
19. Formulations (pathogens) used as biological weapons.
20. Site of bacteriological infection. Anti-epidemic measures carried out in the focus of bacteriological infection.
21. Definition and concept of observation and quarantine.
22. Non-lethal weapons, their types.
23. Beam weapons, their types.
24. Geophysical weapons,
25. Meteorological and climate weapons.
Literature
Mobilization preparation of health care. Tutorial. Ed. Pogodina Yu.I. – M. 2006.
Organization of the medical service of the civil defense of the Russian Federation. Textbook. Ed. Pogodina Yu.I., Trifonova S.V. – M. 2002.
Mobilization preparation of the economy of the Russian Federation. Textbook. Vorobyov Yu.L. – M. 1997.
Russia (USSR) in local wars and armed conflicts of the second half of the twentieth century. Zolotarev V.A. – M. 2000.
Modern means (systems) of armed struggle and their damaging factors
Conventional means (systems) of destruction
It is known that the basis of combat operations is weapons, which are understood as devices and means used in armed struggle to defeat (destruct) the enemy.
It should be noted that modern weapons, having great destructive power and range of influence, are capable of destroying not only manpower, weapons and military equipment of the warring parties, but also causing significant damage to the civilian population and economic facilities in order to disable the military-economic potential of the warring parties. states - the material basis for waging war.
In this regard, a qualitatively new assessment of the enemy’s modern weapons (nuclear and conventional), especially those used against military and civilian targets located throughout Russia, is required, as well as the expected consequences of hitting them with means of defeating the enemy.
It should be borne in mind that the study of modern weapons of destruction and their performance characteristics will be considered only according to those parameters that will be used in nuclear and conventional war, mainly against economic facilities located in the operational and strategic depths of Russia, with the aim of undermining its main military economic potential (EPP).
Weapon- the general name of devices and means used in armed struggle to destroy enemy personnel, equipment and structures [TSB, vol. 18, p. 538-540].
The development of weapons depends on the method of production and especially on the level of development of the productive forces. The discovery of new physical laws and energy sources leads to the emergence of more effective or new types of weapons, which causes significant and sometimes radical changes in the methods and forms of warfare and in the organization of troops. In turn, weapons develop under the influence of military art, which puts forward demands for improving the characteristics of existing weapons and creating new types of them.
Armament- a complex of various types of weapons and means ensuring their use; an integral part of military equipment.
It includes weapons (ammunition and means of delivering them to the target), launch systems, detection, target designation, guidance, control devices and other technical means that are equipped with units, units and formations of various types and branches of the armed forces.
Weapons are distinguished by belonging to a certain type of armed forces, branch of the military, and also by types of carriers - aviation, ship, tank, missile, etc. Classification of modern weapons - Fig. 2 and fig. 3.
Conventional weapons (CW). Terms "OSB", "conventional weapons" entered the military vocabulary after the advent of nuclear weapons, which had immeasurably higher destructive properties.
However, at present, some types of conventional weapons, based on the latest achievements of science and technology, are very close in their effectiveness to WMD (volume explosion ammunition).
Regular weapons constitute all fire and strike weapons using artillery, anti-aircraft, aviation, small arms and engineering ammunition (AP) and rockets in conventional equipment, incendiary BP and fire mixtures.
Ammunition (AP)- an integral part of weapons designed to defeat enemy personnel, destroy his military equipment, destroy fortifications, structures and perform other tasks (illumination of the area, transfer of propaganda literature).
The action of the bulk of BP is based on the use of energy released by explosives, due to which the defeat (destruction, destruction) of various targets occurs.
A significant part of the ammunition can be created taking into account the type of armed forces (arms): for the Ground Forces, Air Force and Air Defense, Strategic Missile Forces and Navy, and in the future, space-based.
Conventional ammunition includes: artillery and mortar shots; rockets; ATGM; aerial bombs (guided and unguided); small arms ammunition; hand and rifle grenades; means of explosion; explosive charges; mines (including sea mines); torpedoes; lighting and signal sockets.
Rice. 2.
APs are delivered to the target by throwing from firearms (shells, mines, rifle grenades, bullets), using various engines (missile, torpedo), dropping from a height onto the target (air bombs) or throwing manually (hand grenade). Some BP are installed on the ground or in water (mines) and operate (explode) upon contact with a target or when the target passes within the range of action of the ammunition.
There are BPs (mines) that are installed on a destructible object and explode at a set time or according to a signal transmitted via radio (wires).
Ammunition in conventional ammunition (their warheads) is divided into: high-explosive, fragmentation, cumulative, armor-piercing, concrete-piercing, incendiary, cassette and special.
Besides, ammunition (combat units) can be classified according to the corresponding control (guidance) systems: uncontrollable And managed(radio command, semi-active radar; passive IR; passive IR and inertial; laser; television; laser semi-active), as well as homing.
BP can also be characterized by types of fuses: mechanical, electronic contact, hydromechanical, magnetic, mechanical contact, mechanical pin, magnetic contact, etc.
Main damaging factors with direct exposure to OSB are: impact (piercing) action; blast wave action (contact action); action of an air shock wave; damage from shrapnel; fire impact.
Currently, qualitatively new ammunition has been created - volumetric explosion ammunition (BOV). BOVs are equipped with mixtures with high calorific value (ethylene oxide, didoran, acetic acid peroxide, propyl nitrate), which during the explosion spray, evaporate and mix with air oxygen, forming a spherical cloud of fuel-air mixture with a radius of about 15 m and a layer thickness of 2-3 m. The resulting mixture is detonated in several places with special detonators. In the detonation zone, a temperature of 2500-3000 0 C develops in a few tens of microseconds.
At the moment of explosion, a relative void is formed inside the shell from the fuel-air mixture. Something similar to an explosion of the shell of a ball with evacuated air (“vacuum bomb”) occurs. The main damaging factor of a BW is the shock wave.
In terms of its power, BOV occupies an intermediate position between nuclear (low-power) and conventional (high-explosive) ammunition. Excess pressure in the front of the shock wave of the explosive explosive device, even at a distance of 100 m from the center of the explosion, can reach 1 kgf/cm 2 (zone of severe destruction).
16. Modern means of armed struggle. Damaging factors of modern types of weapons.
CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN TYPES OF WEAPONS
Based on the scale and nature of their destructive effect, modern weapons are divided into:
1.Weapons of mass destruction:
Chemical
Bacteriological (biological)
2. Conventional weapons,
including:
Cluster munitions
Precision weapons
Volumetric explosion ammunition
Incendiary mixtures
3.Weapons based on new physical principles:
Laser weapons
Beam weapon
Microwave weapons
4.Non-lethal weapons.
5.Genetic weapons.
6. Ethnic weapons.
7. Information weapons, etc.
Nuclear weapons is a weapon whose destructive effect is based on the use of intranuclear energy released during a nuclear explosion.
Nuclear weapons are based on the use of intranuclear energy released during chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei of the isotopes uranium-235, plutonium-239 or during thermonuclear reactions of fusion of light hydrogen isotope nuclei (deuterium and tritium) into heavier ones.
These weapons include various nuclear munitions (warheads of missiles and torpedoes, aircraft and depth charges, artillery shells and mines) equipped with nuclear chargers, means for controlling them and delivering them to the target.
The main part of a nuclear weapon is a nuclear charge containing a nuclear explosive (NE) - uranium-235 or plutonium-239.
Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion
When a nuclear weapon explodes, a colossal amount of energy is released in millionths of a second. The temperature rises to several million degrees, and the pressure reaches billions of atmospheres.
The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:
1. shock wave - 50% of the explosion energy;
2. light radiation - 30-35% of the explosion energy;
3. penetrating radiation - 8-10% of explosion energy;
4. radioactive contamination - 3-5% of explosion energy;
5. electromagnetic pulse - 0.5-1% of explosion energy.
Chemical weapon– these are toxic substances and means of delivering them to the target.
Toxic substances are toxic (poisonous) chemical compounds that affect people and animals, contaminating the air, terrain, water bodies and various objects in the area. Some toxins are designed to damage plants. Delivery vehicles include artillery chemical shells and mines (CAP), chemically charged missile warheads, chemical land mines, bombs, grenades and cartridges.
Toxic substances can have different states of aggregation (vapor, aerosol, liquid) and affect people through the respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract or upon contact with the skin.
Based on their physiological effects, agents are divided into groups :
1) Nerve agents - tabun, sarin, soman, V-X. They cause disorders of the nervous system, muscle cramps, paralysis and death;
2) Agents of skin-blister action – mustard gas, lewisite.
3) Generally toxic agent – hydrocyanic acid and cyanogen chloride. Damage through the respiratory system and when it enters the gastrointestinal tract with water and food.
4) Asphyxiating agent– phosgene. Affects the body through the respiratory system. During the period of latent action, pulmonary edema develops.
5) Agent of psychochemical action - Bi-Zet. Affects through the respiratory system. Impairs coordination of movements, causes hallucinations and mental disorders;
6) Irritant agents – chloroacetophenone, adamsite, CS (Ci-S), CR (Ci-Ar). Causes respiratory and eye irritation;
Biological weapons (BW)- these are special ammunition and combat devices with delivery vehicles, equipped with biological agents.
BW is a weapon of mass destruction of people, farm animals and plants, the action of which is based on the use of the pathogenic properties of microorganisms and their metabolic products - toxins.
Causative agents of plague, cholera, anthrax, tularemia, brucellosis, glanders and smallpox, psittacosis, yellow fever, foot-and-mouth disease, Venezuelan, Western and Eastern American encephalomyelitis, epidemic typhus, KU fever, rocky spotted fever can be used as biological agents. mountains and tsutsugamushi fever, coccidioidomycosis, nocardiosis, histoplasmosis, etc.
The main ways of using BO are the following:
a) aerosol - contamination of ground air by spraying liquid or dry biological formulations;
b) vector-borne - dispersion of artificially infected blood-sucking vectors in the target area;
c) sabotage method - contamination of air, water, food with the help of sabotage equipment.
Conventional assault weapons, precision weapons.
The main role of the carrier of conventional weapons is played by aviation as the most mobile component of the entire NATO military machine. Their aircraft are equipped with high-precision guided weapons - air-to-ground missiles, guided aerial bombs (conventional aerial bombs, high-explosive, armor-piercing, cumulative, concrete-piercing, incendiary, volumetric explosion, etc.).
Common types of modern weapons also include volumetric explosion ammunition. The damaging factors of volumetric explosion ammunition are shock wave, thermal and toxic effects. Buildings, structures, buried objects can be destroyed as a result of the action of a shock wave, as well as the flow of a gas-air mixture (DHW) into the entrances, air supply channels, communications with subsequent detonation of the DHW.
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Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1949 contains part 3, section. I "Methods and means of warfare". However, the norms of this section (Articles 35 - 47) require careful study and research, taking into account the development of modern weapons, on the one hand, and the level of development of the science of international law, on the other. In this chapter, weapons are understood as means intended to destroy enemy personnel, equipment, structures and other objects, components of these means and components; Military equipment includes technical means intended for combat, technical and logistical support of troops, as well as equipment and apparatus for monitoring and testing these means, components of these means and components.
Rapid progress in the field of armaments, improvement of military equipment (and its sale to third countries) are currently far ahead of the development of international law.
Are new weapons permitted, the use of which in the event of an armed conflict is not yet regulated by international law? Do the armed forces of a fighting state have the right to use all means not specifically prohibited by IHL? This chapter is devoted to finding answers to these questions.
Prohibited means of warfare
Article 36 of Additional Protocol I provides that when studying, developing, acquiring or adopting new weapons, means or methods of warfare, States are required to “determine whether their use, in some or all circumstances, is subject to prohibition" of international law. The article is of a very general nature, and the solution to the issue is left to the sovereign states themselves. No supranational organization has been created to exercise control in this area.
To avoid unnecessary suffering and unjustified civilian casualties associated with military operations, IHL establishes restrictions on the choice of means and methods of warfare by belligerents. This principle is expressed in the formula: “belligerents do not enjoy an unlimited right to choose the means of causing harm to the enemy” (Article 22 of the Convention on the Laws and Customs of War on Land of October 18, 1907). This position was confirmed in
Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions for the Protection of Victims of War (1949): “the right of the parties to a conflict to choose methods or means of warfare is not unlimited” (Article 35).
Means of warfare are weapons and other means used by the armed forces of the warring forces to harm and defeat the enemy. The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation of 2010 (paragraphs 15, 16) noted that military operations will be characterized by the increasing importance of high-precision, electromagnetic, laser, infrasonic weapons, information and control systems, unmanned aerial and autonomous marine vehicles, and controlled robotic models weapons and military equipment. Nuclear weapons will remain an important factor in preventing the emergence of nuclear military conflicts and military conflicts using conventional weapons (large-scale war, regional war). In the event of a military conflict using conventional weapons (large-scale war, regional war), threatening the very existence of the state, the possession of nuclear weapons can lead to the escalation of such a military conflict into a nuclear military conflict.
The document, closed for the press, “Fundamentals of the Russian Federation’s policy in the field of nuclear deterrence,” signed by the President of the Russian Federation on February 5, 2010, together with the Military Doctrine, defines the position of the Russian Federation regarding the essence of nuclear deterrence, its role and place in the overall system of ensuring the national security of the state, The provisions of the Military Doctrine in this area have been developed. According to the document, the nature and scale of Russia’s use of nuclear weapons in response to aggression depend primarily on the effectiveness of the political, diplomatic, military and other measures taken prior to the use of nuclear weapons. The use of nuclear weapons is carried out exclusively by decision of the President of the Russian Federation. Considering the extremely short time interval from the moment the launch of foreign intercontinental ballistic missiles is detected until their impact on targets on Russian territory (no more than 30 minutes), Russia’s response options in each specific case must be determined in advance and regulated in detail. Russia's obvious transition to the use of nuclear weapons in response to aggression, even with the use of conventional weapons, is striking the most important political, administrative and economic centers of the country, the missile attack warning system facilities and the orbital constellation of military satellites, and the system of central command posts of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation and types of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, positional areas of the Strategic Missile Forces, strategic aviation airfields, strategic submarine bases, as well as when attacking Russian nuclear submarines in the World Ocean during their patrol. Nuclear weapons can also be used by Russia during an invasion of enemy ground forces into its territory if the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation fail to stop their advance deeper into the country’s territory using conventional methods of warfare.
IHL includes prohibited means of warfare as those that cause unnecessary suffering with their destructive properties: a) bullets that easily unfold or flatten in the human body; b) projectiles weighing less than 400 grams, filled with explosives or flammable substances; c) poisons or poisoned weapons; d) projectiles that have the sole purpose of distributing toxic substances; e) asphyxiating and other poisonous gases and bacteriological agents; f) bacteriological (biological) and toxin weapons; g) means of influencing the natural environment that have widespread, long-term or serious consequences, as methods of destruction, damage or harm; h) specific types of conventional weapons of indiscriminate effect and weapons the use of which causes excessive injury or suffering. Let's look at them.
1. Bullets that easily unfold or flatten in the human body. The Hague Declaration of 1899 specifically prohibited the use of such bullets. For more than 100 years, this Declaration was largely respected - at least in its literal sense: the bullets specifically mentioned in it were almost never used in wars.
The prohibition on the use of weapons and ammunition capable of causing excessive injury and unnecessary suffering was confirmed by Art. 35 of Additional Protocol I and is considered as a rule of customary international law. The Hague Declaration sets a minimum standard for what is meant by “excessive injury” and “needless suffering.” Other small caliber projectiles that cause the same damage should be considered prohibited by customary international law.
During the preparation of the UN Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Conventional Weapons (1981), the question was raised of including a provision prohibiting the use of high-velocity bullets, or “tumbling” bullets, bullets with a displaced center of gravity. But no agreement was reached, and the use of such bullets remains unregulated to this day.
The point of the new proposals to ban the use of small-caliber weapons systems and ammunition is to ban ammunition that, at a firing range of 25 meters or more, releases more than 20 joules of energy for each centimeter of the first 15 centimeters of the bullet’s path inside the human body. It must be confirmed or denied that the principles laid down in the Hague Convention on the Prohibition of Dum-Dum Bullets (1899) are also applicable in modern armed conflicts.
When a projectile (bullet or bomb fragment) enters the human body and penetrates its tissues, its kinetic energy (energy of movement) is partially or completely transferred to these tissues, tearing them apart with the speed of an explosion. The more energy is transferred, the more tissue is destroyed. In elastic tissues such as muscle, the rapid transfer of energy results in the sudden and violent formation of a "temporary cavity". Before collapsing, the “temporary cavity” expands and contracts several times at high speed around the “permanent cavity,” or wound channel, left behind the passing projectile. According to results obtained from Princeton University's major research program on wound ballistics during World War II, "the study and measurement of a large number of temporary cavities shows that the total volume of the cavity is proportional to the amount of energy transmitted by the bullet." As the Princeton study shows, the stretching and movement of tissue during the formation and contraction of the "temporary cavity" can lead to serious damage to a large area around the channel created by the projectile. Tissue is torn and shredded, capillaries are ruptured, nerves lose their ability to transmit impulses, soft organs can be damaged, gas-filled intestinal pockets are ruptured, and bones not directly affected by the shock are broken.
Consequently, the larger the size of the "temporary cavity", the more extensive the damage and the greater the likelihood of damage to a vital organ not located directly in the path of the projectile penetration.
It has long been recognized that energy transfer is a major factor in projectile injury.
For example, in 1969, when studying the lethality of M16 rifle ammunition in a US Army laboratory, this factor was taken into account as the main one. The test report noted that “previous researchers who studied the lethality of fragments, conventional and arrow-shaped bullets, considered it quite logical to assume that the degree of loss of combat effectiveness of a soldier as a result of being hit by a bullet is proportional to the amount of energy released by the bullet at the target,” but did not state what - or disagreement with this statement.
Aerodynamically, the bullet is designed in such a way that air resistance during its flight is minimal. The high-speed rotation imparted to it in the gun barrel ensures its stability so that it moves forward with its head. The human body is much denser than air, however, with the correctly chosen shape, durable design and high speed of rotation of the bullet, it continues to move in it with the head part forward, without losing a large amount of energy and without forming an extensive wound, with the exception of cases of shooting at close range, due to nutation. But the “dum-dum” bullet, when it hits the body, takes on a mushroom shape, the area of its contact with the body, on the tissues of which it exerts strong pressure, increases; the energy of the bullet is quickly transferred to the body, resulting in a large wound.
Thus, if a bullet does not deform like a dum-dum bullet, but nevertheless quickly transfers its energy to the body in some other way, it should also be considered prohibited by international law.
For many years, the standard caliber of small arms in the armies of NATO and Warsaw Pact countries was the 7.62 mm caliber. Since 1957, the US Army adopted the M14 rifle of 7.62 mm caliber. But the American company Armalite reduced the caliber of the rifle it produced, adapting it to fire modified hunting ammunition with a diameter of 5.56 mm (0.22 inches). The new rifle, called the AP15, had the following advantages from a military point of view: it was a quarter lighter than the M14 rifle, the ammunition for it was also lighter, which made the recoil weaker when firing and enabled the soldier to carry more ammunition. In the early 60s. The US military department purchased and transported several thousand AP15 rifles to Vietnam to test them in combat conditions. According to unofficial data published in the American magazine "Army" in August 1963, a light AR15 rifle bullet, flying at a speed of 3300 feet per second (1000 m/s), upon penetration into the human body begins to somersault, causing an extremely serious injury, completely not similar to a small bullet wound measuring 0.22 inches in diameter. In the US Army, the A15 rifle was assigned the code M16, and in 1967 it was adopted as the main infantry weapon of the non-NATO US Armed Forces. By 1978, these rifles were exported to 21 countries, and in three more countries they were manufactured under license.
However, establishing a ban on the use of such bullets required the development of the science of bullet wounds - wound ballistics. But it was this data that turned out to be classified. In order for the AR15 (M16) rifle bullet of 5.56 mm caliber to have the necessary range and have a sufficiently flat flight path to ensure the necessary accuracy of hitting the target, the designers increased its speed. The muzzle velocity (initial velocity upon exiting the barrel) of the M16 rifle is 980 m/s, while the muzzle velocity of the M14 rifle is 870 m/s, and the Soviet AK47 carbine of 7.62 mm caliber is 720 m/s. At a distance of 100 m from the trunk, these velocities are 830, 800 and 630 m/s, respectively. From this it was concluded that the severity of the injuries was due to the high velocity of the bullet, which tends to tumble and deform upon contact with or after penetrating the human body.
In 1976, at the Conference of Government Experts on the Use of Specific Conventional Weapons in Lugano, experts from the Swedish and Swiss governments presented soap blocks showing the results of bullet tests. Blocks cast in the shape of a human thigh were shot through with various bullets and then cut to reveal the cavities created in them, which were believed to correspond to the permanent and temporary cavities created in the human body by similar shots, and, therefore, the volume of tissue damage.
Tests have shown that while some bullets leave a channel that is narrow along its entire length, others have a narrow channel at the entrance and then widen sharply at the point where a fist-sized volume of soap is forcefully scattered to the sides as the bullet passes. However, the reasons for this remained unclear.
In 1994, Swiss ballistics scientist B.P. Kneubel and German professor of forensic medicine K.G. Cellier published a textbook on wound ballistics, which describes the mechanism of a bullet wound and the design parameters on which its severity depends.
When moving inside a person, a bullet can somersault, as a result of which a serious injury is caused to him, since at the moments when it moves inside the body not with the head part forward, but with a large angle of attack, the area over which pressure is transmitted to the tissue is relatively large, and Therefore, a lot of energy is transferred to the tissues.
According to the theory of Cellier and Knoibel, a bullet enclosed in a solid metal shell (and almost all modern rifle ammunition is such), after penetrating the human body to any depth, begins to rotate about the transverse axis. The rotation speed quickly increases, the angle of attack reaches 90 degrees, the bullet continues to rotate until it begins to move almost tail-first (last position). Depending on its design, a full metal jacket bullet may deform and break under the stresses it experiences during rotation; the deformation and destruction of such a bullet, being only a consequence of this rotation, and not an independent process, nevertheless increases its ability to cause wounds, since as a result of deformation or destruction, the area of the bullet material that transmits pressure to the tissue increases.
Thus, the turning or tumbling of a bullet is the main factor in causing a serious injury, and the likelihood of the latter depends on how far the bullet penetrates the body before it begins to turn. The tendency to somersault immediately upon penetration of the human body depends on the angle of impact on the body, the shape of the bullet head and its gyroscopic stability, which in turn is determined by such factors as the speed of rotation around the longitudinal axis, the moment of inertia and geometric parameters bullets. The higher the gyroscopic stability of the bullet (for example, due to high rotation speed), the further it penetrates the body without turning; The shorter the bullet's length in relation to its diameter, the less likely it is to tumble.
In 1981, NATO announced the decision to adopt a new small arms caliber standard. This new caliber - 5.56 mm - was the same as the M16 rifle. But Belgian SS109 ammunition was adopted as standard ammunition for NATO small arms. The high speed of rotation of the bullet is given to it due to the reduced barrel rifling pitch: one turn per 7 inches, while the M16 rifle has one turn per 12 inches. It must be stated that the term "small caliber weapon systems" should cover both the ammunition and the weapon used to fire it. The nature of the injury may depend on such technical characteristics of the weapon as the parameters of the barrel rifling.
According to test results, the SS109 bullet begins to quickly release energy (with an intensity of 50 or more joules per centimeter), only after going deeper by 14 centimeters or more; over 20 or more centimeters of travel, it gives only 600 joules of energy to the tissues. At the same time, the bullet of the Russian AK74 assault rifle of 5.45 mm caliber begins to quickly release energy, penetrating only 9 cm into the body, and it transfers 600 joules of energy to tissues 14 centimeters into the path. According to some reports, the AK74 bullet inflicts a serious wound much closer to the surface of the body than the SS109 bullet.
Small-caliber projectiles also include a arrow-shaped bullet - a small pointed rod with several stabilizer feathers at the blunt end. In the early 60s. The US Army began implementing a program to develop small arms that fire arrow-shaped bullets (the so-called individual special-purpose weapons). In 1966, the AAI Corporation developed the concave-compound finned projectile and the multiple hardness pointed finned projectile.
The purpose of these two inventions was to cause the head to deform upon impact, causing the arrow-shaped bullet to tumble.
At the US Army Ballistics Research Laboratory, another design was tested for lethality - a bimetallic arrow-shaped bullet. Upon impact, the two metals would separate from each other, significantly increasing the area of pressure transfer to the tissue.
The deformation of such bullets is very close to the unfolding or flattening, in the terminology of the Hague Declaration, of “dum-dum” bullets.
Thus, when developing and adopting new types of small arms, the following indicators must be taken into account: 1) maximum caliber, at which the weapon belongs to small-caliber systems (12.7 mm); 2) firing range (more than 25 m); 3) minimum length of a narrow channel (15 cm); 4) the maximum amount of energy released in a narrow channel (more than 20 joules of energy for each centimeter of the first 15 cm of the bullet’s path inside the human body).
As part of the progressive development of international humanitarian law, it seems necessary to establish a strict ban on the use of modern dum-dum bullets, providing protection against excessive suffering caused by particularly dangerous small-caliber weapon systems.
The discussion on the pages of the Independent Military Review on the suitability of 5.45-mm machine guns and light machine guns in service with the Russian Armed Forces for confrontation with troops equipped with military body armor of the highest degree of protection is indicative. In the 60-70s. Almost all militarily and economically leading states switched to low-impulse cartridges. In the USSR in 1987, the 7N6 cartridge with a heat-strengthened core appeared. In 1992, a 5.45 mm cartridge with a bullet of increased penetration 7N10, which uses a stamped pointed core, was developed and put into service; bullet mass is 5% more. In 1994, a cartridge with a modernized 7N10 bullet of increased power was developed and put into production, the main difference of which is that the cavity in the head part is filled with lead. In 1998, a 5.45 x 39 mm cartridge with a 7N22 armor-piercing bullet was developed and adopted for service, which uses a pointed core made of high-carbon armor-piercing steel U12A. The authors note that the reserves of the 5.45 mm caliber in terms of increasing the effectiveness of hitting obstacles are far from exhausted.
The development of 9-mm bullets for the PM pistol is happening in a similar way. In the early 90s. a new high-impulse cartridge for the PMM-57N181SM pistol has appeared, which has a more powerful powder charge and provides a conical bullet, lightweight to 5.5 g, with a speed of about 45 m/sec.
True, this cartridge cannot yet be used in standard PM pistols.
2. Projectiles weighing less than 400 g, filled with explosives or flammable substances.
2. Prohibition of the improper use of distinctive signs of the medical service, civil defense, cultural property, installations and structures containing dangerous forces, the white flag of the truce, as well as other generally recognized distinctive signs and signals (for example, for demilitarized zones, undefended areas).
Analysis of the norms contained in Art. Art. 35, 53, 75, 85 of Additional Protocol I, allows us to distinguish the following groups of prohibited methods of armed struggle.
1. Directed against enemy combatants: a) treacherous killing or wounding of persons belonging to the enemy forces; b) murder of the envoy and those accompanying him (trumpet player, bugler, drummer); c) killing or wounding enemy persons who, having laid down their arms or not being able to defend themselves, surrendered; d) attack on persons disabled due to illness or injury, as well as on persons who left an aircraft in distress (with the exception of persons belonging to the airborne troops); e) forcing persons of the opposing side to take part in military actions directed against their country; f) giving an order not to leave anyone alive, to threaten to do so, or to conduct military operations on this basis; g) taking hostages.
2. Directed against the civilian population: a) the implementation of genocide, apartheid; b) terror against the local population; c) exploitation of starvation among the civilian population.
Specific legal requirements that will ensure the achievement of the goal are indicated in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Art. 54 of Additional Protocol I, as well as in Art. 55, which provides for the obligation to protect the natural environment, in Art. Art. 68 - 71 - on assistance to the civilian population and in the Geneva Protocol of 1925, prohibiting the use of bacteriological and chemical weapons.
3. Directed against objects: a) attack, bombing or destruction of sanitary institutions, hospital ships (ambulance transports), ambulance aircraft with proper distinctive insignia; b) bombardment by military aircraft, naval ships of unprotected cities, ports, villages, dwellings, historical monuments, churches, hospitals, provided that they are not used for military purposes; c) destruction of cultural values, historical monuments, places of worship, etc., constituting the cultural or spiritual heritage of the people, as well as their use to ensure success in military operations.
4. Directed against property: a) destruction or seizure of enemy property, except in cases where such actions are caused by military necessity; b) seizure of vessels intended for coastal fishing or the needs of local navigation; hospital courts, as well as courts performing scientific and religious functions; c) plundering a city or area.
Very important is the problem of legal regulation of methods of conducting indiscriminate combat operations, i.e. compliance with the principle of distinction. Adoption of the ban enshrined in paragraph 5 "a" of Art. 51 of Additional Protocol I was an important humanitarian achievement. The authors of the article considered that there was no need to refer to "massive" bombings, to "bombing zones" or to "bombing carpets" once this prohibition became fully applicable to them, and reference to such expressions could be interpreted as limiting the protection of civilians from other types of bombing. It should be noted that the prohibition is limited to situations in which humanitarian requirements are paramount, as it applies to areas where civilians or objects are concentrated. Other areas are not covered by this ban. At what distance from each other should military installations be located?
The "clearly distinct" and "distinguishable" criteria raise a number of issues when determining whether separate attacks are necessary. Current regulations do not answer these questions. Of course, the problem is related to precision weapons, and difficulties of interpretation cannot justify barbaric methods. What is the extent of the military advantage achieved by the attack? How should the loss of civilian life be measured? Only the courts in their decisions, world practice and world public opinion can answer these questions.
Provisions of Art. 57 of Additional Protocol I are aimed at eliminating two more cases of violation of the principle of distinction: a) incorrect identification of objects of a military nature before attacking them; b) attacks that may accidentally cause extremely high casualties to civilians and damage to civilian objects. These provisions are addressed primarily to those who prepare or decide to attack. Those who actually carry out an attack are often unable, when using modern means and methods of warfare, to timely recognize the objects on which they plan to attack. If “it becomes apparent that the target is not military,” “the attack is called off or suspended.” But even if a target is recognized as military, attacking it may be prohibited, for example because the target harbors dangerous forces or is essential to the survival of the civilian population, and in cases where an attack would cause excessive civilian casualties.
Note that the parties are required to provide “timely warning” of attacks that pose a danger to civilians if circumstances allow for this.
Indications on methods of conducting combat operations are usually contained in administrative documents (orders) of military command and control bodies, therefore, they should provide for all the precautions that are necessary during the operation. In this case, the knowledge possessed by legal advisers (assistants to commanders for legal work) must be used. At the same time, a number of violations can be prevented only if there is a sufficient level of organization and discipline of subordinates.
The rules of engagement (rules of attack) are the rules for the use of force to achieve a set goal (fulfillment of a combat mission) and must comply with the norms of IHL. They must meet the following requirements: 1) be accessible, i.e. communicated in concise and understandable language; 2) be reasonable, i.e. take into account all situations that may arise when performing a task; 3) be realistic, i.e. should not expose personnel to undue risk when performing them. Every military personnel must know the norms of IHL at a sufficient level corresponding to his military rank and official position.
The elementary rules are based on the principles of humanity and are as follows:
- You can only fight with those who have weapons in their hands;
- Only military objects are allowed to be attacked (for example, military bases, warehouses, fuel reserves, ports, airstrips, cars, ships, aircraft, weapons, equipment, buildings and objects that are used by the enemy for military purposes);
- the attack should not be directed at persons and objects that have a protective status; civilians and civilian objects should be spared;
- more damage cannot be caused than is necessary to complete the combat mission, indiscriminate attacks are prohibited;
- undefended areas and neutral zones should not be attacked;
- objects containing dangerous forces (nuclear power plants, dams, dams) should not be attacked;
- taking hostages is prohibited;
- You should treat persons and objects marked with protective signs and emblems with respect;
- medical personnel and clergy, wounded and sick enemy soldiers, civilians, civil defense personnel (firefighters, sappers, search and rescue teams), envoys with a white flag should not be the target of attack;
- the surrounded enemy must be given the opportunity to surrender; an order not to take prisoners is a serious war crime;
- Prisoners of war must be treated humanely and are required to provide information only about their identity;
- should refrain from any acts of retaliation and respect the property rights of the civilian population;
- it is necessary to comply with the specified rules and demand this from colleagues, since their violation entails
