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A nuclear bomb is a powerful weapon and a force capable of resolving military conflicts. Hydrogen versus nuclear

On the day of the 70th anniversary of the testing of the first Soviet atomic bomb, Izvestia publishes unique photographs and memoirs of eyewitnesses of the events that took place at the test site in Semipalatinsk. New materials shed light on the environment in which scientists created a nuclear device - in particular, it became known that Igor Kurchatov used to hold secret meetings on the river bank. Also extremely interesting are the details of the construction of the first reactors for producing weapons-grade plutonium. One cannot fail to note the role of intelligence in accelerating the Soviet nuclear project.

Young but promising

The need to quickly develop Soviet nuclear weapons became obvious when, in 1942, intelligence reports revealed that scientists in the United States had made great progress in nuclear research. This was indirectly indicated by the complete cessation of scientific publications on this topic back in 1940. Everything indicated that work on creating the most powerful bomb in the world was in full swing.

On September 28, 1942, Stalin signed a secret document “On the organization of work on uranium.”

The leadership of the Soviet atomic project was entrusted to the young and energetic physicist Igor Kurchatov, who, as his friend and colleague Academician Anatoly Alexandrov later recalled, “has long been perceived as the organizer and coordinator of all work in the field of nuclear physics.” However, the sheer scale of the work that the scientist mentioned was still small at that time - at that time in the USSR, in Laboratory No. 2 (now the Kurchatov Institute), specially created in 1943, only 100 people were involved in the development of nuclear weapons, while in the USA about 50 thousand specialists worked on a similar project.

Therefore, work in Laboratory No. 2 was carried out at an emergency pace, which required both the supply and creation of the latest materials and equipment (and this in wartime!), and the study of intelligence data, which managed to obtain some information about American research.

“Reconnaissance helped speed up the work and reduce our efforts by about a year,” said Andrei Gagarinsky, advisor to the director of the Kurchatov Institute Research Center.- In Kurchatov’s “reviews” of intelligence materials, Igor Vasilyevich essentially gave the intelligence officers tasks about what exactly the scientists would like to know.

Not existing in nature

Scientists from Laboratory No. 2 transported a cyclotron from the newly liberated Leningrad, which was launched back in 1937 - then it became the first in Europe. This installation was necessary for neutron irradiation of uranium. In this way, it was possible to accumulate the initial amount of plutonium, which does not exist in nature, which later became the main material for the first Soviet atomic bomb RDS-1.

Then the production of this element was established using the first nuclear reactor in Eurasia, F-1, based on uranium-graphite blocks, which was built in Laboratory No. 2 in the shortest possible time (in just 16 months) and launched on December 25, 1946 under the leadership of Igor Kurchatov.

Physicists achieved industrial volumes of plutonium production after the construction of a reactor under the letter A in the city of Ozersk, Chelyabinsk region (scientists also called it “Annushka”)- the installation reached its design capacity on June 22, 1948, which already brought the project to create a nuclear charge very close.

In the field of compression

The first Soviet atomic bomb had a plutonium charge with a yield of 20 kilotons, which was located in two hemispheres separated from each other. Inside them was a chain reaction initiator made of beryllium and polonium, which, when combined, releases neutrons that trigger the chain reaction. To powerfully compress all these components, a spherical shock wave was used, which arose after the detonation of a round shell of explosives surrounding the plutonium charge. The outer body of the resulting product had a teardrop shape, and its total mass was 4.7 tons.

They decided to test the bomb at the Semipalatinsk test site, which was specially equipped in order to assess the impact of the explosion on a wide variety of buildings, equipment and even animals.

Photo: Nuclear Weapons Museum RFNC-VNIIEF

–– In the center of the training ground there was a high iron tower, and around it a variety of buildings and structures grew like mushrooms: brick, concrete and wooden houses with different types of roofing, cars, tanks, ship gun turrets, a railway bridge and even a swimming pool, notes the Nikolai Vlasov, a participant in those events, wrote his manuscript “The First Tests”. - So, in terms of the variety of objects, the test site resembled a fair - only without people, who were almost invisible here (with the exception of rare lonely figures who were completing the installation of equipment).

Also on the territory there was a biological sector, where there were pens and cages with experimental animals.

Meetings on the shore

Vlasov also has memories of the team’s attitude towards the project manager during the testing period.

“At this time, Kurchatov’s nickname Beard was already firmly established (he changed his appearance in 1942), and his popularity spread not only to the scientific fraternity of all specialties, but also to officers and soldiers,” writes an eyewitness. –– The group leaders were proud to meet with him.

Kurchatov conducted some particularly secret interviews in an informal setting - for example, on the river bank, inviting the right person to swim.

A photo exhibition dedicated to the history of the Kurchatov Institute, which celebrates its 75th anniversary this year, has opened in Moscow. A selection of unique archival footage depicting the work of both ordinary employees and the most famous physicist Igor Kurchatov - in the gallery of the portal website

Igor Kurchatov, a physicist, was one of the first in the USSR to begin studying the physics of the atomic nucleus; he is also called the father of the atomic bomb. In the photo: a scientist at the Institute of Physics and Technology in Leningrad, 1930s

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

The Kurchatov Institute was created in 1943. At first it was called Laboratory No. 2 of the USSR Academy of Sciences, whose employees were engaged in the creation of nuclear weapons. Later the laboratory was renamed the Institute of Atomic Energy named after I.V. Kurchatov, and in 1991 - to the National Research Center

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

Today the Kurchatov Institute is one of the largest research centers in Russia. Its specialists are engaged in research in the field of safe development of nuclear energy. In the photo: “Fakel” accelerator

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

End of monopoly

Scientists calculated the exact time of the tests so that the wind would carry the radioactive cloud formed as a result of the explosion towards sparsely populated areas, and the impact of harmful precipitation on people and livestock was minimal. As a result of such calculations, the historic explosion was scheduled for the morning of August 29, 1949.

“A glow flared up in the south and a red semicircle appeared, similar to the rising sun,” recalls Nikolai Vlasov. –– And three minutes after the glow died down and the cloud dissolved in the predawn haze, we heard the rolling roar of an explosion, similar to the distant thunder of a mighty thunderstorm.

Having arrived at the site of the RDS-1 detonation (see reference), scientists could assess all the destruction that followed. According to them, no traces remained of the central tower, the walls of nearby houses collapsed, and the water in the pool completely evaporated from the high temperature.

But these destructions, paradoxically, helped to establish a global balance in the world. The creation of the first Soviet atomic bomb ended the US monopoly on nuclear weapons. This made it possible to establish strategic arms parity, which still prevents countries from using weapons capable of destroying an entire civilization.

Alexander Koldobsky, Deputy Director of the Institute of International Relations of the National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, veteran of nuclear energy and industry:

The abbreviation RDS in relation to prototypes of nuclear weapons first appeared in a resolution of the USSR Council of Ministers of June 21, 1946 as an abbreviation for the wording “Jet engine C”. Subsequently, this designation in official documents was assigned to all pilot designs of nuclear charges at least until the end of 1955. Strictly speaking, the RDS-1 is not exactly a bomb, it is a nuclear explosive device, a nuclear charge. Later, to charge the RDS-1, a ballistic body of an aerial bomb (“product 501”) was created, adapted to the Tu-4 bomber. The first production samples of nuclear weapons based on the RDS-1 were manufactured in 1950. However, these products were not tested in the ballistic corps, were not accepted into service by the army and were stored disassembled. And the first test with the dropping of an atomic bomb from the Tu-4 took place only on October 18, 1951. It used a different charge, much more advanced.

The history of human development has always been accompanied by wars as a way to resolve conflicts through violence. Civilization has suffered more than fifteen thousand small and large armed conflicts, the loss of human lives is estimated in the millions. In the nineties of the last century alone, more than a hundred military clashes occurred, involving ninety countries of the world.

At the same time, scientific discoveries and technological progress have made it possible to create weapons of destruction of ever greater power and sophistication of use. In the twentieth century Nuclear weapons became the peak of mass destructive impact and a political instrument.

Atomic bomb device

Modern nuclear bombs as means of destroying the enemy are created on the basis of advanced technical solutions, the essence of which is not widely publicized. But the main elements inherent in this type of weapon can be examined using the example of the design of a nuclear bomb codenamed “Fat Man,” dropped in 1945 on one of the cities of Japan.

The power of the explosion was 22.0 kt in TNT equivalent.

It had the following design features:

the length of the product was 3250.0 mm, with a diameter of the volumetric part - 1520.0 mm. Total weight more than 4.5 tons;
the body is elliptical in shape. To avoid premature destruction due to anti-aircraft ammunition and other unwanted impacts, 9.5 mm armored steel was used for its manufacture;
the body is divided into four internal parts: the nose, two halves of the ellipsoid (the main one is a compartment for the nuclear filling), and the tail.
the bow compartment is equipped with batteries;
the main compartment, like the nasal one, is vacuumized to prevent the entry of harmful environments, moisture, and to create comfortable conditions for the bearded man to work;
the ellipsoid housed a plutonium core surrounded by a uranium tamper (shell). It played the role of an inertial limiter for the course of the nuclear reaction, ensuring maximum activity of weapons-grade plutonium by reflecting neutrons to the side of the active zone of the charge.

A primary source of neutrons, called an initiator or “hedgehog,” was placed inside the nucleus. Represented by beryllium spherical in diameter 20.0 mm with polonium-based outer coating - 210.

It should be noted that the expert community has determined that this design of nuclear weapons is ineffective and unreliable in use. Neutron initiation of the uncontrolled type was not used further .

Operating principle

The process of fission of the nuclei of uranium 235 (233) and plutonium 239 (this is what a nuclear bomb is made of) with a huge release of energy while limiting the volume is called a nuclear explosion. The atomic structure of radioactive metals has an unstable form - they are constantly divided into other elements.

The process is accompanied by the detachment of neurons, some of which fall on neighboring atoms and initiate a further reaction, accompanied by the release of energy.

The principle is as follows: shortening the decay time leads to greater intensity of the process, and the concentration of neurons on bombarding the nuclei leads to a chain reaction. When two elements are combined to a critical mass, a supercritical mass is created, leading to an explosion.

In everyday conditions, it is impossible to provoke an active reaction - high speeds of approach of the elements are needed - at least 2.5 km/s. Achieving this speed in a bomb is possible by using combining types of explosives (fast and slow), balancing the density of the supercritical mass producing an atomic explosion.

Nuclear explosions are attributed to the results of human activity on the planet or its orbit. Natural processes of this kind are possible only on some stars in outer space.

Atomic bombs are rightfully considered the most powerful and destructive weapons of mass destruction. Tactical use solves the problem of destroying strategic, military targets on the ground, as well as deep-based ones, defeating a significant accumulation of enemy equipment and manpower.

It can be applied globally only with the goal of complete destruction of the population and infrastructure in large areas.

To achieve certain goals and perform tactical and strategic tasks, explosions of atomic weapons can be carried out by:

at critical and low altitudes (above and below 30.0 km);
in direct contact with the earth's crust (water);
underground (or underwater explosion).

A nuclear explosion is characterized by the instantaneous release of enormous energy.

Leading to damage to objects and people as follows:

Shock wave. When an explosion occurs above or on the earth's crust (water) it is called an air wave; underground (water) it is called a seismic explosion wave. An air wave is formed after critical compression of air masses and propagates in a circle until attenuation at a speed exceeding sound. Leads to both direct damage to manpower and indirect damage (interaction with fragments of destroyed objects). The action of excess pressure makes the equipment non-functional by moving and hitting the ground;
Light radiation. The source is the light part formed by the evaporation of the product with air masses; for ground use, it is soil vapor. The effect occurs in the ultraviolet and infrared spectrum. Its absorption by objects and people provokes charring, melting and burning. The degree of damage depends on the distance of the epicenter;
Penetrating radiation- these are neutrons and gamma rays moving from the place of rupture. Exposure to biological tissue leads to ionization of cell molecules, leading to radiation sickness in the body. Damage to property is associated with fission reactions of molecules in the damaging elements of ammunition.
Radioactive contamination. During a ground explosion, soil vapors, dust, and other things rise. A cloud appears, moving in the direction of the movement of air masses. Sources of damage are represented by fission products of the active part of a nuclear weapon, isotopes, and undestroyed parts of the charge. When a radioactive cloud moves, continuous radiation contamination of the area occurs;
Electromagnetic pulse. The explosion is accompanied by the appearance of electromagnetic fields (from 1.0 to 1000 m) in the form of a pulse. They lead to failure of electrical devices, controls and communications.

The combination of factors of a nuclear explosion causes varying levels of damage to enemy personnel, equipment and infrastructure, and the fatality of the consequences is associated only with the distance from its epicenter.

History of the creation of nuclear weapons

The creation of weapons using nuclear reactions was accompanied by a number of scientific discoveries, theoretical and practical research, including:

1905— the theory of relativity was created, which states that a small amount of matter corresponds to a significant release of energy according to the formula E = mc2, where “c” represents the speed of light (author A. Einstein);
1938— German scientists conducted an experiment on dividing an atom into parts by attacking uranium with neutrons, which ended successfully (O. Hann and F. Strassmann), and a physicist from Great Britain explained the fact of the release of energy (R. Frisch);
1939- scientists from France that when carrying out a chain of reactions of uranium molecules, energy will be released that can produce an explosion of enormous force (Joliot-Curie).

The latter became the starting point for the invention of atomic weapons. Parallel development was carried out by Germany, Great Britain, the USA, and Japan. The main problem was the extraction of uranium in the required volumes for conducting experiments in this area.

The problem was solved faster in the USA by purchasing raw materials from Belgium in 1940.

As part of the project, called Manhattan, from 1939 to 1945, a uranium purification plant was built, a center for the study of nuclear processes was created, and the best specialists - physicists from all over Western Europe - were recruited to work there.

Great Britain, which carried out its own developments, was forced, after the German bombing, to voluntarily transfer the developments on its project to the US military.

It is believed that the Americans were the first to invent the atomic bomb. Tests of the first nuclear charge were carried out in the state of New Mexico in July 1945. The flash from the explosion darkened the sky and the sandy landscape turned to glass. After a short period of time, nuclear charges called “Baby” and “Fat Man” were created.

Nuclear weapons in the USSR - dates and events

The emergence of the USSR as a nuclear power was preceded by long work by individual scientists and government institutions. Key periods and significant dates of events are presented as follows:

1920 considered the beginning of the work of Soviet scientists on atomic fission;
Since the thirties the direction of nuclear physics becomes a priority;
October 1940— an initiative group of physicists came up with a proposal to use atomic developments for military purposes;
Summer 1941 in connection with the war, nuclear energy institutes were transferred to the rear;
Autumn 1941 year, Soviet intelligence informed the country's leadership about the beginning of nuclear programs in Britain and America;
September 1942- atomic research began to be carried out in full, work on uranium continued;
February 1943— a special research laboratory was created under the leadership of I. Kurchatov, and general management was entrusted to V. Molotov;

The project was led by V. Molotov.

August 1945- in connection with the conduct of nuclear bombing in Japan, the high importance of developments for the USSR, a Special Committee was created under the leadership of L. Beria;
April 1946- KB-11 was created, which began to develop samples of Soviet nuclear weapons in two versions (using plutonium and uranium);
Mid 1948— work on uranium was stopped due to low efficiency and high costs;
August 1949- when the atomic bomb was invented in the USSR, the first Soviet nuclear bomb was tested.

The reduction in product development time was facilitated by the high-quality work of intelligence agencies, who were able to obtain information on American nuclear developments. Among those who first created the atomic bomb in the USSR was a team of scientists led by Academician A. Sakharov. They have developed more promising technical solutions than those used by the Americans.

Atomic bomb "RDS-1"

In 2015 - 2017, Russia made a breakthrough in improving nuclear weapons and their delivery systems, thereby declaring a state capable of repelling any aggression.

First atomic bomb tests

After testing an experimental nuclear bomb in New Mexico in the summer of 1945, the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were bombed on August 6 and 9, respectively.

The development of the atomic bomb was completed this year

In 1949, under conditions of increased secrecy, Soviet designers of KB-11 and scientists completed the development of an atomic bomb called RDS-1 (jet engine “C”). On August 29, the first Soviet nuclear device was tested at the Semipalatinsk test site. The Russian atomic bomb - RDS-1 was a “drop-shaped” product, weighing 4.6 tons, with a volumetric diameter of 1.5 m, and a length of 3.7 meters.

The active part included a plutonium block, which made it possible to achieve an explosion power of 20.0 kilotons, commensurate with TNT. The testing site covered a radius of twenty kilometers. The specifics of the test detonation conditions have not been made public to date.

On September 3 of the same year, American aviation intelligence established the presence in the air masses of Kamchatka of traces of isotopes indicating the testing of a nuclear charge. On the twenty-third, the top US official publicly announced that the USSR had succeeded in testing an atomic bomb.

NUCLEAR WEAPON(obsolete atomic weapons) - explosive weapons of mass destruction based on the use of intranuclear energy. The energy source is either a nuclear fission reaction of heavy nuclei (for example, uranium-233 or uranium-235, plutonium-239), or a thermonuclear fusion reaction of light nuclei (see Nuclear reactions).

The development of nuclear weapons began in the early 40s of the 20th century simultaneously in several countries, after scientific data were obtained about the possibility of a chain reaction of uranium fission, accompanied by the release of huge amounts of energy. Under the leadership of the Italian physicist E. Fermi, the first nuclear reactor was designed and launched in the USA in 1942. A group of American scientists led by R. Oppenheimer created and tested the first atomic bomb in 1945.

In the USSR, scientific developments in this area were led by I.V. Kurchatov. The first test of an atomic bomb was carried out in 1949, and a thermonuclear bomb in 1953.

Nuclear weapons include nuclear ammunition (missile warheads, aircraft bombs, artillery shells, mines, land mines filled with nuclear charges), means of delivering them to the target (missiles, torpedoes, aircraft), as well as various control means that ensure that the ammunition hits the target. Depending on the type of charge, it is customary to distinguish between nuclear, thermonuclear, and neutron weapons. The power of a nuclear weapon is estimated in TNT equivalent, which can range from several tens of tons to several tens of millions of tons of TNT.

Nuclear explosions can be air, ground, underground, surface, underwater and high altitude. They differ in the location of the center of the explosion relative to the earth's or water surface and have their own specific features. During an explosion in the atmosphere at an altitude of less than 30 thousand meters, about 50% of the energy is spent on the shock wave, and 35% of the energy on light radiation. As the height of the explosion increases (at a lower atmospheric density), the share of energy attributable to the shock wave decreases, and the light emission increases. With a ground explosion, light radiation decreases, and with an underground explosion, it may even be absent. In this case, the explosion energy comes from penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination and an electromagnetic pulse.

An aerial nuclear explosion is characterized by the appearance of a luminous spherical area - the so-called fireball. As a result of the expansion of gases in the fireball, a shock wave is formed, which propagates in all directions at supersonic speed. When a shock wave passes through terrain with complex terrain, its effect can either be strengthened or weakened. Light radiation is emitted during the glow of the fireball and travels at the speed of light over long distances. It is sufficiently delayed by any opaque objects. Primary penetrating radiation (neutrons and gamma rays) has a damaging effect within approximately 1 second from the moment of explosion; it is weakly absorbed by shielding materials. However, its intensity decreases quite quickly with increasing distance from the center of the explosion. Residual radioactive radiation - products of a nuclear explosion (REP), which are a mixture of more than 200 isotopes of 36 elements with a half-life from fractions of a second to millions of years, are spread across the planet for thousands of kilometers (global fallout). During explosions of low-yield nuclear weapons, the primary penetrating radiation has the most pronounced damaging effect. As the power of a nuclear charge increases, the share of gamma-neutron radiation in the damaging effect of explosion factors decreases due to the more intense action of the shock wave and light radiation.

In a ground-based nuclear explosion, the fireball touches the surface of the earth. In this case, thousands of tons of evaporated soil are drawn into the area of the fireball. At the epicenter of the explosion, a crater appears, surrounded by melted soil. From the resulting mushroom cloud, about half of the PNE is deposited on the surface of the earth in the direction of the wind, resulting in the appearance of the so-called. a radioactive trace that can reach several hundreds and thousands of square kilometers. The remaining radioactive substances, which are mainly in a highly dispersed state, are carried into the upper layers of the atmosphere and fall to the ground in the same way as in an air explosion. During an underground nuclear explosion, the soil is either not thrown out (camouflage explosion) or partially thrown out to form a crater. The released energy is absorbed by the soil near the center of the explosion, resulting in the creation of seismic waves. An underwater nuclear explosion produces a huge gas bubble and a column of water (sultan), topped with a radioactive cloud. The explosion ends with the formation of a base wave and a series of gravitational waves. One of the most important consequences of a high-altitude nuclear explosion is the formation, under the influence of X-ray, gamma radiation and neutron radiation, of vast areas of increased ionization in the upper layers of the atmosphere.

Thus, nuclear weapons are a qualitatively new weapon, much superior in destructive effect to previously known ones. At the final stage of the Second World War, the United States used nuclear weapons, dropping nuclear bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The result of this was severe destruction (in Hiroshima, out of 75 thousand buildings, approximately 60 thousand were destroyed or significantly damaged, and in Nagasaki, out of 52 thousand, more than 19 thousand), fires, especially in areas with wooden buildings, a huge number of casualties (see table ). Moreover, the closer people were to the epicenter of the explosion, the more often injuries occurred and the more severe they were. Thus, within a radius of up to 1 km, the vast majority of people received injuries of various types, which ended mostly in death, and within a radius of 2.5 to 5 km, the injuries were mostly not severe. The structure of sanitary losses included damage caused by both isolated and combined effects of the damaging factors of the explosion.

THE NUMBER OF DAMAGED IN HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI (based on materials from the book “The Effect of the Atomic Bomb in Japan”, M., 1960)

The damaging effect of an air shock wave is determined by Ch. arr. maximum excess pressure in the wave front and velocity pressure. Overpressure of 0.14-0.28 kg/cm2 usually causes minor injuries, and 2.4 kg/cm2 causes serious injuries. Damage from the direct impact of a shock wave is classified as primary. They are characterized by signs of compression-contusion syndrome, closed trauma to the brain, chest and abdominal organs. Secondary injuries occur due to the collapse of buildings, the impact of flying stones, glass (secondary projectiles), etc. The nature of such injuries depends on the impact speed, mass, density, shape and angle of contact of the secondary projectile with the human body. There are also tertiary injuries, which are the result of the projectile action of the shock wave. Secondary and tertiary injuries can be very diverse, as well as damage from falls from heights, transport accidents and other accidents.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion - electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectrum - occurs in two phases. In the first phase, lasting thousandths - hundredths of a second, about 1% of the energy is released, mainly in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Due to the short duration of action and the absorption of a significant part of the waves by air, this phase has practically no significance in the general damaging effect of light radiation. The second phase is characterized by radiation mainly in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum and mainly determines the damaging effect. The dose of light radiation required to cause burns of a certain depth depends on the power of the explosion. For example, second-degree burns from a nuclear charge explosion with a power of 1 kiloton occur already with a dose of light radiation of 4 cal.cm2, and with a power of 1 megaton - with a dose of light radiation of 6.3 cal.cm2. This is due to the fact that during explosions of low-power nuclear charges, light energy is released and affects a person for tenths of a second, while during an explosion of higher power, the time of radiation and exposure to light energy increases to several seconds.

As a result of direct exposure to light radiation on a person, so-called primary burns occur. They make up 80-90% of the total number of thermal injuries in the affected area. Skin burns among those affected in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were localized mainly on areas of the body not protected by clothing, mainly on the face and limbs. For people located at a distance of up to 2.4 km from the epicenter of the explosion, they were deep, and at a further distance they were superficial. The burns had clear contours and were located only on the side of the body facing the direction of the explosion. The configuration of the burn often corresponded to the outlines of objects that screened the radiation.

Light radiation can cause temporary blindness and organic damage to the eyes. This is most likely at night when the pupil is dilated. Temporary blindness usually lasts a few minutes (up to 30 minutes), after which vision is completely restored. Organic lesions - acute kerato-conjunctivitis and, especially, chorioretinal burns can lead to persistent impairment of the function of the organ of vision (see Burns).

Gamma-neutron radiation, affecting the body, causes radiation (radiation) damage. Neutrons, compared to gamma radiation, have a more pronounced biol. activity and damaging effects at the molecular, cellular and organ levels. As you move away from the center of the explosion, the intensity of the neutron flux decreases faster than the intensity of gamma radiation. Thus, a layer of air of 150-200 m reduces the intensity of gamma radiation by approximately 2 times, and the intensity of the neutron flux by 3-32 times.

In conditions of the use of nuclear weapons, radiation injuries can occur due to general, relatively uniform and uneven irradiation. Irradiation is classified as uniform when penetrating radiation affects the entire body, and the dose difference to individual areas of the body is insignificant. This is possible if a person is in an open area at the time of a nuclear explosion or on the trail of a radioactive cloud. With such irradiation, with an increase in the absorbed dose of radiation, signs of dysfunction of radiosensitive organs and systems (bone marrow, intestines, central nervous system) consistently appear and certain clinical forms of radiation sickness develop - bone marrow, transitional, intestinal, toxemic, cerebral. Uneven irradiation occurs in cases of local protection of individual parts of the body by elements of fortification structures, equipment, etc.

In this case, various organs are damaged unevenly, which affects the clinical picture of radiation sickness. For example, with general irradiation with a predominant effect of radiation on the head area, neurological disorders can develop, and with a predominant effect on the abdominal area, segmental radiation colitis and enteritis can develop. In addition, with radiation sickness resulting from irradiation with a predominance of the neutron component, the primary reaction is more pronounced, the latent period is shorter; during the height of the disease, in addition to general clinical signs, intestinal dysfunction is noted. When assessing the biological effect of neutrons in general, one should also take into account their adverse effect on the genetic apparatus of somatic and germ cells, and therefore the danger of long-term radiological consequences in irradiated people and their descendants increases (see Radiation sickness).

In the trace of a radioactive cloud, the main part of the absorbed dose comes from external prolonged gamma irradiation. However, in this case, the development of combined radiation damage is possible, when PNEs simultaneously act directly on open areas of the body and enter the body. Such lesions are characterized by a clinical picture of acute radiation sickness, beta burns of the skin, as well as damage to internal organs, to which radioactive substances have an increased tropism (see Incorporation of radioactive substances).

When the body is exposed to all damaging factors, combined lesions occur. In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, among the victims who remained alive on the 20th day after the use of nuclear weapons, such victims amounted to 25.6 and 23.7%, respectively. Combined lesions are characterized by an earlier onset of radiation sickness and its severe course due to the complicating effects of mechanical injuries and burns. In addition, the erectile phase of shock lengthens and the torpid phase deepens, reparative processes are distorted, and severe purulent complications often occur (see Combined lesions).

In addition to the destruction of people, one should also take into account the indirect impact of nuclear weapons - destruction of buildings, destruction of food supplies, disruption of water supply, sewerage, energy supply systems, etc., as a result of which the problem of housing, feeding people, carrying out anti-epidemic measures, and being in such unfavorable conditions significantly increases medical assistance to a huge number of affected people.

The data presented indicate that sanitary losses in a war using nuclear weapons will differ significantly from those in past wars. This difference is mainly as follows: in previous wars, mechanical injuries predominated, and in a war with the use of nuclear weapons, along with them, radiation, thermal and combined injuries, accompanied by high lethality, will occupy a significant proportion. The use of nuclear weapons will be characterized by the emergence of centers of mass sanitary losses; Moreover, due to the massive nature of the damage and the simultaneous arrival of a large number of victims, the number of people in need of medical care will significantly exceed the real capabilities of the army medical service and especially the civil defense medical service (see Civil Defense Medical Service). In a war with the use of nuclear weapons, the lines between the army and front-line areas of the active army and the deep rear of the country will be erased, and sanitary losses among the civilian population will significantly exceed losses among the troops.

The activities of the medical service in such a difficult situation should be built on uniform organizational, tactical and methodological principles of military medicine, formulated by N. I. Pirogov and subsequently developed by Soviet scientists (see Military medicine, Medical evacuation support system, Staged treatment, etc. ). When there is a mass influx of wounded and sick people, first of all, those with lesions incompatible with life should be identified. In conditions where the number of wounded and sick many times exceeds the real capabilities of the medical service, qualified assistance should be provided in cases where it will save the lives of the victims. Triage (see Medical triage), carried out from such a position, will contribute to the most rational use of medical forces and means to solve the main task - in each specific case, to provide assistance to the majority of the wounded and sick.

In recent years, the environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons have attracted increasing attention from scientists, especially specialists studying the long-term results of the massive use of modern types of nuclear weapons. The problem of the environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons was examined in detail and scientifically in the report of the International Committee of Experts in the Field of Medicine and Public Health, “The Consequences of Nuclear War on Public Health and Health Services,” at the XXXVI session of the World Health Assembly, held in May 1983. This report was developed by the specified committee of experts, which included authoritative representatives of medical science and health from 13 countries (including Great Britain, the USSR, the USA, France and Japan), in pursuance of resolution WHA 34.38, adopted by the XXXIV session of the World Health Assembly on May 22, 1981, Soviet The Union in this committee was represented by prominent scientists - specialists in the field of radiation biology, hygiene and medical protection, academicians of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences N.P. Bochkov and L.A. Ilyin.

The main factors arising from the massive use of nuclear weapons, which can cause catastrophic environmental consequences, according to modern views, are: the destructive impact of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons on the Earth's biosphere, entailing the total destruction of animal life and vegetation in the territory exposed to such influence; a sharp change in the composition of the Earth's atmosphere as a result of a decrease in the proportion of oxygen and its pollution by the products of a nuclear explosion, as well as nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides and a huge amount of dark small particles with high light-absorbing properties released into the atmosphere from the zone of fires raging on the earth.

As evidenced by numerous studies carried out by scientists in many countries, intense thermal radiation, accounting for about 35% of the energy released as a result of a thermonuclear explosion, will have a strong flammable effect and will lead to the ignition of almost all combustible materials located in the areas of nuclear strikes. The flames will engulf vast areas of forests, peatlands and populated areas. Under the influence of the shock wave of a nuclear explosion, oil and natural gas supply lines (pipelines) can be damaged, and the released flammable material will further intensify the fires. As a result, a so-called fire hurricane will arise, the temperature of which can reach 1000°; it will continue for a long time, covering more and more areas of the earth's surface and turning them into lifeless ashes.

Particularly affected are the top layers of soil, which are the most important for the ecological system as a whole, since they have the ability to retain moisture and provide habitat for organisms that support the processes of biological decomposition and metabolism that occur in the soil. As a result of such unfavorable environmental changes, soil erosion will increase under the influence of wind and precipitation, as well as the evaporation of moisture from bare areas of the earth. All this will ultimately lead to the transformation of once prosperous and fertile regions into a lifeless desert.

Smoke from giant fires, mixed with solid particles from the products of ground-based nuclear explosions, will envelop a larger or smaller surface (depending on the scale of the use of nuclear weapons) of the globe in a dense cloud that will absorb a significant portion of the sun's rays. This darkening, while simultaneously cooling the earth's surface (the so-called thermonuclear winter), can last for a long time, having a detrimental effect on the ecological system of territories far removed from the zones of direct use of nuclear weapons. In this case, one should also take into account the long-term teratogenic impact of global radioactive fallout on the ecological system of these territories.

The extremely unfavorable environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons are also the result of a sharp reduction in the ozone content in the protective layer of the earth's atmosphere as a result of its pollution by nitrogen oxides released during the explosion of high-power nuclear weapons, which will entail the destruction of this protective layer, which provides natural biol. protection of animal and plant cells from the harmful effects of UV radiation from the Sun. The disappearance of vegetation cover over vast areas, combined with air pollution, can lead to serious climate changes, in particular to a significant decrease in the average annual temperature and its sharp daily and seasonal fluctuations.

Thus, the catastrophic environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons are due to: the total destruction of the habitat of flora and fauna on the Earth's surface in vast areas directly affected by nuclear weapons; long-term pollution of the atmosphere by thermonuclear smog, which has an extremely negative impact on the ecological system of the entire globe and causes climate change; the long-term teratogenic impact of global radioactive fallout falling from the atmosphere onto the Earth's surface, on the ecological system, partially preserved in areas that were not subject to total destruction by the damaging factors of nuclear weapons. According to the conclusion recorded in the report of the International Committee of Experts, presented to the XXXVI session of the World Health Assembly, the damage caused to the ecosystem by the use of nuclear weapons will be permanent and possibly irreversible.

Currently, the most important task for humanity is to preserve peace and prevent nuclear war. The core direction of the foreign policy activities of the CPSU and the Soviet state has been and remains the struggle to preserve and strengthen universal peace and curb the arms race. The USSR has taken and is taking persistent steps in this direction. The most specific large-scale proposals of the CPSU were reflected in the Political Report of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M. S. Gorbachev to the XXVII Congress of the CPSU, in which the fundamental principles of a comprehensive system of international security were put forward.

Bibliography: Bond V., Fliedner G. and Archambault D. Radiation death of mammals, trans. from English, M., 1971; The Action of the Atomic Bomb in Japan, trans. from English, ed. A. V. Lebedinsky, M., 1960; The effect of nuclear weapons, trans. from English, ed. P. S. Dmitrieva, M., 1965; Dinerman A. A. The role of environmental pollutants in disruption of embryonic development, M., 1980; And about y-rysh A.I., Morokhov I.D. and Ivanov S.K. A-bomb, M., 1980; Consequences of nuclear war on public health and health services, Geneva, WHO, 1984, bibliogr.; Guidelines for the treatment of combined radiation injuries at the stages of medical evacuation, ed. E. A. Zherbina, M., 1982; Guide to the treatment of burnt victims at the stages of medical evacuation, ed. V.K. Sologuba, M., 1979; Guide to the Medical Service of Civil Defense, ed. A. I. Burnazyan, M., 1983; Guide to traumatology for the civil defense medical service, ed. A. I. Kazmina, M., 1978; Smirnov E.I. Scientific organization of military medicine is the main condition for its great contribution to victory, Vestn. Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, JNs 11, p. 30, 1975; aka, 60th anniversary of the USSR Armed Forces and Soviet military medicine, Sov. healthcare, no. 7, p. 17, 1978; aka, War and military medicine 1939-1945, M., 1979; Chazov E.I., Ilyin L.A. and Guskova A.K. The danger of nuclear war: The point of view of Soviet medical scientists, M., 1982.

E. I. Smirnov, V. N. Zhizhin; A. S. Georgievsky (ecological consequences of the use of nuclear weapons)

But this is something we often don’t know. And why does a nuclear bomb explode, too...

Let's start from afar. Every atom has a nucleus, and the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons - perhaps everyone knows this. In the same way, everyone saw the periodic table. But why are the chemical elements in it placed this way and not otherwise? Certainly not because Mendeleev wanted it that way. The atomic number of each element in the table indicates how many protons are in the nucleus of that element's atom. In other words, iron is number 26 in the table because there are 26 protons in an iron atom. And if there are not 26 of them, it is no longer iron.

But there can be different numbers of neutrons in the nuclei of the same element, which means that the mass of the nuclei can be different. Atoms of the same element with different masses are called isotopes. Uranium has several such isotopes: the most common in nature is uranium-238 (its nucleus has 92 protons and 146 neutrons, totaling 238). It is radioactive, but you cannot make a nuclear bomb from it. But the isotope uranium-235, a small amount of which is found in uranium ores, is suitable for a nuclear charge.

The reader may have come across the expressions “enriched uranium” and “depleted uranium”. Enriched uranium contains more uranium-235 than natural uranium; in a depleted state, correspondingly, less. Enriched uranium can be used to produce plutonium, another element suitable for a nuclear bomb (it is almost never found in nature). How uranium is enriched and how plutonium is obtained from it is a topic for a separate discussion.

So why does a nuclear bomb explode? The fact is that some heavy nuclei tend to decay if they are hit by a neutron. And you won’t have to wait long for a free neutron – there are a lot of them flying around. So, such a neutron hits the uranium-235 nucleus and thereby breaks it into “fragments”. This releases a few more neutrons. Can you guess what will happen if there are nuclei of the same element around? That's right, a chain reaction will occur. This is how it happens.

In a nuclear reactor, where uranium-235 is “dissolved” in the more stable uranium-238, an explosion does not occur under normal conditions. Most of the neutrons that fly out of decaying nuclei fly away into the milk, without finding the uranium-235 nuclei. In the reactor, the decay of nuclei occurs “sluggishly” (but this is enough for the reactor to provide energy). In a single piece of uranium-235, if it is of sufficient mass, neutrons will be guaranteed to break up the nuclei, the chain reaction will start as an avalanche, and... Stop! After all, if you make a piece of uranium-235 or plutonium with the mass required for an explosion, it will explode immediately. This is not the point.

What if you take two pieces of subcritical mass and push them against each other using a remote-controlled mechanism? For example, place both in a tube and attach a powder charge to one so that at the right moment one piece, like a projectile, is fired at the other. Here is the solution to the problem.

You can do it differently: take a spherical piece of plutonium and attach explosive charges over its entire surface. When these charges detonate on command from the outside, their explosion will compress the plutonium from all sides, compress it to a critical density, and a chain reaction will occur. However, accuracy and reliability are important here: all explosive charges must go off at the same time. If some of them work, and some don’t, or some work late, no nuclear explosion will result: the plutonium will not be compressed to a critical mass, but will dissipate in the air. Instead of a nuclear bomb, you will get a so-called “dirty” one.

This is what an implosion-type nuclear bomb looks like. The charges, which are supposed to create a directed explosion, are made in the form of polyhedra in order to cover the surface of the plutonium sphere as tightly as possible.

The first type of device was called a cannon device, the second type - an implosion device.
The "Little Boy" bomb dropped on Hiroshima had a uranium-235 charge and a cannon-type device. The Fat Man bomb, detonated over Nagasaki, carried a plutonium charge, and the explosive device was implosion. Nowadays, gun-type devices are almost never used; implosion ones are more complicated, but at the same time they allow you to regulate the mass of the nuclear charge and spend it more rationally. And plutonium has replaced uranium-235 as a nuclear explosive.

Quite a few years passed, and physicists offered the military an even more powerful bomb - a thermonuclear bomb, or, as it is also called, a hydrogen bomb. It turns out that hydrogen explodes more powerfully than plutonium?

Hydrogen is indeed explosive, but not that explosive. However, there is no “ordinary” hydrogen in a hydrogen bomb; it uses its isotopes – deuterium and tritium. The nucleus of “ordinary” hydrogen has one neutron, deuterium has two, and tritium has three.

In a nuclear bomb, the nuclei of a heavy element are divided into nuclei of lighter ones. In thermonuclear fusion, the reverse process occurs: light nuclei merge with each other into heavier ones. Deuterium and tritium nuclei, for example, combine to form helium nuclei (otherwise known as alpha particles), and the “extra” neutron is sent into “free flight.” This releases significantly more energy than during the decay of plutonium nuclei. By the way, this is exactly the process that takes place on the Sun.

However, the fusion reaction is possible only at ultra-high temperatures (which is why it is called thermonuclear). How to make deuterium and tritium react? Yes, it’s very simple: you need to use a nuclear bomb as a detonator!

Since deuterium and tritium are themselves stable, their charge in a thermonuclear bomb can be arbitrarily huge. This means that a thermonuclear bomb can be made incomparably more powerful than a “simple” nuclear one. The “Baby” dropped on Hiroshima had a TNT equivalent of within 18 kilotons, and the most powerful hydrogen bomb (the so-called “Tsar Bomba”, also known as “Kuzka’s Mother”) was already 58.6 megatons, more than 3255 times more powerful "Baby"!

The “mushroom” cloud from the Tsar Bomba rose to a height of 67 kilometers, and the blast wave circled the globe three times.

However, such gigantic power is clearly excessive. Having “played enough” with megaton bombs, military engineers and physicists took a different path - the path of miniaturization of nuclear weapons. In their conventional form, nuclear weapons can be dropped from strategic bombers like aerial bombs or launched from ballistic missiles; if you miniaturize them, you get a compact nuclear charge that does not destroy everything for kilometers around, and which can be placed on an artillery shell or an air-to-ground missile. Mobility will increase and the range of tasks to be solved will expand. In addition to strategic nuclear weapons, we will receive tactical ones.

A variety of delivery systems have been developed for tactical nuclear weapons - nuclear cannons, mortars, recoilless rifles (for example, the American Davy Crockett). The USSR even had a nuclear bullet project. True, it had to be abandoned - nuclear bullets were so unreliable, so complicated and expensive to manufacture and store that there was no point in them.

"Davy Crockett." A number of these nuclear weapons were in service with the US Armed Forces, and the West German Minister of Defense unsuccessfully sought to arm the Bundeswehr with them.

Speaking about small nuclear weapons, it is worth mentioning another type of nuclear weapon - the neutron bomb. The plutonium charge in it is small, but this is not necessary. If a thermonuclear bomb follows the path of increasing the force of the explosion, then a neutron bomb relies on another damaging factor - radiation. To enhance radiation, a neutron bomb contains a supply of beryllium isotope, which upon explosion produces a huge number of fast neutrons.

According to its creators, a neutron bomb should kill enemy personnel, but leave equipment intact, which can then be captured during an offensive. In practice, it turned out somewhat differently: irradiated equipment becomes unusable - anyone who dares to pilot it will very soon “earn” radiation sickness. This does not change the fact that a neutron bomb explosion is capable of hitting an enemy through tank armor; neutron ammunition was developed by the United States specifically as a weapon against Soviet tank formations. However, tank armor was soon developed that provided some kind of protection from the flow of fast neutrons.

Another type of nuclear weapon was invented in 1950, but never (as far as is known) produced. This is the so-called cobalt bomb - a nuclear charge with a cobalt shell. During the explosion, cobalt, irradiated by a stream of neutrons, becomes an extremely radioactive isotope and is scattered throughout the area, contaminating it. Just one such bomb of sufficient power could cover the entire globe with cobalt and destroy all of humanity. Fortunately, this project remained a project.

What can we say in conclusion? A nuclear bomb is a truly terrible weapon, and at the same time it (what a paradox!) helped maintain relative peace between the superpowers. If your enemy has nuclear weapons, you will think ten times before attacking him. No country with a nuclear arsenal has ever been attacked from outside, and there have been no wars between major states in the world since 1945. Let's hope there won't be any.

Nuclear weapons are strategic weapons capable of solving global problems. Its use is associated with dire consequences for all humanity. This makes the atomic bomb not only a threat, but also a weapon of deterrence.

The appearance of weapons capable of putting an end to the development of mankind marked the beginning of a new era. The likelihood of a global conflict or a new world war is minimized due to the possibility of total destruction of the entire civilization.

Despite such threats, nuclear weapons continue to be in service with the leading countries of the world. To a certain extent, it is this that becomes the determining factor in international diplomacy and geopolitics.

The history of the creation of the nuclear bomb

The question of who invented the nuclear bomb does not have a clear answer in history. The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium is considered to be a prerequisite for work on atomic weapons. In 1896, the French chemist A. Becquerel discovered the chain reaction of this element, marking the beginning of developments in nuclear physics.

In the next decade, alpha, beta and gamma rays were discovered, as well as a number of radioactive isotopes of certain chemical elements. The subsequent discovery of the law of radioactive decay of the atom became the beginning for the study of nuclear isometry.

In December 1938, German physicists O. Hahn and F. Strassmann were the first to carry out a nuclear fission reaction under artificial conditions. On April 24, 1939, the German leadership was informed about the possibility of creating a new powerful explosive.

However, the German nuclear program was doomed to failure. Despite the successful progress of scientists, the country, due to the war, constantly experienced difficulties with resources, especially with the supply of heavy water. In the later stages, research was slowed down by constant evacuations. On April 23, 1945, the developments of German scientists were captured in Haigerloch and taken to the USA.

The United States became the first country to express interest in the new invention. In 1941, significant funds were allocated for its development and creation. The first tests took place on July 16, 1945. Less than a month later, the United States used nuclear weapons for the first time, dropping two bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The USSR's own research in the field of nuclear physics has been conducted since 1918. The Commission on the Atomic Nucleus was created in 1938 at the Academy of Sciences. However, with the outbreak of the war, its activities in this direction were suspended.

In 1943, information about scientific works in nuclear physics was received by Soviet intelligence officers from England. Agents were introduced into several US research centers. The information they obtained allowed them to accelerate the development of their own nuclear weapons.

The invention of the Soviet atomic bomb was led by I. Kurchatov and Yu. Khariton, they are considered the creators of the Soviet atomic bomb. Information about this became the impetus for the US preparation for preemptive war. In July 1949, the Trojan plan was developed, according to which it was planned to begin military operations on January 1, 1950.

The date was later moved to early 1957 so that all NATO countries could prepare and join the war. According to Western intelligence, nuclear weapons testing in the USSR could not have been carried out until 1954.

However, US preparations for war became known in advance, which forced Soviet scientists to speed up their research. In a short time they invent and create their own nuclear bomb. On August 29, 1949, the first Soviet atomic bomb RDS-1 (special jet engine) was tested at the test site in Semipalatinsk.

Such tests thwarted the Trojan plan. From that moment on, the United States ceased to have a monopoly on nuclear weapons. Regardless of the strength of the preemptive strike, there remained the risk of retaliatory action, which could lead to disaster. From that moment on, the most terrible weapon became the guarantor of peace between the great powers.

Principle of operation

The operating principle of an atomic bomb is based on a chain reaction of the decay of heavy nuclei or thermonuclear fusion of light ones. During these processes, a huge amount of energy is released, which turns the bomb into a weapon of mass destruction.

On September 24, 1951, tests of the RDS-2 were carried out. They could already be delivered to the launch points so that they could reach the United States. On October 18, the RDS-3, delivered by bomber, was tested.

Further testing moved on to thermonuclear fusion. The first tests of such a bomb in the United States took place on November 1, 1952. In the USSR, such a warhead was tested within 8 months.

TX nuclear bomb

Nuclear bombs do not have clear characteristics due to the variety of uses of such ammunition. However, there are a number of general aspects that must be taken into account when creating this weapon.

These include:

axisymmetric structure of the bomb - all blocks and systems are placed in pairs in cylindrical, spherocylindrical or conical containers;
when designing, they reduce the mass of a nuclear bomb by combining power units, choosing the optimal shape of shells and compartments, as well as using more durable materials;
minimize the number of wires and connectors, and use a pneumatic line or explosive detonation cord to transmit the impact;
blocking of the main components is carried out using partitions that are destroyed by pyroelectric charges;
active substances are pumped using a separate container or external carrier.

Taking into account the requirements for the device, a nuclear bomb consists of the following components:

a housing that provides protection for ammunition from physical and thermal effects - divided into compartments and can be equipped with a load-bearing frame;
nuclear charge with power mount;
self-destruction system with its integration into a nuclear charge;
a power source designed for long-term storage - activated already during rocket launch;
external sensors - to collect information;
cocking, control and detonation systems, the latter embedded in the charge;
systems for diagnostics, heating and maintaining a microclimate inside sealed compartments.

Depending on the type of nuclear bomb, other systems are also integrated into it. These may include a flight sensor, a locking remote control, calculation of flight options, and an autopilot. Some munitions also use jammers designed to reduce resistance to a nuclear bomb.

The consequences of using such a bomb

The “ideal” consequences of the use of nuclear weapons were already recorded when the bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. The charge exploded at an altitude of 200 meters, which caused a strong shock wave. Coal-fired stoves were knocked over in many homes, causing fires even outside the affected area.

The flash of light was followed by a heat stroke that lasted a matter of seconds. However, its power was enough to melt tiles and quartz within a radius of 4 km, as well as spray telegraph poles.

The heat wave was followed by a shock wave. The wind speed reached 800 km/h, its gust destroyed almost all buildings in the city. Of the 76 thousand buildings, about 6 thousand partially survived, the rest were completely destroyed.

The heat wave, as well as rising steam and ash, caused heavy condensation in the atmosphere. A few minutes later it began to rain with drops of ash black. Contact with the skin caused severe incurable burns.

People who were within 800 meters of the epicenter of the explosion were burned to dust. Those who remained were exposed to radiation and radiation sickness. Its symptoms were weakness, nausea, vomiting, and fever. There was a sharp decrease in the number of white cells in the blood.

In seconds, about 70 thousand people were killed. The same number subsequently died from their wounds and burns.

Three days later, another bomb was dropped on Nagasaki with similar consequences.

Stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the world

The main stockpiles of nuclear weapons are concentrated in Russia and the United States. In addition to them, the following countries have atomic bombs: