Adaptation of organisms to different living conditions - Knowledge Hypermarket. Human adaptation to the environment Adaptation to living conditions

In the process of evolution, as a result of natural selection and the struggle for existence, adaptations of organisms to certain living conditions arise. Evolution itself is essentially a continuous process of formation of adaptations, occurring according to the following scheme: intensity of reproduction -> struggle for existence -> selective death -> natural selection -> fitness.

Adaptations affect different aspects of the life processes of organisms and therefore can be of several types.

Morphological adaptations

They are associated with changes in body structure. For example, the appearance of membranes between the toes in waterfowl (amphibians, birds, etc.), thick fur in northern mammals, long legs and a long neck in wading birds, a flexible body in burrowing predators (for example, weasels), etc. In warm-blooded animals, when moving north, an increase in average body size is observed (Bergmann's rule), which reduces the relative surface area and heat transfer. Benthic fish develop a flat body (rays, flounder, etc.). Plants in northern latitudes and high mountain regions often have creeping and cushion-shaped forms, which are less damaged by strong winds and better warmed by the sun in the soil layer.

Protective coloration

Protective coloration is very important for animal species that do not have effective means of protection against predators. Thanks to it, animals become less noticeable in the area. For example, female birds hatching eggs are almost indistinguishable from the background of the area. Bird eggs are also colored to match the color of the area. Bottom-dwelling fish, most insects and many other animal species have a protective coloration. In the north, white or light coloring is more common, helping to camouflage in the snow (polar bears, polar owls, arctic foxes, baby pinnipeds - squirrels, etc.). A number of animals have acquired a coloration formed by alternating light and dark stripes or spots, making them less noticeable in bushes and dense thickets (tigers, young wild boars, zebras, sika deer, etc.). Some animals are capable of changing color very quickly depending on conditions (chameleons, octopuses, flounder, etc.).

Disguise

The essence of camouflage is that the shape of the body and its color make animals look like leaves, twigs, branches, bark or thorns of plants. Often found in insects that live on plants.

Warning or threatening coloring

Some types of insects that have poisonous or odorous glands have bright warning colors. Therefore, predators that once encounter them remember this coloring for a long time and no longer attack such insects (for example, wasps, bumblebees, ladybugs, Colorado potato beetles and a number of others).

Mimicry

Mimicry is the coloring and body shape of harmless animals that imitate their poisonous counterparts. For example, some non-venomous snakes resemble venomous ones. Cicadas and crickets resemble large ants. Some butterflies have large spots on their wings that resemble the eyes of predators.

Physiological adaptations

This type of adaptation is associated with a restructuring of metabolism in organisms. For example, the appearance of warm-bloodedness and thermoregulation in birds and mammals. In simpler cases, this is an adaptation to certain forms of food, the salt composition of the environment, high or low temperatures, humidity or dryness of soil and air, etc.

Biochemical adaptations

Behavioral adaptations

This type of adaptation is associated with changes in behavior in certain conditions. For example, caring for offspring leads to better survival of young animals and increases the stability of their populations. During mating seasons, many animals form separate families, and in winter they unite in flocks, which makes it easier for them to feed or protect (wolves, many species of birds).

Adaptations to periodic environmental factors

These are adaptations to environmental factors that have a certain periodicity in their manifestation. This type includes daily alternations of periods of activity and rest, states of partial or complete anabiosis (shedding of leaves, winter or summer diapauses of animals, etc.), animal migrations caused by seasonal changes, etc.

Adaptations to extreme living conditions

Plants and animals living in deserts and polar regions also acquire a number of specific adaptations. In cacti, the leaves have been transformed into spines (reducing evaporation and protecting them from being eaten by animals), and the stem has turned into a photosynthetic organ and reservoir. Desert plants have long root systems that allow them to obtain water from great depths. Desert lizards can survive without water by eating insects and obtaining water by hydrolyzing their fats. In addition to thick fur, northern animals also have a large supply of subcutaneous fat, which reduces body cooling.

Relative nature of adaptations

All devices are appropriate only for certain conditions in which they were developed. If these conditions change, adaptations may lose their value or even cause harm to the organisms that have them. The white coloration of hares, which protects them well in the snow, becomes dangerous during winters with little snow or severe thaws.

The relative nature of adaptations is well proven by paleontological data, which indicates the extinction of large groups of animals and plants that did not survive the change in living conditions.

Human life is historically associated with adaptation - the continuous process of human adaptation to natural and social conditions. Even Charles Darwin based his theory of evolution on the idea of ​​the need to adapt living organisms to the changing conditions of the surrounding world, the inability to adapt to which leads to the extinction of unadapted individuals. This is due to the fact that the world around people is subject to constant changes. Thus, the movement of celestial bodies causes a cyclical change in climatic conditions, and scientific and technological progress in the field of information technology has led to an almost global restructuring of the way of life of modern man, making possible what seemed impossible just a few decades ago.

Adaptation is a sequence of changes leading to a restructuring of the biological or behavioral characteristics of an organism with the subsequent achievement of the most advantageous state for further life activity.

Adaptation of organisms is a manifestation of life, and therefore the nature of the emergence of adaptive processes has long been controversial among philosophers.

Thus, Empedocles did not believe that adaptation processes pursue a specific goal, being natural mechanisms.

Theology interpreted the fact that there is adaptation of organisms as the work of a deity and presented this as one of the proofs of the existence of God. It was also widely propagated that it was God who created “the best of all possible worlds.” The appearance of the works of Charles Darwin, in which he emphasized many of the shortcomings and limitations he noted in the plant and animal worlds.

The appearance of Lamarck's works, in which he improved Darwin's theory of evolution, made it possible to partially explain the adaptation of organisms as a natural process. He also believed that there is a tendency for organisms to become more complex due to the influence of environmental factors. However, Mendel's work and his discovery of the laws of heredity led to the refutation of Lamarxism.

Currently, it is believed that adaptation is based on natural phenotypic variability, the severity of which is determined by the genotype inherited from descendants. The appearance of new characteristics that were not previously manifested in ancestors is possible both as a result of a mutation and when a recessive trait manifests itself if it is present in the genotype of two parents. It is also believed that the compensatory capabilities underlying the adaptation of a living organism are determined already at birth by the genotype and cannot be expanded under the influence of external or internal environmental factors.

Child adaptation

The entire period of a person’s life from the moment of birth until death is associated with continuous dynamic adaptation to changing factors of both the external and internal environment.

Thus, children's adaptation begins from birth and is accompanied by a number of significant changes in the body, which is associated with a change in living conditions - from the mother's body protected from external influences, children find themselves under the influence of a huge number of factors.

In the early postpartum period, the child’s adaptation to the outside world includes:

• starting the first breath and beginning regular breathing using the airways and lungs;
• restructuring of the circulatory system associated with the transition to gas exchange in the lungs;
• full activation of the gastrointestinal tract and refusal to receive nutrients upon contact with maternal blood in the placenta;
• restructuring of the nervous system with a transition to sleep-wake mode;
• activation of the senses with the development of the organs of vision, smell, taste;
• development of an independent thermoregulation system capable of leveling temperature fluctuations in the external environment.

The development of the immune system, which protects the baby’s body from numerous foreign agents such as viruses, bacteria and fungi, deserves special attention.

Adaptation of a child under three years of age consists of active exploration of the world. It is during this period that he begins to raise his head, crawl, sit and walk, learns to use objects, plan and evaluate his actions and actions. During this period, children taste everything that interests them, and tactile sensitivity actively develops.

The period from three to seven years plays a large role in the psychological adaptation of the child and is associated, as a rule, with the formation of the child’s personal qualities and character, and the development of behavioral mechanisms. There is a kind of copying of the behavior model of the parents, who are an example for him. Speech development is of great importance for further socialization, which allows the child to join groups of peers. At this age, the amount of time parents devote not only to education, but also to pastime, is of great importance. Distracting the child with modern gadgets, which not only do not accelerate intellectual development, but can also significantly slow it down, has a negative impact on further development.

The age from 6 to 14-16 years is a serious period that actually determines the future path of a child’s life. In this time period, the huge amount of information received by the child shapes his horizons, develops erudition, and allows him to formulate basic concepts about behavior in society, which is of great importance not only for children’s adaptation, but also for adults. In some cases, if there is a predisposition to the development of psychological disorders, a special approach to raising a child is required, the goal of which will be the maximum possible compensation for deviations in behavior.

Difficulties in raising a child can arise during puberty, the biological basis of which is changes in hormonal levels and a rethinking of life values ​​and the formation of one’s own views. There may be a change in behavior, children think that they are not understood.

The social adaptation of a child between the ages of 16 and 18 is of great importance in connection with the choice of a future profession and admission to higher educational institutions, which practically determines the future path of life.

The greatest importance for a person between the ages of 18 and 65 is adaptation to independent life in society, which includes professional adaptation and the creation of a family - the basic unit of modern society. For many people, such a serious restructuring of life becomes a serious stress, which not everyone can overcome, which leads to a large number of divorces, the causes of which can be:

• addiction to psychoactive substances of one of the spouses, which becomes the most common cause of breakup and is observed in 41% of cases;
• lack of own housing – 14% of cases;
• interference of third parties in family life – 14% of cases;
• the absence of children leads to marriage breakdown in 8% of cases;
• separation, including due to official or judicial obligations – 8%;
• disability of one of the spouses – 1%.

Professional adaptation is important for the material support of an established family, raising children, and has a great influence on achieving psychological comfort. Also, a stable, good income allows a person to eat right, relax, play sports and monitor their health.

Adaptation of the elderly

Peculiarities of adaptation in people over 65 years of age are associated with the physiological aging of many systems, which requires them to more carefully monitor their health in compliance with the following recommendations:

• reducing heavy physical activity;
• increasing the distance walked daily;
• timely visits to the doctor and strict adherence to recommendations;
• proper and healthy nutrition.

Adaptation problems in older people can often be associated with age-related adaptation - when a deep psychological crisis occurs. Its occurrence is influenced by factors:

• analysis of the life lived (the past, present and future are assessed);
• health problems;
• changing the usual way of life.

As a rule, in old age, chronic diseases accompanied by severe complications occur in almost every patient, which significantly increases the risk of disability. Thus, according to statistics, more than 80% of people over the age of 75 have certain disorders that lead to disruption of daily life. Disability always becomes a serious shock for the patient, and therefore psychological adaptation to cope with experiences and a new way of life is simply necessary.

In 75% of cases, chronic diseases leading to disability are:

• cardiovascular system;
• malignant tumors;
• nervous system;
• mental disorders;
• musculoskeletal system;
• respiratory organs.

There are certain features of adaptation in elderly people, which are associated with the fact that most of them are people living alone, which significantly complicates rehabilitation and adaptation to new living conditions.

The following types of adaptation of organisms can be distinguished:

• biological;
• physiological;
• social.

As a rule, these types of adaptations of organisms have a significant impact on the life of not only humans, but other living beings, allowing them to exist and leave offspring.

Biological adaptation

Biological adaptation is based on a constant change in morphofunctional and behavioral characteristics, which allows one to adapt to living conditions in a certain habitat and ensure the best survival not only in comparison with other species, but also in comparison with individuals of their own population. As a result, viable individuals leave offspring, which allows the species to exist in the future, while unadapted individuals either change further or disappear.

To implement a biological type of adaptation of organisms, the interaction of the internal characteristics of organisms (responsible for adaptation) and external ones (environmental factors to which one should adapt) is required.

Examples of biological adaptation include:

• adaptation to new living conditions;

When living conditions change, the following things can happen to living things:

change of habitat, genetic rearrangements that allow adaptation to new conditions and extinction of the species.

A cyclical change of habitat is represented, as a rule, in birds and some ocean inhabitants, who move to a new place at certain times of the year.

Genetic rearrangements lead to changes in population composition under the influence of natural selection. In some cases, thanks to them, living organisms acquire new characteristics. Genetic changes can lead to changes in both visible structures and can significantly affect physiological processes. Due to the fact that the habitat is subject to constant changes, the process of adaptation occurs continuously. However, situations are possible when the environment changes faster than organisms adapt to it, and vice versa. If a species fails to adapt to new conditions, it is displaced from the biotope by more adapted creatures.

Typically, of these possible outcomes, only genetic rearrangements are true biological adaptations.

• co-adaptation;

The phenomenon of coadaptation is due to the close coexistence of species and is observed when the appearance of a new trait in one organism significantly increases the adaptive capabilities of the second. An example is the interaction between insects and flowering plants.

Mimicry is based on mutational variability, which allows living organisms to be similar to each other. This significantly expands the capabilities of living organisms. An example is both harmless insects, whose coloring resembles dangerous ones, and any living creatures whose coloring allows them to not stand out against the background of the environment (chameleon, tiger, leopard).

• pre-adaptation;

Pre-adaptation is a possible mechanism for the development of new organs from previously non-functioning ones or those that perform other tasks. It is based on the idea that it is impossible for a complex organ to emerge that would ideally perform its assigned function. Preadaptation also helps explain how organ functions change during evolution. The essence of the theory is that an organism has the rudiments of an organ or an organ that does not function or performs a different function, but a change in environmental conditions causes the organ to begin to perform another task that is more important for survival. In such a situation, natural selection comes into play, which allows you to select individuals that are most adapted to new conditions.

• acclimatization.

Adaptation of organisms to new environmental conditions, which occurs during their artificial or natural territorial movement with the formation of stable, self-reproducing groups, is called acclimatization. This is achieved by expanding its adaptive capabilities and evolutionary selection. Thus, the indigenous inhabitants of the Far North have good resistance to low temperatures, while at the same time, desert inhabitants are able to tolerate not only high temperatures, but also a prolonged lack of water. Some living organisms had to switch to a nocturnal lifestyle to adapt to environmental conditions.

If a population is unable to move or develop new qualities that can increase vitality, it will die out in that region. For a species to completely disappear, mortality must prevail over birth rates, then, after some time, the population of individuals will disappear.

If the adaptation process in some species has not yet been completed, this can seriously affect the biocenosis as a whole, even in the absence of changes in the environment.

There are some features of adaptation in humans as a species, which is associated with the presence of abstract thinking, which allows us to simulate complex situations and provide for possible options for their development. Subsequently, this became the basis for the formation of science. The ability for imaginative thinking has made it possible to significantly expand the capabilities of the human population through the creation of complex devices that make it possible to almost completely get rid of the influence of external environmental factors that determine the direction of the evolutionary process. Thus, a person was able to reach the bottom of the ocean and visit space, although his body is absolutely not adapted to the stress that arises in such conditions. The modern level of development of medicine has also made it possible to significantly correct obstacles to a person’s quality of life and significantly prolong his life.

Thus, a feature of human adaptation to the conditions of the outside world is a certain isolation compared to other living organisms, and social qualities influence survival and prolongation of the species to a greater extent.

Physiological adaptation of organisms

Living beings are a complex self-regulating mechanism that significantly depends on the influence of environmental factors, constant changes in which, as a rule, lead to an imbalance between certain processes occurring in the body. Thus, the physiological adaptation of organisms consists of an adequate response to external stimuli by regulating internal processes.

Interest in studying the mechanism of physiological adaptation of organisms arose with Charles Darwin, who studied the similarities and differences in emotional reactions in humans and animals. Subsequently, Walter Bradford Cannon discovered the influence of the sympathoadrenal system on the mobilization of the body under stress. The work of Pavlov and his students proved the commonality of internal disorders in living organisms under conditions of prolonged exposure to an extreme stimulus.

However, a fundamental role in the formation of the concept of the role of adaptation processes was played by the concept of the constancy of the internal environment of the body, put forward by Claude Bernard, the essence of which was the opinion that any external environmental influences are instantly compensated by the living organism. His concept later served as the basis for the works of Walter Bradford Cannon on homeostasis - the body’s ability to maintain a constant internal environment. In essence, physiological adaptation of organisms is synonymous with homeostasis.

In support of ideas about the role of homeostasis, Hans Selye conducted research based on the study of the adaptation syndrome (a cascade of changes occurring in the body in response to stress), which led to the identification of general trends confirming that the body, regardless of the nature of the impact, tries to compensate for the resulting consequences.

The components of the body that allow physiological adaptation of organisms are:

• nervous system;
• humoral system;
• buffer systems.

According to the WHO charter, health is considered to be a state of complete physical, spiritual and social well-being, and not just the absence of various pathologies. It would be foolish to deny the influence of processes occurring in childhood on the future fate of the body. It should also be divided into psychological and physical.

Children's psychological adaptation consists of developing their own attitude towards society, moral and spiritual qualities, which in the future seriously affects their interaction with other people. Particularly difficult are orphans and children who grew up in dysfunctional families, which in most cases is accompanied by severe psychological trauma that lasts until the end of life.

At an older age, the child is significantly influenced by the group in which he spends time. In this regard, it is recommended to take the child after school in sections, art clubs, or help him find other hobbies that will help him develop.

Children's adaptation to the outside world, aimed at achieving physical health, includes the final maturation of body systems, which is influenced by environmental factors.

It is difficult not to remember the importance of baby nutrition, especially during the first year after birth, which is an important condition for the proper development of the child. Breastfeeding is most optimal for this purpose (in very rare cases it may be contraindicated). This is due to the high content of not only energy and plastic substances that provide the growing child’s body with everything necessary, but also immune defense factors that play a huge role in the first year of a child’s life, while the period of adaptation to contact with numerous foreign bacteria continues.

Hardening, which should begin from an early age, also plays a big role in the formation of physical and spiritual health. Hardening is a method of physiotherapy that uses frequent repeated exposure to natural factors in order to increase the functional reserves of the body.

The natural factors used include:

• air;
• Sun rays;
• low or high temperatures;
• low atmospheric pressure.

With rare exposure to these factors, a complex physiological set of responses is launched in the body, aimed at compensating for the changes that have arisen. Regular short-term exposure to the same low-intensity factors allows the body to adapt to them, which is accompanied by a decrease in the severity of the systemic reaction together with an improvement in the physicochemical state of cells and the functioning of all organs and systems. The positive aspects of hardening include increased performance, decreased morbidity, and improved well-being. Long breaks in hardening lead to a decrease in its effectiveness or the disappearance of the effect.

As a rule, hardening of a child under the age of one year is carried out using air baths for a short period of time (about a few minutes). Daily bathing has a good hardening effect, which has a positive effect on the emotional state and immune defense of the child. For children after three years of age, if the level of adaptation to external factors is sufficiently high, in some cases contrast hardening procedures are allowed.

In some cases, hardening may be contraindicated, so before carrying out it you should consult a specialist.

The body's adaptation system to infectious diseases

The human body has a body adaptation system that allows it to fight infectious diseases, called immunity. The purpose of this system is to protect the body from genetically foreign agents and maintain homeostasis at the cellular and molecular levels of organization.

Immunity is an important adaptation system of the body, allowing it to maintain the genetic integrity of the body throughout its life, regardless of the number and intensity of environmental factors surrounding it. Thanks to immunity, complexly organized organisms have acquired the ability to exist.

The immune system is based on cellular and humoral components.

The cellular component of immune defense includes all cells associated with the implementation of the genetic stability of the body (macrophages, NK cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils). The humoral component of the immune system includes the complement system, antibodies and various substances that prevent the invasion of foreign organisms into the organs and tissues of the body.

There are innate and adaptive types of immunity.

By innate immunity we mean an evolutionarily developed defense that allows us to recognize and destroy foreign agents that have entered the body due to the identification of common characteristics. Innate immunity is responsible for the skin and mucous membranes that perform a barrier function, lysozyme, the complement system, macrophages and NK cells that attack any foreign material that does not correspond to the genetic characteristics of one’s own body.

Acquired immunity is a complex system of adaptation of the body to an environment in which there are a large number of viruses, bacteria and fungi that cannot exist without other living beings. Acquired immunity differs from innate immunity in its ability to recognize individual antigens, which leads to the development of a complex response involving the humoral and cellular components of the immune system. This type of body defense is characterized by the presence of immunological memory, which allows it to respond faster and more effectively when encountered again.

Acquired immunity is divided into active and passive.

The development of active immunity is part of the independent adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions and occurs through contact with a foreign agent (during illness or vaccination), which is accompanied by the appearance of not only a protective reaction, but also immunological memory.

Passive immunity occurs when ready-made antibodies are transferred when they are introduced into the body:

• intravenously;
• with mother's milk;
• through the placenta.

Also, immunity, as a system of adaptation of the body to changing conditions of the external and internal environment, is the most important defense against oncological processes, identifying and destroying defective cells. Therefore, immunosuppression significantly increases the risk of developing malignancies.

In modern society, problems in adapting the human body to environmental conditions are minimized, which is due to the close interweaving of natural and man-made factors.

However, the high prevalence of technology also has a downside - for example, a sedentary lifestyle is becoming increasingly widespread, which significantly worsens the prognosis for cardiovascular diseases. People move little and eat heavily, which has caused an increase in obesity. Thus, according to statistics, more than 39% of people over 18 years of age are overweight, and another 13% are obese. Increasing body weight significantly increases the risk of progression of diseases such as arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and atherosclerosis, which together significantly reduce life expectancy and increase the burden on public health associated with their treatment. In this regard, regular physical activity should become part of the lives of as many people as possible. However, it is difficult to imagine that an unprepared person is able to show the same results as professional athletes from the very first days of training due to the fact that a certain adaptation of the body to physical activity is required.

The mechanism of adaptation of the body to stress consists of a sequence of changes that occur in response to stress or irritation that occurs at the moment of physical stress. The task of this process of adaptation of the body is adaptation to loads, which occurs with any method of performing certain exercises, regardless of the goal.

You should know what changes occur as the body adapts to stress. For the body, physical activity is an irritant that causes a corresponding reaction in the central nervous system. This is manifested by the release of adrenaline from the adrenal cortex, which leads to an increase in heart rate and ventilation due to increased breathing. This reaction is common to any irritant - psychological stress or physical activity and allows the body to adapt to working under different conditions. After identifying the source of irritation, a relatively stable state is observed in which the release of adrenaline decreases and stabilizes, accompanied by reactions specific to the cause of irritation.

So, if the cause of the changes is physical activity, the body undergoes a restructuring in order to provide the muscles with the necessary amount of nutrients and oxygen. The launch of processes aimed at compensating for changes occurs in a steady state. Further, as long as the system is in equilibrium and the need for energy expended during physical activity corresponds to the existing capabilities of the body, no significant changes occur.

When the body cannot cope with the loads placed on it, exhaustion begins, which requires a reduction in the intensity of physical work or a complete abandonment of it. If this does not happen, decompensation of the systems responsible for life support is observed. The described changes develop with a short-term effect on the body and are called urgent adaptation.

The duration of this type of adaptation of organisms ranges from 6 to 48 hours, which depends on the duration and intensity of the load. The basis of long-term adaptation is the regular repetition of an average intensity load, which makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of compensatory reactions. This is due to the partial preservation of changes caused by urgent adaptation and their consolidation through systematic repetition.

The changes described above can be put into practice through training, if you follow the basic principles: regularity, accessibility and gradualism.

First of all, to consolidate and develop compensatory capabilities, it is necessary to observe the principle of regularity. Thus, a single load leads to single physiological changes that are observed for up to 48 hours. Therefore, if a person wants to increase the efficiency of the processes that cause these changes and consolidate them, then the break between training should not be more than two days. If this principle is not followed, then after 48 hours the body returns to its original state, which does not allow the acquired adaptive changes to be consolidated.

The principle of accessibility is based on an adequate assessment of the body’s existing compensatory capabilities. Thus, many untrained people believe that they are no worse than athletes, and therefore try to show good results from the first training. However, the body of an untrained person is not able to withstand heavy loads, which is due to the rather limited functioning of the body’s energy systems, the potential of which can only be revealed with regular, proper training. The attempts are based on the fact that if significant loads cause a stable state in people adapted to them, then those for whom the adaptation period has just begun go immediately into the phase of exhaustion, which is fraught not only with decompensation in the functioning of organs and systems, but also with severe damage to internal organs .

Graduality in achieving your goals with regular training is an important condition. Thus, as is known, the consolidation and development of adaptive shifts is possible only in the steady state phase, and therefore it is necessary to monitor the external manifestations of the body, increasing the load gradually, until the exhaustion phase occurs.

Failure to comply with the above principles can not only make training pointless, but also harm the body.

In addition, for a number of diseases, physical activity can lead to serious consequences, so before choosing a sports direction, it is recommended to visit a doctor who, taking into account the existing contraindications, will be able to recommend the type of activity.

Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions

Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions is clearly visible in living beings. As a rule, adaptation to a specific habitat is a necessary condition for survival.

The mechanisms of adaptation of living beings to environmental conditions can be traced using the example of human races, the formation of which took place over hundreds and thousands of years in accordance with their habitat.

We can highlight:

• Caucasian race;
• Negroid race;
• Mongoloid race;
• Americanoid race;
• Australo-Velloid race.

The identification of racial characteristics became possible after the development of agriculture, which made it possible to increase the number and distribution area of ​​people in a relatively short period of time. Subsequently, the body's adaptation mechanism acted in such a way that some individuals of the human species, having traits that made them more adapted to specific climatic conditions, survived much more often, which led to the formation of races. However, for the formation of a new race, the territory had to be limited so that there was no mixing and blurring of characteristics, which is currently practically impossible due to the progressive development of infrastructure around the world.

We can identify a number of signs according to which the evolution of the human species took place.

The Caucasian race has light skin, although their descendants had dark skin. The biological meaning of this phenomenon is to improve the synthesis of vitamin D, the low formation of which in poor lighting conditions is fraught with the development of rickets.

Negroids are represented by a combination of at least four races. Pigmented skin allows them to limit the amount of solar radiation, which in large quantities leads to skin damage, and in some cases, to cancer. Curly hair also plays a big role in the human body’s adaptation to high temperatures, creating a heat-insulating layer that protects the brain from overheating.

Another example may be the presence of an epicanthus in the Mongoloid race - a special fold in the corner of the eye, the role of which in the adaptation of the human body was to protect the eyeball from winds and excessive lighting.

The period of psychological adaptation of a person in a new team is determined by the individual characteristics of the individual and the characteristics of the social structure. Thus, a person learns new patterns of behavior, values, and social norms, which allows him to integrate into society and function successfully in it.

The duration of the body's adaptation to physical activity is determined by the abilities of a particular individual and the complexity of the task. Also, a person’s desire to achieve his goals has a significant influence, which allows him to mobilize all his strength. However, it should be remembered that even the maximum levels of adaptation in some cases do not allow achieving the desired.

Social adaptation

The social process of adaptation is understood as the active adaptation of an individual to the social environment.

There are three possible options for social adaptation in society:

• normal (a person does not stand out from the team, obeying rules, norms and following generally accepted principles);
• deviant (a person is adapted, but violates accepted values ​​and norms of behavior);
• pathological (adaptation is carried out due to pathological forms of behavior associated with various mental disorders).

Psychological adaptation

Psychological adaptation consists of ensuring the normal functioning of all mental structures under the influence of external factors. The result of the effective work of this area of ​​consciousness is making informed decisions, predicting events, as well as active actions to transform the world around us, taking into account one’s interests and abilities.

Depending on the direction of adaptive processes, the following trends are identified:

• adaptive (the body adapts to conditions);
• transformative (the body changes the environment in accordance with its needs).

According to the manifestations of psychological adaptability, we can distinguish:

• internal (a structural transformation of internal structures occurs in accordance with the expectations of society);
• external (behavior corresponds to the expectations of society, but internal restructuring does not occur);
• mixed (personal values ​​and norms are partially changed, while maintaining one’s “I”).

Professional adaptation is understood as the process of a person’s integration into the work environment with adaptation to it for productive activity.

This process is influenced by external (peculiarities of work activity, social conditions and the system of relations between employees) and internal (adaptive capabilities and motivation) factors.

Professional adaptation has a number of directions:

• professional activity (adaptation to the activity itself);
• organizational-normative (mastery of organizational norms and rules);
• socio-professional (change in social behavior based on professional functions - doctor, teacher);
• socio-psychological (learning informal rules of behavior in society).

Adaptation problems can arise when the expectations of a young specialist do not correspond to the realities of professional activity. This causes significant difficulties when encountering obstacles, and therefore the formation of an adequate image of professional activity in the mind of a specialist even during training plays a great influence.

Problems of adaptation in society

If a person is able to live in society, have a family and support it, then he is considered normal. However, the understanding of “normality” may differ according to age or population. Adaptation problems can arise when a person fails to comply with accepted norms, values, and individual characteristics of the individual. So, if a person is shy by nature, then he will not be able to actively express himself in the workplace.

How long does the process of adaptation in society last?

Surprisingly, a person’s environment continuously changes throughout his life, requiring constant adaptation to new conditions, be it studying at a higher educational institution or professional adaptation at a new job. In this regard, we can say that the process of adaptation in society occurs continuously.

According to age, levels of adaptation in society are distinguished:

• primary (from birth to personality formation);
• secondary (occurs when the personality is restructured in accordance with the requirements of society).

For internal changes in the body, Soviet physiologist P.K. Anokhin introduced the concept of a functional system, which is based on a combination of processes and mechanisms of their development aimed at eliminating the consequences of external influences. As a rule, the path that allows the body to most rationally remove itself from a stressful situation is used. Such systems include immunity, biological rhythms, and physical activity.

If we consider the existence of a person in society, then regardless of what type of social adaptation – primary or secondary – is carried out, it includes three phases:

• mastering social values ​​and norms, which allows the individual to relate to society;
• the individual’s desire for personalization, influence on other members of society;
• integration of an individual into a specific social group in which he realizes himself.

Levels of adaptation

There are a number of levels at which the body’s adaptation mechanisms are carried out:

• biochemical (at this level of adaptation, enzymatic reactions occur);
• physiological (on which neuro-humoral regulation of organ functions occurs);
• morphoanatomical (the presence of features associated with the characteristics of life);
• behavioral (starting a family, looking for housing);
• ontogenetic (change in the speed of individual development).

Adaptation of the body to physical stress and coordination of actions in a group have long been necessary for survival in harsh environmental conditions. Thus, hunting animals, building a home, and even cultivating the land required a colossal expenditure of effort from a person. Currently, the need to use physical force is practically reduced to a minimum - technology has practically freed people from this. Ascent to the upper levels of a multi-storey building can be achieved using an elevator; the hard work of cultivating the land is taken on by machinery. Currently, humans even have the opportunity to go into space, an environment in which there is no oxygen. Thus, at present, the problems of adaptation of the human body to environmental conditions are practically reduced to a minimum, in contrast to those times when the nature surrounding people determined the direction of evolution and nowadays the social factor has an increasing influence on the quality of life.

However, problems in adapting the human body to new environmental conditions may still arise today. Thus, recently there has been a trend towards urbanization - the growth of large cities, which leads to an increase in the percentage of the urban population throughout the world. Living in big cities is associated with high information and intellectual loads, which inevitably leads to fatigue and emotional stress. Constant stress not only significantly reduces the quality of life, but also predisposes to the development of neurotic, cardiovascular and endocrine diseases.

Also, according to studies, high emotional and physical stress has caused the development of arterial hypertension in people of working age and the elderly. The connection with a violation of the financial situation was especially clearly visible, which indicates a close connection between the quality of life and the state of the body.

Life in an urban environment is often associated with numerous failures, which, when the psychological adaptation of the human body is disrupted, is manifested by numerous breakdowns, severe stress, and often deaths as a result of suicide or circulatory disorders.

It is also necessary for the human body to adapt in an urban environment to harmful chemicals, the appearance of which is associated with human industrial or household activities (lead emissions). This requires annual medical examination, as well as regular physical activity in combination with hardening, which can significantly increase the adaptive capabilities of the body.

Are the body's adaptation processes reversible?

Any processes of adaptation of the organism occur within the framework of the genetic program laid down at birth, and therefore, when exposed to certain environmental conditions, both maximum development and complete degradation of any trait are possible only within certain limits. Thus, a person can exercise regularly, which will lead to good physical shape and high endurance, but cessation of exercise in combination with a malnutrition will cause an almost complete return to the initial state of the body.

If we consider the processes of adaptation of the organism within the framework of the evolution of the species, then the acquisition of new characteristics with each subsequent generation, with a negative or no effect on survival, new qualities can be lost without a trace, as useless, or arise again as a result of new mutations.

Adaptations of organisms to their environment are called adaptation. Adaptations are any changes in the structure and function of organisms that increase their chances of survival.

The ability to adapt is one of the main properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of its existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Adaptations manifest themselves at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems. Adaptations arise and develop during the evolution of species.

Basic adaptation mechanisms at the organism level: 1) biochemical– manifest themselves in intracellular processes, such as a change in the work of enzymes or a change in their quantity; 2) physiological– for example, increased sweating with increasing temperature in a number of species; 3) morpho-anatomical– features of the structure and shape of the body associated with lifestyle; 4) behavioral– for example, animals searching for favorable habitats, creating burrows, nests, etc.; 5) ontogenetic– acceleration or deceleration of individual development, promoting survival when conditions change.

Ecological environmental factors have various effects on living organisms, i.e. they can influence both irritants, causing adaptive changes in physiological and biochemical functions; How limiters, causing the impossibility of existence in these conditions; How modifiers, causing morphological and anatomical changes in organisms; How signals, indicating changes in other environmental factors.

General laws of action of environmental factors on organisms

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

Law of Optimum.

Each factor has certain limits of positive influence on organisms (Fig. 1). The result of a variable factor depends primarily on the strength of its manifestation. Both insufficient and excessive action of the factor negatively affects the life activity of individuals. The beneficial force of influence is called zone of optimum environmental factor or simply optimum for organisms of this species. The greater the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms. (pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum transferable values ​​of the factor are critical points, behind beyond which existence is no longer possible, death occurs. The endurance limits between critical points are called ecological valence living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor.

Rice. 1. Scheme of the action of environmental factors on living organisms

Representatives of different species differ greatly from each other both in the position of the optimum and in ecological valence. For example, arctic foxes in the tundra can tolerate fluctuations in air temperature in the range of more than 80 °C (from +30 to -55 °C), while warm-water crustaceans Copilia mirabilis can withstand changes in water temperature in the range of no more than 6 °C (from +23 up to +29 °C). The same strength of manifestation of a factor can be optimal for one species, pessimal for another, and go beyond the limits of endurance for a third (Fig. 2).

The broad ecological valency of a species in relation to abiotic environmental factors is indicated by adding the prefix “eury” to the name of the factor. Eurythermic species that tolerate significant temperature fluctuations, eurybates– wide pressure range, euryhaline– different degrees of environmental salinity.

Rice. 2. Position of optimum curves on the temperature scale for different species:

1, 2 - stenothermic species, cryophiles;

3–7 – eurythermal species;

8, 9 - stenothermic species, thermophiles

The inability to tolerate significant fluctuations in a factor, or narrow environmental valence, is characterized by the prefix “steno” - stenothermic, stenobate, stenohaline species, etc. In a broader sense, species whose existence requires strictly defined environmental conditions are called stenobiontic, and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions - eurybiont.

Conditions approaching critical points due to one or several factors at once are called extreme.

The position of the optimum and critical points on the factor gradient can be shifted within certain limits by the action of environmental conditions. This occurs regularly in many species as the seasons change. In winter, for example, sparrows withstand severe frosts, and in summer they die from chilling at temperatures just below zero. The phenomenon of a shift in the optimum in relation to any factor is called acclimation. In terms of temperature, this is a well-known process of thermal hardening of the body. Temperature acclimation requires a significant period of time. The mechanism is a change in enzymes in cells that catalyze the same reactions, but at different temperatures (the so-called isozymes). Each enzyme is encoded by its own gene, therefore, it is necessary to turn off some genes and activate others, transcription, translation, assembly of a sufficient amount of new protein, etc. The overall process takes on average about two weeks and is stimulated by changes in the environment. Acclimation, or hardening, is an important adaptation of organisms that occurs under gradually approaching unfavorable conditions or when entering territories with a different climate. In these cases, it is an integral part of the general acclimatization process.

A special case of cryptic coloring is coloring based on the countershadow principle. In aquatic organisms it manifests itself more often, because Light in an aquatic environment falls only from above. The principle of counter-shadow assumes a darker color on the upper part of the body and a lighter color on the lower part (a shadow falls on it).

Dismembering coloration Dismembering coloration is also a special case of protective coloration, although a slightly different strategy is used. In this case, there are bright, contrasting stripes or spots on the body. From afar, it is very difficult for a predator to distinguish the boundaries of the body of a potential victim.

Warning coloration This type of protective coloration is characteristic of protected animals (such as this nudibranch, which uses nitric acid to protect itself from enemies). Poison, sting or other methods of defense make the animal inedible for the predator, and the coloring serves to ensure that the appearance of the object is retained in the memory of the predator in combination with the unpleasant sensations that he experienced when trying to eat the animal.

Threatening coloring Unlike warning coloring, threatening coloring is inherent in unprotected organisms that are edible from the point of view of a predator. This coloring is not visible all the time, unlike the warning color, it is suddenly shown to the attacking predator in order to disorient it. It is believed that the “eyes” on the wings of many butterflies serve precisely this purpose.

Mimicry The term “mimicry” combines a number of different forms of protective colors, which have in common the similarity of organisms, the imitation of the color of one creature by another. Types of mimicry: 4 Classical mimicry Batesian mimicry 4 Classical mimicry, or Batesian mimicry - the imitation of an unprotected organism by a protected one; 4 Müller's mimicry 4 Müller's mimicry - similar coloring (“advertising”) in a number of species of protected organisms; 4 Mimesia 4 Mimesia - imitation of inanimate objects; 4 Collective mimicry 4 Collective mimicry is the creation of a common image by a group of organisms; 4 Aggressive mimicry 4 Aggressive mimicry - elements of imitation by a predator in order to attract prey.

Classical mimicry, or Batesian mimicry (Batesian mimicry) An unprotected (already edible) organism imitates the color of a protected (inedible) one. In this way, the imitator exploits the stereotype formed in the predator’s memory by contact with the model (protected organism). The photo shows a hoverfly, imitating a wasp in color and body shape.

Müllerian mimicry (Müllerian mimicry) In this case, a number of protected, inedible species have similar colors (“one advertisement for all”). In this way, the following effect is achieved: on the one hand, the predator does not need to try one organism of each species; the general image of one mistakenly eaten animal will be quite firmly imprinted. On the other hand, the predator will not have to remember dozens of different variants of the bright warning colors of different species. An example is the similar coloration of a number of species of the Order Hymenoptera.

Aggressive mimicry In aggressive mimicry, a predator has adaptations that allow it to attract potential prey. An example is the clown fish, which has projections on its head that resemble worms and are also capable of moving. The slave herself lies on the bottom (she has a magnificent cryptic coloring!) and waits for the approach of the victim, who is busy searching for food.

Relative nature of fitness Each of the given protective colors is adaptive, i.e. useful for organisms only under certain environmental conditions. If these conditions change (for example, the background color for a protective coloring), it can even become maladaptive and harmful. Think about the situations in which the relative nature of fitness will manifest itself with: 4p4warning coloring; 4m4Bates mimicry; 4k4collective mimicry?

Adaptation– this is the adaptation of the organism to environmental conditions due to a complex of morphological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics.

Different organisms adapt to different environmental conditions, and as a result, moisture-loving hydrophytes and "dry-bearers" - xerophytes(Fig. 6); plants of saline soils – halophytes; shade tolerant plants ( sciophytes), and requiring full sunlight for normal development ( heliophytes); animals that live in deserts, steppes, forests or swamps are nocturnal or diurnal. Groups of species with a similar relationship to environmental conditions (that is, living in the same ecotopes) are called environmental groups.

The ability of plants and animals to adapt to unfavorable conditions differs. Due to the fact that animals are mobile, their adaptations are more diverse than those of plants. Animals can:

– avoid unfavorable conditions (birds fly to warmer regions due to lack of food and cold in winter, deer and other ungulates wander in search of food, etc.);

– fall into suspended animation – a temporary state in which life processes are so slow that their visible manifestations are almost completely absent (numbness of insects, hibernation of vertebrates, etc.);

– adapt to life in unfavorable conditions (they are saved from frost by their fur and subcutaneous fat, desert animals have adaptations for economical use of water and cooling, etc.). (Fig. 7).

Plants are inactive and lead an attached lifestyle. Therefore, only the last two adaptation options are possible for them. Thus, plants are characterized by a decrease in the intensity of vital processes during unfavorable periods: they shed their leaves, overwinter in the form of dormant organs buried in the soil - bulbs, rhizomes, tubers, and remain in the state of seeds and spores in the soil. In bryophytes, the entire plant has the ability to undergo anabiosis, which can survive for several years in a dry state.

Plant resistance to unfavorable factors increases due to special physiological mechanisms: changes in osmotic pressure in cells, regulation of the intensity of evaporation using stomata, the use of “filter” membranes for selective absorption of substances, etc.

Adaptations develop at different rates in different organisms. They arise most quickly in insects, which in 10–20 generations can adapt to the action of a new insecticide, which explains the failure of chemical control of the density of insect pest populations. The process of developing adaptations in plants or birds occurs slowly, over centuries.

Observed changes in the behavior of organisms are usually associated with hidden characteristics that they had, as it were, “in reserve,” but under the influence of new factors they emerged and increased the stability of the species. Such hidden characteristics explain the resistance of some tree species to industrial pollution (poplar, larch, willow) and some weed species to herbicides.

The same ecological group often includes organisms that are not similar to each other. This is due to the fact that different types of organisms can adapt differently to the same environmental factor.

For example, they experience the cold differently warm-blooded(they are called endothermic, from the Greek words endon - inside and terme - heat) and cold-blooded (ectothermic, from the Greek ektos - outside) organisms. (Fig. 8.)

The body temperature of endothermic organisms does not depend on the ambient temperature and is always more or less constant, its fluctuations do not exceed 2–4 o even in the most severe frosts and extreme heat. These animals (birds and mammals) maintain body temperature by internal heat generation based on intensive metabolism. They retain their body heat through warm “coats” made of feathers, wool, etc.

Physiological and morphological adaptations are complemented by adaptive behavior (choosing sheltered places to spend the night, building burrows and nests, group overnight stays with rodents, close groups of penguins keeping each other warm, etc.). If the ambient temperature is very high, then endothermic organisms are cooled due to special devices, for example, by evaporation of moisture from the surface of the mucous membranes of the oral cavity and upper respiratory tract. (For this reason, in hot weather, the dog’s breathing quickens and he sticks out his tongue.)

The body temperature and mobility of ectothermic animals depends on the ambient temperature. In cool weather, insects and lizards become lethargic and inactive. Many species of animals have the ability to choose a place with favorable conditions of temperature, humidity and sunlight (lizards bask on illuminated rock slabs).

However, absolute ectothermism is observed only in very small organisms. Most cold-blooded organisms are still capable of weak regulation of body temperature. For example, in actively flying insects - butterflies, bumblebees, body temperature is maintained at 36–40 o C even at air temperatures below 10 o C.

Similarly, species of one ecological group in plants differ in their appearance. They can also adapt to the same environmental conditions in different ways. Thus, different types of xerophytes save water in different ways: some have thick cell membranes, others have pubescence or a waxy coating on the leaves. Some xerophytes (for example, from the family Lamiaceae) emit vapors of essential oils that envelop them like a “blanket”, which reduces evaporation. The root system of some xerophytes is powerful, goes into the soil to a depth of several meters and reaches the groundwater level (camel thorn), while others have a superficial but highly branched one, which allows them to collect precipitation water.

Among the xerophytes there are shrubs with very small hard leaves that can be shed in the driest time of the year (caragana shrub in the steppe, desert shrubs), turf grasses with narrow leaves (feather grass, fescue), succulents(from the Latin succulentus - succulent). Succulents have succulent leaves or stems that store water, and can easily tolerate high air temperatures. Succulents include American cacti and saxaul, which grows in Central Asian deserts. They have a special type of photosynthesis: the stomata open briefly and only at night; during these cool hours, plants store carbon dioxide, and during the day they use it for photosynthesis with the stomata closed. (Fig. 9.)

A variety of adaptations to surviving unfavorable conditions on saline soils is also observed in halophytes. Among them there are plants that are able to accumulate salts in their bodies (saltweed, swede, sarsazan), secrete excess salts onto the surface of the leaves with special glands (kermek, tamarix), and “prevent” salts from entering their tissues due to a “root barrier” impenetrable to salts "(wormwood). In the latter case, the plants have to be content with a small amount of water and they have the appearance of xerophytes.

For this reason, one should not be surprised that in the same conditions there are plants and animals that are dissimilar to each other, which have adapted to these conditions in different ways.

Control questions

1. What is adaptation?

2. How can animals and plants adapt to unfavorable environmental conditions?

2. Give examples of ecological groups of plants and animals.

3. Tell us about the different adaptations of organisms to surviving the same unfavorable environmental conditions.

4. What is the difference between adaptations to low temperatures in endothermic and ectothermic animals?