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It is known for sure that nothing is known for sure. Kim on Basic Philosophy

– Captain Simod, what do the latest observations indicate? Anything important?

- Yes, commander, very significant. The very first observation after localization at the node gave an interesting result. On our vector, only in the opposite direction, there is another node, much more profitable than this one. Five-tunnel, and the viewing opportunities from there are much preferable. This means both security and secrecy of actions.

- I understand, captain. It's a pity that we didn't get our bearings right away. We could have headed there right away, and now...

- I'm afraid, your courage, that then we would have to be much saltier.

- Explain. Is that node busy?

- The node is empty. But the system of retrograde analysis indicates that immediately before our entry into this node, the opposite one was occupied. And he cleared himself just minutes ago.

- Devil! Who was there? "Irresistible", right? Of course he is!

– Well, you know: retrograde analysis does not give such a clear picture as a visual image. However, the computer gave general characteristics, and judging by them, this is a ship of our class. It is he.

- So. Why do you think Legana voluntarily gave up such an advantageous position to us? This smells like a trap, captain.

- A primitive mousetrap. They clearly expect us to rush there without thinking. And they are right there, jumping out from around the corner to stick a cutlass in our back.

- How is this possible, I would like to know.

“They will be willing to go on an adventure.” According to Steezle. Their dream must be to do away with us here. Because in Normal our advantage will be undeniable: Madig’s defense is much more powerful than their web, Legana’s protective field.

– According to Steezle, um... Yes, indeed. Well, captain, perhaps we will give them such an opportunity. And let's prepare accordingly. Yes. That's exactly what I'll do. Without delay. Command: make a U-turn here. In the middle move - to that node. And at the border of the isolating field we will pre-position a hunting unit ready for battle. And we will launch the attack on Steezle, not them. Success is practically guaranteed. One blow and they are gone.

- I think it's a great idea. But it’s still interesting, your courage: where do the ships thrown out of the Expanse go? Are there any versions?

- Did not met. It is not even known whether they were really thrown away. This is just a guess. Or it simply dissolves them, turns them into something else. There are too few facts to draw conclusions. At least something is known for certain only about the ship that was attacked by Steezle. It is known that nothing is known about his fate. On such a basis you can create anything, any theory - or create nothing at all.

– So, with our attack we will immediately double the database?

- Let's do a service to science. Command. Free link - to me. I will personally assign them a task.

Socratic schools. Hellenistic schools. Neoplatonism

In post-classical thought, questions about nature and politics are relegated to the background. After Socrates self-knowledge becomes the central problem of philosophy. “How to live life with dignity?” and “What is the good of man?” - the main questions that later Greek and Roman schools tried to answer.

Two influential schools - the Cynics and the Cyrenaics - were formed in the classical period under the influence of the ideas of Socrates. During the Hellenistic period (opened by the conquests of Alexander the Great), schools of Stoics emerged,

§ 2.5. Postclassical period in ancient philosophy 45

Epicureans and Skeptics. The last mystical direction in philosophy to emerge was the school of Neoplatonism. Let's briefly look at the main ideas of all six schools.

Founder of the school Cynics was a student of Socrates Lntisthenes(450-360 BC). The name of the school itself comes from the name of the Kinosargus hill in Athens, where the gymnasium of Antisthenes was located. The main idea of Antisthenes is a return to the simplicity and naturalness of life and the rejection of the dubious gains of civilization and culture. Philosophy is not a theory, but a way of life. The Cynic has spiritual freedom and does not depend on the opinions and norms of society. He deliberately lives outside of society - “without a community, without a home, without a fatherland,” he does not seek pleasure and is proud of his “dog’s life,” setting an example for others. The most famous cynic - Diogenes of Sinope(d. c. 330-320 BC) lived in a clay barrel. They say that to Alexander the Great’s offer to “Ask what you want,” he replied: “Don’t block the sun for me.” The influence of the asceticism of the Cynics is also noticeable in later philosophical and cultural movements - among the Stoics, in Christian foolishness, even in the lifestyle of hippies of the 20th century.

Antisthenes advised the Athenians to adopt a decree: “Consider donkeys as horses”; when this was considered absurd, he remarked: “But you make commanders out of ignorant people by simple voting.”

Founder Cyrene school was Aristippus of Cyrene(c. 435-360 BC). He believed that the world is unknowable by reason; the only thing we can judge with confidence is our feelings and sensations, which bring us either suffering or pleasure. Pleasure is good, suffering is evil. The goal of man is to achieve complete, sustainable pleasure. Some pleasures are temporary and transitory, some are followed by unpleasant consequences, some cause remorse: they do not lead to the goal. All other pleasures together lead to good. This view is known in philosophy as hedonism.

One day Aristippus asked the tyrant Dionysius for money. He remarked: “You say that a wise man does not know need.” “Give me the money,” interrupted Aristippus, “and then we will sort out this issue,” and, having received the money, he said: “You see, I really don’t know the need.”

46 Chapter 2. Philosophy of the ancient world (the birth of philosophy)

Stoic school formed in the 3rd century. BC. Its founder was Zeno of Citium(333-262 BC), who preached his ideas at the Painted Portico in Athens, where the name “Stoa” came from (in Greek stoa - portico, covered colonnade). The ideal of the Stoics is calm and equanimity (in Greek, “apathy”). A Stoic must bravely endure the blows of fate and submit to the inevitable. He is independent of needs, passions and external conditions and must avoid all desires, since they can develop into uncontrollable passions.

The Roman philosopher was an exemplary Stoic Epictetus(c. 50 - c. 140), who, being a slave, did not lose peace, believing that real slavery is the indulgence of passions and desires, and one can be a free spirit even in captivity. The most famous Roman Stoic Seneca(c. 5 BC - 65), whose work “Moral Letters to Lucilius” still helps many to better understand themselves and life around them.

Epictetus said: “If the time has come for you to endure troubles, bear them cheerfully, and not like a donkey, resisting, groaning and exhausted under pressure | whip."

At the origins schools Epicureans was the Athenian philosopher Epicurus of Samos(341-270 BC) Like the Cyrenaics, he put pleasure first. Like the atomists, he believed that the world is material and consists of atoms. He preached his ideas at a school called the Garden of Epicurus. Above its entrance hung an inscription: “Wanderer, you will feel good here: here pleasure is the highest good.” The highest pleasures for Epicurus were friendship and knowledge, and the ideal was ataraxia (serenity). The Epicurean should be free from all fear and suffering, complacent and indulgent, cheerful and serene. Epicurus considered spiritual pleasures to be the highest pleasures (although he was not against bodily pleasures, if they did not have bad consequences). However, many of his followers interpreted his teachings distortedly, as an apology for voluptuousness and pleasure of the body according to the principle “Drink, eat, walk and be merry.” Now many lovers of bodily pleasures are figuratively called epicureans.

§ 2.5. Postclassical period in ancient philosophy 47

Epicurus said that one should not be afraid of death and spoil one’s life with this fear: “Death has nothing to do with us, for that which has decayed does not feel, and that which does not feel has nothing to do with us. As long as we exist, there is no death, and when there is death, then we no longer exist.”

School of Skeptics was extremely popular in Greece. Its founder is Pyrrho of Elis(IV century - beginning III V. BC) believed that we are deceived by both our feelings and our mind. The logic of skeptics is simple: for each A two opposing judgments are possible "A There is IN" And "A do not eat IN". Both of these propositions are false. It is impossible to prove anything: if we justify our argument with something, then this justification also needs to be proven, and so on ad infinitum. Even mathematics is based on axioms that are not proven, but taken on faith. Finally, all philosophers contradict each other, and this also proves that there is no truth. Skeptics sharply criticized any dogmatism and, although they often overstepped all boundaries of reason, they laid the foundation for scientific criticism, since without refutation there is no progress in understanding the world.

Pyrrho's friends followed on his heels, saving him from a speeding cart, from falling from a cliff, or from dogs, while the philosopher wondered whether cliffs, carts and dogs really exist.

The ancient era was coming to an end. As often happens in troubled and dark times, people tried to find salvation in mysticism.

Neoplatonism offered philosophical grounds for such a belief. It absorbed the mystical elements of the teachings of Plato, the ideas of the Pythagorean Brotherhood and some other secret societies of antiquity. The most prominent Neoplatonist Plotinus(204-270) believed that the beginning of all things - the One - is divine, supernatural and otherworldly. From the One, like from the sun, a bright divine light emanates, giving rise to all the diversity of the world (this Plotinus calls emanation - outflow). The further away from the source, the weaker the rays become. In the place where darkness closes, matter arises - heavy and inert. The human soul languishes in the material world, as in a prison. Escape from the prison of the body and things is available only through ecstasy -

48 Chapter 2. Philosophy of the ancient world (the birth of philosophy)

a frenzied state when the soul breaks through the boundaries of the material and rushes to its source. Here the soul merges with the One, the divine. Approaching ecstasy cannot be justified by reason. The path to it is silence and concentration.

§ 2.5. Postclassical period in ancient philosophy

1. Name the main post-classical schools. Give their brief characteristics.

2. Which one do you think is most preferable? By-

Table 2.5. Brief characteristics of philosophical movements

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

1. The main problem of post-classical philosophy is justification happy And worthy life.

2. Most schools saw the solution to the problem in observing the correct ethical principles. By the end of antiquity, ethics was replaced by mysticism, and philosophy by religion.

< Q РАЗВИТИЕ ЗАПАДНОЕВРОПЕЙСКОЙ I 3 ФИЛОСОФИИ (MAIN STAGES)

The Middle Ages in history refers to the thousand-year period from the 5th to the 15th centuries. However, medieval philosophy began to take shape much earlier - back in the 2nd century. The ideas of Christianity required systematic and theoretical justification.

§ 3.1. Philosophy of the Middle Ages

Main features. Augustine Aurelius. Thomas Aquinas

The first religious philosophers used the ancient heritage, primarily the classics (Plato and Aristotle) and the Neoplatonists, which they processed in the spirit of biblical canons and traditions. The results of this processing are reflected in main characteristics philosophy of the Middle Ages (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1. Main characteristics of the philosophy of the Middle Ages

Let's take a closer look at the philosophical ideas and principles of the Middle Ages:

God is the reality that determines everything that exists. It is he who is the true, primary being (“I am the Existent,” he says about himself in the Old Testament). Everything else - the world and man - is secondary and dependent, changeable and impermanent, because

52 Chapter 3. Development of Western European philosophy (main stages)

does not exist on its own, but thanks to God. Thus, the worldview of medieval man is determined by the central idea of God. This trait is called theocentrism;

o true existence is supernatural and inaccessible to limited human knowledge. However, God reveals himself through revelation: the sacred books of the Old and New Testaments, the ideas of which were considered indisputable. The path to God requires faith in this revelation, which does not allow doubt. As in any religion, it is dominated by dogmatism;

O man, like the whole world, is the creation of God (the principle of creation is called creationism). As created “in the image and likeness of God,” man is superior to and dominates other creatures. But he is not capable of anything without divine will and help;

o social stratification is understood by analogy with the heavenly hierarchy. A god with archangels and angels in heaven corresponds to a monarch with vassals on earth. All power is given from God, but the highest power is the power of God himself and the church as his representative on earth;

But knowledge of God is not knowledge of the external world: in order to come to God, you need to go deeper into yourself. The soul is involved in the truth, since it is the creation of God and contains his reflection. This appeal to the soul can be called psychologism. Medieval philosophers declared faith, hope and love to be the leading spiritual values.

The ideas and principles of medieval philosophy went through two main stages in their development. First stage - patristics(from Latin pater - father) covers the 2nd-8th centuries. and represents the teaching of the “Church Fathers” - the first Christian thinkers who created a philosophical justification for dogmas. Patristics largely used Plato's ideas. Second phase - scholasticism(from Latin schola - school) lasts from the 11th century. until the end of the medieval era and is characterized by significant formalism and dogmatism, relying largely on the logical and philosophical ideas of Aristotle.

The philosopher Augustine Aurelius (St. Augustine the Blessed) is the most famous representative of patristics, the author of many works, including such famous ones as “Confession” and “On the City of God.”

§3.1. Philosophy of the Middle Ages 53

Augustine Aurelius(354-430) was born in the city of Tagaste in North Africa, on the territory of the Western Roman Empire. In his youth, Augustine (as he writes in his Confessions) led a dissolute lifestyle, but over time he began to think about the meaning of his existence. For some time he tried to find an answer to his spiritual needs in various sectarian teachings, but in the end he came to Christianity. Quite quickly, Augustine became a recognized authority in theology. At the end of his life he became the bishop of the city of Hippo.

Augustine's main ideas are the spiritual development of the individual, the goal of the development of the historical process, the problem of theodicy. Let's look at them in more detail:

o “Confession” is the first known work where the plot is based not on a series of external events, but on the development of the soul, more dramatic and important than all the events taking place in the outside world. In the “Confession”, with its subtle psychologism, the concept is born personalities, which antiquity did not know. For the development of personality, faith is necessary, directing the spiritual forces of a person to understand the meaning of life;

In his work “On the City of God,” Augustine contrasts the “earthly city” - the state and the “city of God” - the church. The first embodies love for oneself, the second - for God. In the struggle of the “cities,” the church and faith must win, which will subjugate the state: this is the mission of the church and the goal of history;

o if there is evil in the world, and the world was created by God, then it turns out: God is to blame for the fact that evil exists. However, the Bible says that God is “all good,” good. God's justification for evil is called a problem theodicies(from Greek theos - god + dike - justice). Augustine compares good and evil with light and darkness. Light really exists (for example, you can measure its speed and determine what it consists of). Darkness can neither be measured nor its components detected: we simply call darkness the absence of light. Evil is the absence of good, non-existence, which means it was not created by anyone. The cause of evil is not in God, but in the freedom of man, who can go to God, and therefore to good, or not go to him, thereby multiplying evil.

Augustine believed that knowledge in itself cannot lead to truth. Faith must help him. Augustine's most famous saying is: “I believe in order to know.”

54 Chapter 3. Development of Western European philosophy (main stages)

The philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas (Aquinas) is the most famous representative of scholasticism. He used the works of Aristotle to systematize theological ideas. His main works are the Summa Theologica and the Summa against the Pagans (or Summa Philosophia).

Thomas Aquinas(1225/26-1274) was born in Aquino, near Naples, into a wealthy and influential aristocratic family. Against the wishes of his relatives, Thomas enters the Dominican mendicant order. Trying to reason with Thomas, his parents imprisoned him in the tower of the family castle, where he spent more than a year, but did not give up his choice. Thomas studies and works in Paris, Cologne, Rome, where he writes a number of treatises and commentaries on the Bible and the works of Aristotle. In 1274, on the way to the cathedral, he dies. In 1323, Thomas was canonized.

The focus of Aquinas' research is the problem relationship between faith and reason. According to the philosopher, both faith and reason lead to true knowledge, but in case of a contradiction between them, preference should be given to faith (“philosophy is the handmaiden of theology”). Thus, with the help of reason it is possible to prove that God exists and he is one. As for the trinity of God, original sin and other ideas, they cannot be understood without revelation (the Bible) and faith.

Thomas owns five proof of the existence of God:

o movement - everything that moves has a source of movement in something else, therefore, there must be a prime mover, i.e. God;

o cause - everything has a cause, the chain of causes cannot go on to infinity, therefore, there is a first cause, i.e. God;

o necessity - the accidental depends on the necessary, which means there is a higher, divine necessity, i.e. God;

o quality - everything has different degrees of qualities (worse, better), which means there must be a standard - the highest perfection, i.e. God;

O goal - everything in the world has a goal, therefore, there is a higher rational principle, which directs everything in the world towards the goal, i.e. God.

The teaching of Thomas is known as Thomism(in Latin Thomas - Thomas). Aquinas's ideas are still popular today, and modern Catholic philosophy is known as neo-Thomism.

§ 3.2. Renaissance Philosophy 55

At the end of the Middle Ages, ideas of strict scientific knowledge began to emerge. The Franciscan Order achieved the greatest success here.

Roger Bacon 1 (c. 1214-1294) called for abandoning blind faith in authorities and studying the world through observation and experimentation. William of Ockham (c. 1285 – c. 1350) believed that all speculative concepts not self-evident or testable by experience should be removed from science: "Entities should not be multiplied without necessity." This principle that the simplest explanation will be the most correct is known as "Occam's razor". The ideas of the Franciscans pointed to the crisis of scholasticism and prepared the transition to the Renaissance.

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

1. The medieval worldview is based on theocentrism - the principle according to which everything in the world is determined by God.

2. The main stages of medieval philosophy are patristics and scholastics. The representative of the first was Augustine Aurelius, the second - Thomas Aquinas.

1. List the principles of medieval philosophy. Please comment on them.

2. Name the main ideas of the philosophy of Augustine Aurelius and Thomas Aquinas.

§ 3.2. Renaissance philosophy

Main features. Main directions

The Renaissance era begins in the 14th century. in Italy and in the 15th century. in other European countries and continues until the beginning of the 17th century. The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance are the following: o anthropocentrism - man is at the center of the worldview;

1 Not to be confused with Francis Bacon (1561-1626).

56 Chapter 3. Development of Western European Philosophy osophy (main stages)

o humanism - justification of the self-worth of man, his rights and

o aestheticism is the leading role of art;

o freethinking - liberation from dogmatic medieval thinking.

Let's look at them in more detail:

o anthropocentrism (from the Greek anthropos - man) of the Renaissance means that the place of God in the center of the universe is occupied by man. He becomes an independent creative principle, almost equal to God;

o humanism (from the Latin humanus - humane) emphasizes that the ultimate goal of philosophy should be man as the crown of creation;

o aestheticism denotes the high role of creativity in the Renaissance. The sonnets of F. Petrarch, the short stories of G. Boccaccio, the dramaturgy of W. Shakespeare, the novels of M. Cervantes, the sculptures of Michelangelo, the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci - all these are classic examples of the unprecedented rise of art;

o Freethinking implies freedom of human thought. God gave man free will so that he could solve practical and theoretical problems on his own, without relying on higher powers.

The very name “Renaissance” emphasizes that the philosophers of this time tried to find justification for their search in the free and democratic spirit of antiquity, reviving classical antiquity. The main directions of Renaissance philosophy refer to Greek and Roman models (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2. Main directions of Renaissance philosophy

Natural philosophy returns to the ideas of nature and the Cosmos. Predecessor of Italian natural philosophy Nikolay Ku-

§ 3.2. Renaissance Philosophy 57

Zansky(1401 - 1464) puts forward the idea pantheism - identifies nature and God. Since the Universe, like God, is infinite, it cannot be known using limited logic - absolute truth can be endlessly approached, but it cannot be mastered. In place of logic is “scientific ignorance” - symbolic thinking, where opposites merge. Let's give an example of such thinking.

a A B

------------ T. #

Straight A by definition infinite. Line segment AB finite. However A B can be divided into a different number of parts (from two to infinity). Hence, AB is also infinite within itself. Since oo = co, straight A equal to the segment AB. If we symbolically imagine that the straight line is God, and the segment is man, then man becomes equal to God and the Cosmos. The human soul is inexhaustible and endless, therefore it can be represented as the whole Universe (microcosm), equal to the physical Universe (macrocosm).

The pantheism of Nicholas of Cusa influenced the further development of science - the study of the Universe received its justification: one can study God not only through revelation, but also through the study of nature.

An important contribution to the study of nature was also the heliocentric model of the solar system (the Earth revolves around the Sun), which replaced the geocentric one (the Sun revolves around the Earth). The names of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), who stand at the origins of European experimental science, are known here.

Skepticism is a reaction to religious dogma and a form of creative free-thinking. Dutch philosopher Erasmus of Rotterdam(1469-1536) in his famous book “In Praise of Stupidity” ridicules the false morality and erudition of the scholastics, preferring the stupidity of “living life” to it: “In human society everything is full of stupidity, everything is done by fools and among fools. If anyone wants to rebel alone

58 Chapter 3. Development of Western European f philosophy (main stages)

tive of the whole universe, I will advise him to flee to the desert and there, in solitude, enjoy his wisdom" 1.

The motto of the French thinker Michel Montaigne(1533-1592) were the words “It is certain that nothing is known for sure.” Montaigne expressed his skepticism in his work “Experiments.” Here are some aphorisms from it:

o “I believe that the answer to almost every question is: I don’t know.”

o “At the beginning of all philosophy lies wonder, its development is research, its end is ignorance” 2.

Political philosophy Revival is presented in different versions. Plato's dreams of an ideal state are continued in tradition utopianism. At its origins stands Thomas More(1478-1535), author of the book “Utopia” (the word “utopia” means “non-existent place”). Here he describes a non-existent state where everything is based on the principles of equality and justice - property is common, everyone works the same and everyone owns an equal amount of goods.

Niccolo Machiavelli(1469-1527) in his work “The Prince” represents a completely different tradition in political philosophy. If Plato did not separate ethics from politics, then Machiavelli believes that when a state necessity arises, the ruler has the right to use any means - including bribery, deception, blackmail, and political assassinations. However, such despotic power cannot be used for selfish purposes. Its goal is to strengthen the state, ensure its interests and, ultimately, the public good. In later times, the term “Machiavellianism” began to be simplistically understood as the principle according to which in politics “the end justifies the means.”

Thus, the Renaissance became a preparation for the New Age. Skepticism made it possible to move from medieval dogma to free creativity. Natural philosophy became the basis for the scientific revolution of the 17th century. Political philosophy raised the question of the limits of power and social justice.

1 Erasmus of Rotterdam. Praise for stupidity. M.: Hudlit, i960. Ch. 25.

2 Montaigne M. Experiments: In 2 volumes. M.: Terra, 1996. T. 2. P. 244, 247.

§ 3.3. Philosophy of the New Age (XVH-XVIII centuries) 59

prudence: Machiavelli’s ideas influenced the formation of centralized states, and the ideas of the utopians influenced the later revolutionary ideals of “freedom, equality, fraternity.”

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

1. The philosophy of the Renaissance is based on anthropocentrism - the principle according to which man is at the center of the universe.

2. The philosophy of the Renaissance focused on the problems of the relationship between man and nature, political structure and creativity.

1. List the main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance. Name their main differences from the characteristics of medieval philosophy.

2. Name the ideas of the main trends in the philosophical thought of the Renaissance.

MINISTRY OF GENERAL PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

SVERDLOVSK REGION

STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE SVERDLOVSK REGION

"SLOBODOTURINSKY AGRICULTURAL AND ECONOMIC TECHNIQUE"

I affirm:

deputy director for educational and methodological work

Yurevich T.L.__________

"___"._________.20___

Set of control and assessment materials

to evaluate the results of development

UDOGSE.01 basics of philosophy

basic professional educational program

training of mid-level specialists/skilled workers, employees

230115 “Programming in computer systems”

02.35.07 “Mechanization of agriculture”

100801 “Commodity research and examination of the quality of consumer goods”

With. Turinskaya Sloboda, 2015

Developers: Slobodoturinsky Agrarian and Economic College,

teacher of the educational institution “Fundamentals of Philosophy” M.N. Shvetsova

I. Passport for a set of control and evaluation tools

1.1. The set of control and evaluation tools is designed to evaluate the results of mastering the UD “Fundamentals of Philosophy”

As a result of the assessment, the following objects are checked:

Table 1

Objects of assessment

Indicators

Criteria

Job type;

№ tasks

(according to the curriculum)

Know:

The role of philosophy in human life and society;

Fundamentals of the philosophical doctrine of being;

The essence of the process of cognition;

Fundamentals of the scientific, philosophical and religious picture of the world;

About the conditions for the formation of personality, freedom and responsibility for the preservation of life, culture, and the environment;

On social and ethical problems associated with the development and use of achievements of science, technology and engineering

Be able to:

- navigate the most general philosophical problems of existence,

knowledge, values, freedom and meaning of life as the basis for the formation

culture of a citizen and future specialist

Correctness of the test task solution

- unambiguity of answer choice and compliance with the standard

Match the standard 50% of answers

Solving multiple-choice, open-ended and short-answer tasks

Differentiated credit

1 .2. Organization of control and evaluation

Interim certification form

Organization of control and evaluation

Differentiated credit

Upon completion of studying the academic discipline “Fundamentals of Philosophy”, a differentiated assessment is carried out, which will be carried out in the form of tests.

The tests are compiled taking into account the mandatory minimum content of a complete general education in the fundamentals of philosophy.

90 minutes are allotted to complete the work. 90 minutes are allotted to complete the work. The work consists of 2 parts including 22 tasks.

Part A

Part B

A student's grade can be determined as follows:

100% – 85% - “5”; 84% - 70% - “4”; 69% - 50% - “3”, less than 50% - “2”.

1.3. Logistics support for control and assessment activities

Control and assessment activities are carried out in classroom No. 125 “History”. The time for completing the assignment is after completing the social studies course.

Maximum task completion time: 90 minutes.

Tests are presented on paper.

2. Test materials

Instructions for performing the work

90 minutes are allotted to complete the work. 90 minutes are allotted to complete the work. The final work includes 2 options consisting of two parts. Each option contains 22 tasks each, differing in their purpose, as well as in the form of presentation, content and complexity.

Part A includes 14 tasks (1-14). For each task, answer options are given, one of which is correct. For each correctly completed task, one point is awarded. The maximum number of points for this part is 14.

Part B contains 7 tasks (15-22) of a more complex level. For a correctly completed task, 2 points are awarded. If the answer contains 1 error, then one point is assigned; for an incorrect answer or an answer containing 2 or more errors, 0 points are assigned. The maximum number of points for this part is 14.

The maximum number of points for the entire work is 28.

Option 1.

2.1. Test

Part A

Instructions for students:

1. The question of the beginning of the world was central in ancient philosophy of the period...

1) pre-Socratic

2) Hellenistic

3) classic

4) late classical

2. History was understood as a natural process of man’s liberation, his awareness of his own freedom...

1) Aristotle

2) G. Hegel

3) D. Vico

4) F. Aquinas

3. Marx spoke of man as an animal producing...

cultural monuments

symbols

tools

archetypes

4. In science, there are two levels of research:

1) sensory and logical

5. Among the philosophers of Antiquity, the possibility of true knowledge was not allowed... (several answer options)

1) Neoplatonists

2) Skeptics

3) Socrates and Plato

4) Eleatics

5) sophists

6. According to F. Aquinas, being and essence...

1) coincide in God

2) never match

3) coincide in a person

4) coincide in natural phenomena

7. The social sphere of society includes...

1) communities of people

2) government agencies

3) means of production

4) transnational corporations

8. Among the people who anticipated the general trends in the development of nature and society at the turn of the twentieth century are

1) M. Weber

2) V.I. Vernadsky

3) O. Spengler

4) N.A. Berdyaev

9. “Occam’s Razor” reflects the content of the principle...

1) " there is nothing besides God"

2) “everything that exists is good”

3) “love your neighbor as yourself”

4) “entities should not be multiplied beyond what is necessary”

10. The growing interdependence of various countries, regions, economic and cultural integration of humanity is expressed in the concept ...

"globalization"

"ideologization"

"informatization"

"technologization"

11. From the point of view of T. Kuhn, the scientific revolution is ...

separation of mental labor from physical labor

transition from one paradigm to another

transition to a knowledge society

transformation of science into a direct productive force.

12. There are two levels in scientific knowledge:

1) innovative and reproductive

2) dialectical and metaphysical

3) empirical and theoretical

4) eclectic and monistic

13. Modern philosophy can be characterized as...

doctrine of the essence and hypostases of God

theoretical system of views on the world.

system of philosophical, religious and scientific ideas

the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking.

14. The second half of the twentieth century is the time of the unfolding of the ________revolution.

biotechnological

scientific and technical

industrial

Neolithic.

Part B

15. Add to offer :

16.

Milesian school

Thales

Eleatic school

Leucippus

School of Atomists

Anaximander

Democritus

Parmenides

Anaximenes

Zeno

17. Define . Worldview is...

18.

Anaximenes

Apeiron

Democritus

Water

Heraclitus

Atom

Fire

air

19. .

20. Choose the correct answer .

1) XIVcentury

2) XVcentury

3) XVIcentury

4) XVIIcentury

21 .

22 . .

Option 2.

2.1. Test

Part A

Instructions for students:Choose the correct one from the given answer options.

Philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):

1) the dynamic process of questioning, searching for a person’s destiny;

2) a collection of theories and concepts of philosophers;

3) science that studies language;

4) the doctrine of the knowability of the world

The term "philosophy" means:

1) reasoning;

2) competent opinion;

3) professional activity;

4) love of wisdom;

3. The subject of philosophy is (indicate the most correct answer):

1) the structure of the world;

2) the beauty of the world;

3) human happiness;

4) universal in the “world-person” system

4. Philosophy has the following functions:

1) ideological and cognitive;

2) methodological and prognostic;

3) axiological and orientational;

4) all these functions combined.

5. Philosophy explains the world using:

1) mythological images;

2) revelations;

3) intuitive insight;

4) rational argumentation;

6. Philosophy - This:

1) worldview;

2) worldview;

3) attitude;

4) worldview

7. The question of the beginning of the world was central in ancient philosophy of the period...

1) pre-Socratic

2) Hellenistic

3) classic

4) late classical

8. History was understood as a natural process of man’s liberation, his awareness of his own freedom...

1) Aristotle

2) G. Hegel

3) D. Vico

4) F. Aquinas

9. Marx spoke of man as an animal producing...

cultural monuments

symbols

tools

archetypes

10. In science, there are two levels of research:

1) sensory and logical

2) humanitarian and natural sciences

3) intuitive and rational

4) empirical and theoretical.

11. Among the philosophers of Antiquity, the possibility of true knowledge was not allowed... (several answer options)

1) Neoplatonists

2) Skeptics

3) Socrates and Plato

4) Eleatics

12. The doctrine of being as such. Branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental principles of existence:

a) ethics;

b) axiology;

c) eschatology;

d) ontology;

13. Philosophical doctrine of the universal laws of knowledge - This:

a) epistemology;

b) ontology;

c) aesthetics;

d) ethics;

14. Modern philosophy can be characterized as...

1) the doctrine of the essence and hypostases of God

2) theoretical system of views on the world.

3) a system of philosophical, religious and scientific ideas

4) the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking.

Part B

15. Add to offer :

A person’s awareness of the meaning of life is impossible without awareness of oneself as……………

16. Match the philosophical school and its representative:

Milesian school

Thales

Eleatic school

Leucippus

School of Atomists

Anaximander

Democritus

Parmenides

Anaximenes

Zeno

17. Define . Worldview is...

18. Relate the philosopher and the element that he considered the fundamental principle of the world:

Anaximenes

Apeiron

Democritus

Water

Heraclitus

Atom

Fire

air

19. Name the works of Aurelius Augustine .

20. Choose the correct answer . The Renaissance begins with...

1) XIVcentury

2) XVcentury

3) XVIcentury

4) XVIIcentury

21 . Continue. The words “it is known for sure that nothing is known for sure” belong to...

22 . Define and name the founder of empiricism

SUMMARY SHEET

Points

Maximum score - 28

Grade

1-14

Max 1 4

15-22

Max 14

KEY

1 option

Answers

Option 2

Answers

Part A

2,5

Part B

personalities

1-A, B, E, 2-D, G, 3-B, G

Worldview is a set of views on the world and a person’s place in it

1-D, 2-B, 3-G

"Confession", "About the City of God"

M. Montaigne

Empiricism is a reliance on experience. Founder – F. Bacon

Kr And T er And And O ts e NK And T EU T O V

ResatlbtatsOtsenAndVAYuwithledatYuschAndmaboutRazOm:

« neatbeforeownoinrithoselbBut»- < 5 0% PRAVAndlbnsXOTVeTOV;

« atbeforeownoinriTelnO» - 50 - 6 9% etcAVorusXOTVeTOV;

« XOrowO» - 69 - 8 5% etcAVorusXOTVeTOV;

« OTlAndhBut» - > 8 5% etcAVAndlnsXOTVeTOV

This imperishable line from Omar Khayyam can well characterize the political situation in Russia.

Today, there is no need to prove to anyone that the wind has irreversibly changed and blew in the direction almost directly opposite to that in which the Kremlin political strategists are pointing. After the events of December 10, when more than 30 thousand people came out to an opposition rally in Moscow, and throughout the country Saturday’s protests gathered, according to various estimates, from 24 to 80 thousand dissenters, dramatic changes in public consciousness began, to put it in clerical language, accomplished fact. History, if you like.

And then we looked around and realized that there was one complete unknown ahead. The future of the country overnight became so cloudy and vague that it was time to talk about a complete loss of vision.

It is clear that the Putin regime will not collapse today. However, it will collapse; and sooner rather than later. Why? Because on December 4, 2011, the current government officially lost the right to be called legitimate and “legally elected.” What is important here is not the declaration of this obvious fact itself, but the fact that this fact is firmly established in the minds of millions of Russian citizens. The same citizens who nodded in agreement in 1999 were confirmed in 2004, shrugged their shoulders in 2007 and shrugged it off in 2008. And history teaches that following the loss of legitimacy, an authoritarian regime (no matter how soft it is, and no matter how hard it tries to imitate something digestible) will inevitably turn into nothingness.

At the same time, “nothing” in such a spacious and rich country as Russia cannot last for any length of time. The emptiness will be filled. It is unknown who will fill it. When this will happen is unknown. How long the transition period between the final collapse of the system and the beginning of something new will last is, again, completely unknown.

The federal political clearing has long been cleared out - there is practically no one to choose from. In the words of one famous journalist: “I don’t want to be for the communists, I’m disgusted for the LDPR, I’m disgusted for Mironov.” As for the so-called non-systematic people, then, as practice has shown, things are not much better there. The leaders of this unimaginable hodgepodge of right, left, brown, red and other birds, in the midst of the post-election shake-up, did the first thing - had a huge quarrel. The oppositionists, with unprecedented passion, began to throw black abuse at each other, proudly denounce their opponents from among their supporters, etc. and so on. In a word, they did everything to completely discredit themselves in the eyes of the people, who are watching the political circus with considerable regret and disappointment.

Against this background, the young radical whistleblower lawyer and part-time reclusive hero Alexei Navalny looks very advantageous, dealing with very specific (and often dangerous) cases. However, it is very difficult to consider his prospects as the leader of a conditional New Russia, which should begin after the collapse of United Russia. Let's ask ourselves, who is Navalny for the average Russian citizen who visits the Internet once a week to check email? At best - another loud maskal, at worst - an empty place.

In such bleak realities, regional elites, who, in fact, will have to seize power at first, acquire a decisive role. Here, in each subject of the Russian Federation, the situation is strictly individual, but the general trend can still be traced - the dominance of the first who steal to the nines, the foul-smelling undercover intrigues of the second and the faceless dullness of the third. The complete absence of not only Lenin and Trotsky, but even the floundering Yeltsin and Gaidar. It is not at all clear how this whole gang will behave in a situation when orders from Moscow stop coming, and every official in authority will be left to his own devices. Complete uncertainty. As well as whether the said gang will be able to maintain the integrity of Russia, and whether it even needs this integrity.

Of course, the era of political emptiness and anarchy will give rise to new leaders. After all, how many people knew who Robespierre was in 1788 or Cromwell in 1620? At the same time, you shouldn’t expect that these newborn wolves will bring good to the country. Or it is worth it, but with a fair amount of caution. In 1919, the Germans also did not know who Hitler was.

Hello! Please tell me how to properly address a woman in an email: “Dear director (of the company...)!” or "Dear director (of the company...)!"

The correct way is to address the word “respected” by name and patronymic. If the name and patronymic are unknown, then you can do this: Dear Mr. Director, Dear Madam Director.


	Question No. 300622

In Vietnam, my asthma and allergies went away, and I managed to eat fruits, nuts, honey - everything that was simply unknown to me in taste. Are the signs before the conjunction “and” placed correctly? And why and how correctly?