The Faculty of Fundamental Physical and Chemical Engineering of Moscow State University has announced admission of applicants. Faculty of Fundamental Physical and Chemical Engineering, Moscow State University named after M.V.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - a branch of chemistry devoted to the study of the relationship between chemical and physical phenomena in nature. Provisions and methods of F. x. are important for medicine and biomedical sciences, methods of Physics. are used to study life processes both normally and in pathology.
The main subjects of study of Ph. x. are the structure of atoms (see Volume A) and molecules (see Molecule), the nature of chemicals. connections, chemistry equilibrium (see Chemical equilibrium) and kinetics (see Chemical kinetics, Kinetics of biological processes), catalysis (see), theory of gases (see), liquids and solutions (see), structure and chemistry. properties of crystals (see) and polymers (see High-molecular compounds), thermodynamics (see) and thermal effects of chemistry. reactions (see Thermochemistry), surface phenomena (see Detergents, Surface tension, Wetting), properties of electrolyte solutions (see), electrode processes (see Electrodes) and electromotive forces, corrosion of metals, photochemical. and radiation processes (see Photochemical reactions, Electromagnetic radiation). Most theories of F. x. is based on the laws of statics, quantum (wave) mechanics and thermodynamics. When studying the problems posed in F. x. Various combinations of experimental methods of physics and chemistry, so-called, are widely used. Phys.-Chem. methods of analysis, the basics of which were developed in 1900-1915.
To the most common physical and chemical methods of the second half of the 20th century. include electron paramagnetic resonance (see), nuclear magnetic resonance (see), mass spectrometry (see), the use of the Mössbauer effect (nuclear gamma resonance), radio spectroscopy (see Spectroscopy), spectrophotometry (see) and fluorimetry (see), X-ray diffraction analysis (see), electron microscopy (see), centrifugation (see), gas and liquid chromatography (see), electrophoresis (see), isoelectric focusing (see), polarography (see), potentiometry (see Potentiometric titration), conductometry (see), osmometry (see Osmotic pressure), ebulliometry (see), etc.
The term “physical chemistry” first appeared in the works of German. alchemist Kuhnrath (H. Kuhnrath, 1599), but for a long time the meaning put into this term did not correspond to its true meaning. The problems of physical chemistry, close to their modern understanding, were first formulated by M. V. Lomonosov in the course “Introduction to True Physical Chemistry,” which he read in 1752 to students of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences: physical chemistry, according to M. V. Lomonosov, there is a science that explains, on the basis of the principles and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies during chemical reactions. reactions. Systematic teaching of Physics. was started in 1860 at Kharkov University by N. N. Beketov, who was the first to organize a physicochemical department at the natural sciences department of this university. Following the Kharkov University, the teaching of Physics. was introduced in the Kazan (1874), Yuryevsky (1880) and Moscow (1886) high fur boots. Since 1869, the journal of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society began to be published. Abroad, the Department of Physical Chemistry was first established in Leipzig in 1887.
Formation of F. x. as an independent scientific discipline is associated with atomic-molecular science, i.e., primarily with the discovery in 1748-1756. M.V. Lomonosov and in 1770-1774. A. Lavoisier's law of conservation of mass of substances in chemistry. reactions. The works of Richter (J. B. Richter, 1791 - 1802), who discovered the law of shares (equivalents), Proust (J. L. Proust, 1808), who discovered the law of constancy of composition, and others contributed to the creation in 1802-1810. J. Dalton's atomic theory and the discovery of the law of multiple ratios, which establishes the laws of chemical formation. connections. In 1811, A. Avogadro introduced the concept of “molecule,” connecting the atomic theory of the structure of matter with the laws of ideal gases. The logical conclusion of the formation of atomistic views on the nature of matter was the discovery by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869 of the periodic law of chemistry. elements (see Periodic table of chemical elements).
The modern understanding of the structure of the atom developed at the beginning
20th century The most important milestones on this path are the experimental discovery of the electron and the establishment of its charge, the creation of quantum theory (see) by Planck (M. Plank) in 1900, the work of Bohr (N. Bohr, 1913), who assumed the existence of an electron shell in the atom and who created his planetary model, and other studies that served as confirmation of the quantum theory of atomic structure. The final stage in the formation of modern ideas about the structure of the atom was the development of quantum (wave) mechanics, with the help of cutting methods it was subsequently possible to explain the nature and direction of chemistry. connections, theoretically calculate physical-chemical. constants of the simplest molecules, develop the theory of intermolecular forces, etc.
The initial development of chem. thermodynamics, which studies the laws of mutual transformations of various forms of energy in equilibrium systems, is associated with the research of S. Carnot in 1824. Further work by R. Mayer, J. Joule and G. Helmholtz led to the discovery of the conservation law energy - so-called. the first law, or the first law of thermodynamics. The introduction by R. Clausius in 1865 of the concept of “entropy” as a measure of free energy led to the development of the second law of thermodynamics. The third fundamental law of thermodynamics was derived from Nernst’s thermal theorem on the asymptotic convergence of the free energy and heat content of a system; in 1907, A. Einstein compiled the equation for the heat capacity of simple harmonic oscillators, and in
1911 Planck concluded: the entropy of pure substances at absolute zero is zero.
The beginning of the independent existence of thermochemistry - the science of thermal effects of chemistry. reactions, was founded by the works of G.I. Hess, who established in 1840 the law of constancy of heat amounts. The works of R. E. M. Berthelot were of great importance for the development of thermochemistry, who developed calorimetric methods of analysis (see Calorimetry) and discovered the principle of maximum work. In 1859, H. Kirchhoff formulated a law connecting the thermal effect of a reaction with the heat capacities of the reacting substances and reaction products. In 1909-
1912 Nernst (W. H. Nernst), Einstein and Debye (P. Debye) developed the theory of quantum heat capacity.
The development of electrochemistry, which deals with the study of the connection between chemical and electrical phenomena and the study of the effect of electric current on various substances in solutions, is associated with the creation of Volta (A. Volta) in 1792-1794. galvanic cell. In 1800, the first works on the decomposition of water by V. Nicolson and Carlyle appeared, and in 1803-1807. works of I. Berzelius and W. Hisinger on the electrolysis (see) solutions of salts. In 1833-1834. Faraday (M. Faraday) formulated the basic laws of electrolysis that relate the yield of electrochemicals. reactions with the amount of electricity and chemical. substance equivalents. In 1853-1859. Hittorf (J. W. Hittorf) established the relationship between electrochemical. action and mobility of ions, and in 1879 F. W. Kohlrausch discovered the law of independent movement of ions (see) and established a connection between equivalent electrical conductivity and the mobility of cations and anions. In 1875 - 1878 Gibbs (J. VV. Gibbs) and in 1882 G. Helmholtz developed a mathematical model connecting the electromotive force of a galvanic cell with the internal energy of a chemical. reactions. In 1879, G. Helmholtz created the doctrine of the electric double layer. In 1930-1932 Volmer (M. Vol-mer) and A. N. Frumkin proposed a quantitative theory of electrode processes.
The study of solutions began with the work of J. H. Hassenfratz (1798) and J. Gay-Lussac (1819) on the solubility of salts. In 1881 -1884. D. P. Konovalov laid the scientific foundations for the theory and practice of distillation of solutions, and in 1882, F. M. Raoult discovered the law of lowering the freezing point of solutions (see Cryometry). The first quantitative measurements of osmotic pressure (see) were made in 1877 by W. F. Ph. Pfeffer, and in 1887 J. Van't Hoff created the thermodynamic theory of dilute solutions and derived an equation relating osmotic pressure to concentration p -ra, its volume and absolute temperature. S. Arrhenius in 1887 formulated the theory of electrolytic dissociation and ionization of salts in solutions (see Electrolytes), and Nernst in 1888 - the osmotic theory. Ostwald (W. Ostwald) discovered patterns connecting the degree of dissociation of the electrolyte with its concentration. In 1911, Donnan (F. G. Don-pap) created the theory of the distribution of electrolytes on both sides of a semi-permeable membrane (see Membrane equilibrium), which found wide application in biophysical chemistry (see) and colloid chemistry (see). In 1923, Debye and E. Huckel developed a statistical theory of strong electrolytes.
Development of the doctrine of chemical kinetics. reactions, equilibrium and catalysis began with the work of L. Wilhelmy, who created the first quantitative theory of chemistry in 1850. reactions, and Williamson (A. W. Williamson), who presented equilibrium as a state of equality of the rates of forward and reverse reactions. The concept of “catalysis” was introduced into physical chemistry by I. Berzelius in
1835 Basic principles of doctrine
about chem. equilibrium were formulated in the works of Berthollet (C. L. Beg-thollet). The beginning of the dynamic theory of equilibria was laid by the works of Williamson and Clausius, the principle of moving equilibrium was developed by J. Ant-Goff, Gibbs and H. Le Chatelier. Berthelot and L. Pean-saint-Gilles established a connection between the rate of reaction and the state of equilibrium. Basic law of chemistry. kinetics about the proportionality of the reaction rate to the product of the active masses (i.e., concentrations) of the reacting substances - the law of mass action - was formulated in 1864-1867. Guldberg (S. M. Guldberg) and Waa-ge (P. Waage). In 1893-1897 A. N. Bach and K. Engler created the peroxide theory of slow oxidation (see Peroxides), in 1899-1904. Abegg and H. Bodlander developed the idea of valence as the ability of an atom to accept or give up electrons in 1913-1914. L.V. Pisarzhevsky and S.V. Dain developed the electronic theory of redox reactions (see). In 1903-1905 N. A. Shilov proposed the theory of conjugate reactions, and in 1913 Bodenstein (M. Bodenstein) discovered chain reactions (see), the theoretical foundations of which were developed in 1926 -1932. N. N. Semenov and S. N. Hinsheiwood.
The phenomenon of radioactive decay of atoms (radioactivity) was discovered in 1896 by A. Becquerel. Since then, much attention has been paid to the study of radioactivity (see), and significant progress has been achieved in this area, starting with the artificial splitting of atoms and ending with developments in controlled thermonuclear fusion. Among the problems of F. x. it is necessary to highlight the study of the influence on molecules of gamma radiation (see), the flow of high-energy particles (see Alpha radiation, Yassic radiation, Neutron radiation, Roton radiation), laser radiation (see Laser), as well as the study of reactions in electrical discharges and low-temperature plasma (plasma chemistry). Phys.-Chem. is developing successfully. mechanics, which studies the influence of surface phenomena on the properties of solids.
One of the sections of photochemistry is photochemistry (see), which studies the reactions that occur when a substance absorbs light energy from an external source of radiation.
In F. x. There is no such section that would not be important for medico-biol. disciplines and ultimately for practical medicine (see Biophysical chemistry). Phys.-Chem. methods make it possible to study living cells and tissues in vivo without subjecting them to destruction. Physics and chemistry are no less important for medicine. theories and ideas. Thus, the doctrine of the osmotic properties of solutions turned out to be extremely important for understanding water metabolism (see Water-salt metabolism) in humans under normal conditions and in pathology. The creation of the theory of electrolytic dissociation significantly influenced the idea of bioelectric phenomena (see) and laid the foundation for the ionic theory of excitation (see) and inhibition (see). The theory of acids and bases (q.v.) made it possible to explain the constancy of the internal environment of the body and served as the basis for the study of acid-base balance (q.v.). To understand the energy of life processes (for example, the functioning of ATP), studies carried out using chemical methods are widely used. thermodynamics. Development of physical-chemical ideas about surface processes (surface tension, wetting, etc.) are essential for understanding the reactions of cellular immunity (see), spreading of cells on non-cellular surfaces, adhesion, etc. Theory and methods of chemistry. kinetics are the basis for studying the kinetics of biological, primarily enzymatic, processes. A major role in understanding the essence of biol. processes are played by the study of bioluminescence, chemiluminescence (see Biochemiluminescence), the use of luminescent antibodies (see Immunofluorescence), fluoro-chroms (see), etc. to study the properties of tissue and subcellular localization of proteins, nucleic acids, etc. Phys. .-chem. methods for determining the intensity of basal metabolism (see) are extremely important in diagnosing many diseases, including endocrine ones.
It should be noted that the study of physical and chemical. properties of biol. systems and processes occurring in a living organism, makes it possible to look deeper into the essence and identify the specifics of living matter and these phenomena.
The main research centers in the field of physical chemistry in the USSR are the research institutes of the USSR Academy of Sciences, its branches and departments, the Academy of Sciences of the Union Republics: Physico-Chemical Institute named after. L. Ya. Karpova, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Physics, Institute of New Chemical Problems, Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry named after. A. E. Arbuzova, Institute of Catalysis, Institute of Chemical Kinetics and Combustion, Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, etc., as well as the corresponding departments in high fur boots.
The main publications that systematically publish articles on physical chemistry are: Journal of Physical Chemistry, Kinetics and Catalysis, Journal of Structural Chemistry, Radiochemistry, and Electrochemistry. Abroad, articles on Ph. x. published in “Zeitschrift fiir physi-kalische Chemie”, “Journal of Physical Chemistry”, “Journal de chimie physique et de physico-chimie bio-logique”.
Bibliography: Babko A.K. et al.
Physico-chemical methods of analysis, M., 1968; Kireev V. A. Course of physical chemistry, M., 1975; Melvin-Hughes
E. A. Physical chemistry, trans. from English, vol. 1 - 2, M., 1962; Nikolaev L. A. Physical chemistry, M., 1972; Development
physical chemistry in the USSR, ed. Ya. I. Gerasimova, M., 1967; Solo
Viev Yu. I. Essays on the history of physical chemistry, M., 1964; Physical
chemistry, Modern problems, ed. Ya. M. Kolotyrkina, M., 1980.
Periodicals - Journal of Structural Chemistry, M., since 1960; Journal of Physical Chemistry, M., since 1930; Kinetics and catalysis, M., since 1960; Radiochemistry, M.-L., since 1959; Electrochemistry, M., since 1965; Journal de chimie physique et de physico-chimie biologique, P., since 1903; Journal of Physical Chemistry, Baltimore, since 1896; Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, Lpz., since 1887.
Dean - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Aldoshin Sergey Mikhailovich
Currently in Russia there is an urgent question about the integration of education, fundamental scientific research and high-tech industries, without which the existence of a highly developed, economically independent state is impossible. One of the most promising ways to solve this issue is to combine fundamental university education of students with specialization on the basis of actively operating research centers of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAN). This principle is the basis for organizing the educational process of the faculty.
At the faculty, students study in three departments: engineering solid state physics (direction of training “Applied mathematics and physics”); engineering chemical physics (specialty “Fundamental and applied chemistry”); engineering of materials for aviation and space (specialty “Fundamental and applied chemistry”).
For scientific research at the basic institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Solid State Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences) under the guidance of a personal scientific mentor in the 1st–3rd courses, 1 day a week is allocated in the academic schedule, from the 4th year - 2 days a week. Conducting scientific research is formalized within the framework of coursework. Many coursework is developed into a completed scientific paper, and students present this work at scientific conferences and as publications in scientific journals. For each student, the topics of coursework in the sections of chemistry, physics and interdisciplinary topics are selected in such a way that all work is united by a common task and is carried out in one laboratory. This allows one to accumulate significant experimental material for completing a diploma and then a candidate’s thesis. Interdisciplinary educational training at the faculty (physics + chemistry + biology) allows students to effectively implement scientific work on interdisciplinary topics of strategic directions of technological breakthrough, defined by the President of the Russian Federation: “Energy efficiency, energy saving and development of new types of fuel” and “Medical technologies, diagnostic equipment and new drugs." The relevance of scientific topics is a prerequisite for students' scientific work.
The faculty is actively introducing modern educational technologies and interactive services that allow, without reducing the quality of education, to reduce the classroom load and increase the share of students’ independent work, turn students into active participants in the learning process, increase the proportion of individual contacts with the teacher and create an individual educational trajectory for each student. RAS scientists with teaching experience are actively involved in teaching at the faculty. The training courses of the faculty's teachers are constantly updated and keep up with the times, are interesting, and are actively perceived, because... supplied with examples from real scientific practice and a demonstration experiment. This arouses students' interest in the subject and leads to a deeper and more complete assimilation of the material.
Education at the Faculty of Fundamental Physical and Chemical Engineering is a new form of engineering education that meets the requirements of the time and the challenges of science of the 21st century. Training at the faculty is designed to strengthen the technological component of classical natural science education and is aimed at implementing innovative interdisciplinary training of specialists in the field of physics, chemistry and biology.
For scientific research at the basic institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Institute of Solid State Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences) under the guidance of a personal scientific mentor in the 1st-3rd courses, 1 day a week is allocated in the academic schedule, from the 4th year - 2 days a week. Conducting scientific research is formalized within the framework of coursework.
Many coursework is developed into a completed scientific paper, and students present this work at scientific conferences and as publications in scientific journals. For each student, the topics of coursework in the sections of chemistry, physics and interdisciplinary topics are selected in such a way that all work is united by a common task and is carried out in one laboratory. This allows one to accumulate significant experimental material for completing a diploma and then a candidate’s thesis.
Interdisciplinary educational training at the faculty (physics + chemistry + biology) allows students to effectively implement scientific work on interdisciplinary topics of strategic directions of technological breakthrough, defined by the President of the Russian Federation: “Energy efficiency, energy saving and development of new types of fuel” and “Medical technologies, diagnostic equipment and new drugs." The relevance of scientific topics is a prerequisite for students' scientific work.
The faculty is actively introducing modern educational technologies and interactive services that allow, without reducing the quality of education, to reduce the classroom load and increase the share of students’ independent work, turn students into active participants in the learning process, increase the proportion of individual contacts with the teacher and create an individual educational trajectory for each student. RAS scientists with teaching experience are actively involved in teaching at the faculty. The training courses of the faculty's teachers are constantly updated and keep up with the times, are interesting, and are actively perceived, because... supplied with examples from real scientific practice and a demonstration experiment. This arouses students' interest in the subject and leads to a deeper and more complete assimilation of the material.
There is a science that explains, on the basis of the principles and experiments of physics, what happens in mixed bodies during chemical operations." The first scientific journal intended for the publication of articles on physical chemistry was founded in 1887 by W. Ostwald and J. Van't Hoff.
F Physical chemistry is the main theoretical one. the foundation of modern chemistry, based on such important branches of physics as quantum mechanics, statistical. physics and thermodynamics, nonlinear dynamics, field theory, etc. It includes the doctrine of the structure of matter, incl. about the structure of molecules, chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics and catalysis. Electrochemistry, photochemistry, physical chemistry of surface phenomena (including adsorption), radiation chemistry, the study of corrosion of metals, physical chemistry of high molecular weight are also often distinguished as separate sections in physical chemistry. conn. etc. They are very closely related to physical chemistry and are sometimes considered as independent of it. sections colloidal chemistry, physical-chemical analysis and quantum chemistry. Most branches of physical chemistry have fairly clear boundaries in terms of objects and methods of research, methodologically. features and the device used.
Modern The stage of development of physical chemistry is characterized by an in-depth analysis of the general laws of chemistry. transformations on the pier level, widespread use of mat. modeling, expanding the range of external influences on chemical system (high and cryogenic temperatures, high pressures, strong radiation and magnetic influences), the study of ultra-fast processes, methods of energy accumulation in chemicals. v-vah, etc.
The application of quantum theory, primarily quantum mechanics, in explaining chemistry. phenomena entailed means. increased attention to the level of interpretation led to the identification of two directions in chemistry. A direction based on quantum mech. theory and operating on microscopic. level of explanation of phenomena, often called chemical. physics, but a direction that operates with ensembles of a large number of particles, where statistical principles come into force. laws - physical chemistry. With this division, the boundary between physical chemistry and chemistry. physics not m.b. carried out sharply, which is especially evident in the theory of chemical rates. districts.
The doctrine of the structure of matter and the structure of molecules summarizes an extensive experiment. material obtained using such physical methods such as molecular spectroscopy, which studies interactions. electromagnetic radiation with substances in different wavelength ranges, photo- and x-ray electron spectroscopy, electron diffraction, neutron diffraction and x-ray diffraction methods, methods based on magneto-optical. effects, etc. These methods make it possible to obtain structural data on the electronic configuration of molecules, on the equilibrium positions and amplitudes of vibrations of nuclei in molecules and condensers. in-ve, about the energy system. levels of molecules and transitions between them, changes in geom. configurations when the environment of the molecule or its individual fragments changes, etc.
Along with the task of correlating the properties of substances with their modern structure. Physical chemistry is also actively engaged in the inverse problem of predicting the structure of compounds with given properties.
A very important source of information about the structure of molecules, their characteristics in various parts. states and characteristics of chemistry. transformations are the results of quantum chemistry. calculations. Quantum chemistry provides a system of concepts and ideas that are used in physical chemistry when considering the behavior of chemicals. connections per mol. level and when establishing correlations between the characteristics of the molecules that form a substance and the properties of this substance. Thanks to the results of quantum chemistry. calculations of chemical potential energy surfaces. systems in various quantum states and experiments. With the opportunities of recent years, primarily the development of laser chemistry, physical chemistry has come close to a comprehensive study of St. in excited and highly excited states, to the analysis of the structural features of the connection. in such states and the specifics of the manifestation of these features in the dynamics of chemicals. transformations.
A limitation of conventional thermodynamics is that it can only describe equilibrium states and reversible processes. Real irreversible processes are the subject of the theory that arose in the 30s. 20th century thermodynamics of irreversible processes. This area of physical chemistry studies nonequilibrium macroscopic phenomena. systems in which the rate of entropy generation locally remains constant (such systems are locally close to equilibrium). It allows you to consider systems with chemical r-tions and mass transfer (diffusion), heat, electricity. charges, etc.
Chemical kinetics studies chemical transformations. in-in time, i.e. chemical speed. r-tions, the mechanisms of these transformations, as well as the dependence of the chemical. process from the conditions of its implementation. She establishes patterns of betrayalchanges in the composition of the transforming system over time, reveals the connection between the rate of chemical. r-tion and external conditions, and also studies factors influencing the speed and direction of chemical reactions. districts.
Most chem. p-tions are complex multi-stage processes consisting of individual elementary chemical acts. transformation, transport of reagents and energy transfer. Theoretical chem. kinetics includes the study of the mechanisms of elementary processes and calculates the rate constants of such processes based on the ideas and apparatus of classical. mechanics and quantum theory, deals with the construction of models of complex chemistry. processes, establishes a connection between the structure of chemicals. compounds and their reactions. ability. Identification of kinetic patterns for complex processes (formal kinetics) are often based on math. modeling and allows you to test hypotheses about the mechanisms of complex processes, as well as establish a system of differentials. equations describing the results of the process under different conditions. ext. conditions.
For chem. kinetics is characterized by the use of many physical. research methods that make it possible to carry out local excitations of reacting molecules, study fast (up to femtosecond) transformations, automate the registration of kinetics. data with their simultaneous processing on a computer, etc. Kinetic accumulation is intensively accumulated. information through kinetic banks constants, incl. for chem. r-tions in extreme conditions.
A very important branch of physical chemistry, closely related to chemistry. kinetics is the study of catalysis, i.e., the change in the speed and direction of chemistry. r-tion when exposed to substances (
