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Stylistic and genre features of the scientific style. Functions of scientific style

The systematicity of the main functional style consists of general linguistic (neutral) elements, linguistic-stylistic elements (stylistically colored language units outside the context) and speech-stylistic elements, which in a certain context (situation) acquire stylistic qualities and/or participate in the creation of the stylistic quality of the context, the text. Each main style has its own principles for selecting these elements and their relationship.

The scientific style is distinguished by a number of common features due to the peculiarities of scientific thinking, including abstraction and strict logic of presentation. It also has some of the particular features mentioned above.

Each functional style has its own objective style-forming factors. They can be depicted schematically as follows.

Functional style	Style-forming factor
dominant language function	form of social consciousness	basic form of speech	typical type of speech	predominant mode of communication	tone of speech
scientific	informative	the science	written	monologue	mass non-contact and indirect-contact	neutral
official business	informative	legal consciousness	written	monologue	mass non-contact and contact	neutral, stating, imperative
journalistic	informative and impact function	ideology and politics	written and oral	monologue	mass, contact and indirect contact	due to aesthetic purpose
colloquial	exchange of views	ordinary consciousness	oral	dialogue, polylogue	personal, contact	situationally determined

Each of the functional styles also has its own purpose, its own addressee, and its own genres. The main goal of the scientific style is to communicate objective information, to prove the truth of scientific knowledge.

However, the goals (and especially their ratio) can be adjusted to a greater or lesser extent during the process of creating the text. For example, at first a dissertation may be conceived as a purely theoretical study, but in the process of work (writing) prospects for the practical application of the theory will open up, and the work will acquire a pronounced practical orientation. The opposite situation is also possible.

The goals are specified in the objectives of this text. The goals and situation determine the selection of material that is used throughout the creation of the text. However, at the beginning this process is quantitative in nature, and towards the end it is qualitative.

The recipients of works of scientific style are mainly specialists - readers prepared to perceive scientific information.

In terms of genre, the scientific style is quite diverse. Here you can highlight: article, monograph, textbook, review, review, annotation, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on special topics, theses, etc.

However, when identifying speech genres of scientific style, one should pay attention to the fact that any functioning language has its own hierarchy of stylistic systems - subsystems. Each lower subsystem is based on elements of higher-ranking systems, combines them in its own way and supplements them with new ones. specific elements. It organizes “its own” and “foreign” elements, including functional ones, into a new, sometimes qualitatively different integrity, where they acquire new properties to one degree or another. For example, elements of scientific and official business styles, when combined, give rise to a scientific and business sub-style, which is implemented in different genres, such as a research report, dissertation abstract, etc.

The functional-style classification of the scientific style of speech can be presented as follows.

Each of these genre subsystems assumes its own correlation of elements of the scientific and other styles itself and its own principles of organizing a speech work. According to A. N. Vasilyeva, “the model of this organization is formed in the speech consciousness (subconscious) of a person in the process of speech practice, and also often special training.” Such learning is greatly facilitated by educational and scientific literature, which, while presenting in an accessible form the foundations of a particular science, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other types of scientific literature (problem articles, private monographs, journal collections). Its main features are: subject-logical consistency and gradually unfolding manner of presentation; “compressed completeness”, which is expressed in the fact that, on the one hand, only part of the accumulated information about the subject of a given science is presented, and on the other hand, this part is basic, and in it the subject of presentation is characterized evenly and comprehensively.

In the scientific style, as in every functional style, there are certain rules of text composition. The text is perceived mainly from the particular to the general, and is created from the general to the particular.

The structure of a scientific style text is usually multidimensional and multi-level. However, this does not mean that all texts have the same degree of structural complexity. For example, they may be completely different in purely physical design. To understand what we are talking about, it is enough to compare the scientific monograph, article and theses. It should be borne in mind that the degree of complexity here is not absolute, since the same theses are difficult to write without writing at least a rough draft, an article, and without examining it critically.

Each of the genres of scientific style has its own characteristics and individual features, but due to the fact that it is difficult to describe the specific features of all genres and types of scientific style in one textbook, we will focus our attention on the genre of scientific theses, which is one of the most generally relevant genres of the language of science.

Theses can be written by a person for himself - in this case they are not the object of this consideration, because strict requirements of genre and style are not imposed on them. The subject of our interest is abstracts created for publication. It is they who must meet certain regulatory requirements, first of all, the requirement of substantive compliance with the topic declared in advance as a problem. No less important is the factor of scientific-informational valence, substantive relevance and value of information left within the framework of the declared problematic topic. Theses are one of the most stable and normative genres of a speech work, therefore, violations of genre certainty, normativity, purity, and genre mixtures are assessed in it as gross violations of not only stylistic, but communicative norms in general. Among typical violations, such as, for example, the replacement of abstracts with the text of a message, summary, abstract, annotation, prospectus, plan, etc., the most unpleasant impression is made by mixing forms of different genres. This confusion demonstrates the author’s lack of scientific speech culture and casts doubt on his scientific data in general.

Theses also have a strictly normative content and compositional structure. It highlights: 1) preamble; 2) the main thesis statement; 3) final thesis. A clear logical division of the thesis content is emphasized by headings, and in some cases, by highlighting paragraphs under one heading.

Theses also have their own strict norms of linguistic design, characteristic of the scientific style in general, but in this particular case they are even more strict.

According to A. N. Vasilyeva, the general norm of any scientific style “is the high saturation of the statement with subject-logical content.” This norm is implemented in the thesis work “in optimally overcoming the contradiction between content concentration and communicative accessibility” [ibid.]. It should be emphasized that in theses this contradiction is especially difficult to resolve due to the extreme concentration of subject-logical content.

Thesis works are subject to requirements of stylistic purity and uniformity of speech manner. Emotionally expressive definitions, metaphors, inversions and other other stylistic inclusions are absolutely unacceptable here. Theses have the nature of a modal affirmative judgment or conclusion, and not the nature of a specific factual statement, therefore, here it is necessary to especially carefully monitor compliance with a certain speech form.

Thus, using the example of one of the specific genres of scientific style, we were convinced of the rigid action in this functional area of the language of certain stylistic norms, the violation of which raises doubts in the scientific speech culture of the author. To avoid this, when creating works of a scientific style, it is necessary to strictly follow all the above-mentioned basic requirements of the genre.

Control questions

1. What common features distinguish the scientific style?

2. What main scientific genres do you know?

3. Name the main style-forming factors operating in the scientific style.

4. Give a functional-style classification of scientific style.

5. What are the characteristic features of a thesis work?

6. Using the texts of the reader, name the characteristic features of the monograph and article.

Norm in terminology

Terms are the semantic core of a special language and convey basic content information. In the modern world, as a result of the growth of scientific and technical knowledge, over 90% of new words appearing in languages are special words. The need for terms is much greater than for commonly used words. The growth in the number of terms in some sciences outpaces the growth in the number of commonly used words in the language, and in some sciences the number of terms exceeds the number of non-specialized words. The rapid formation of new disciplines (on average, their number doubles every 25 years) entails their need for their own terminology, which leads to the spontaneous emergence of terminologies. In the conditions of the “terminological flood”, specialists face a serious problem of organizing the entire array of terminology. And in this case, such an important aspect as normativity comes to the fore. Terminology, occupying a central place in special languages, has a certain independence of formation and development. This inevitably implies some independence of the linguistic criterion for evaluating a term, and in particular, its normative evaluation.

Linguistic normativity in general terms is the correctness of the formation and use of a term. The processes of term formation and term use are not spontaneous, but conscious processes controlled by linguists and terminologists. The norm in terminology should not contradict, but correspond to the norms of the general literary language; at the same time, there are special requirements that apply to the term. This question has a long tradition. Regulatory requirements for the term were first formulated by the founder of the Russian terminological school D. S. Lotte. This is the systematic nature of terminology, the independence of the term from the context, the brevity of the term, its absolute and relative unambiguity, simplicity and clarity, the degree of implementation of the term. Subsequently, these requirements formed the basis for methodological work on terminology in the Committee of Scientific and Technical Terminology of the Academy of Sciences and were brought together in the “Brief Methodological Guide for the Development and Organization of Scientific and Technical Terminology.” Let's take a closer look at each of these requirements.

1. The requirement of fixed content (one sign corresponds to one concept) contains the provision that the term must have limited, clearly fixed content within a certain terminological system in a specific period of development of a given field of knowledge (the last clarification seems important, since with the deepening of knowledge the content concepts can develop and over time the same term can acquire a different meaning). Ordinary words clarify their meaning and acquire different semantic shades in a phraseological context, in combination with other words. Contextual mobility of meaning for a term is completely unacceptable. It must be emphasized that this contains a logical requirement for the term - the constancy of its meaning within the framework of a certain terminology system.

2. The next requirement is the accuracy of the term. Precision usually means clarity, limited meaning. This clarity is due to the fact that a special concept, as a rule, has precise boundaries, usually established using a definition - the definition of the term. From the point of view of reflecting the content of a concept, the accuracy of a term means that its definition contains necessary and sufficient features of the designated concept. The term must also (directly or indirectly) reflect features by which one concept can be distinguished from another. The terms have varying degrees of precision. The most accurate (or correctly orienting) seem to be motivated terms, in the structure of which the content of the concept or its distinctive features are especially clearly conveyed, for example: the sensitive surface of a semiconductor detector of ionizing radiation, the continuity of the outer zone of the diffusion layer. The meaning of a set of unmotivated terms is not derived from the meaning of the term elements included in them (dovetail connection). This also includes falsely motivated terms such as atom or family terms (eponymous terms). The latter have the positive quality that they do not cause any associations. But there is also a negative aspect: in most cases, family terms do not evoke ideas and do not reflect the connection of this concept with others (Chebyshev polynomials, Fedorov’s keratoprosthesis), so it is extremely difficult to master them.

3. The requirement for the term to be unambiguous. The term should not be ambiguous. Particularly inconvenient in this case is categorical ambiguity, when within the same terminological system the same form is used to denote an operation and its result: cladding (structure) and cladding (operation), waterproofing (work and design); processes and phenomena: collapse (in geology), karst (ibid.); object and its description: grammar (the structure of language) and grammar (the science that describes this structure). By arranging the terminology, i.e., fixing the meaning of each term of a given system of concepts, the unambiguity of the term is established.

4. The term should not have synonyms. Synonyms in terminology have a different nature and perform different functions than in the general literary language. In terminology, synonymy is usually understood as the phenomenon of doublet (ophthalmologist - ophthalmologist, Bremsberg - descent, genitive - genitive case). Between doublets there are no relations that organize a synonymous series, there are no emotionally expressive, stylistic or shading oppositions. They are identical to each other, each of them relates directly to the signified. And if in a general literary language the existence of synonyms is justified by the fact that the use of one or another of them affects the content of speech, or changes the stylistic coloring, or gives it an individual shade, then doublets neither in the general language nor in the language of science have these properties and represent is an undesirable and even harmful phenomenon. Synonymy (duplicate) is especially characteristic of the initial stages of the formation of terminologies, when the natural (and conscious) selection of the best term has not yet occurred and there are several options for the same concept. The very concept of synonymy in terminology cannot yet be considered generally accepted. Let's consider this phenomenon in more detail: a) Synonyms that have exactly the same meaning (absolute synonyms, or doublets, such as linguistics - linguistics - linguistics) are widespread. The assessment of the existence of these doublets is determined in each specific case by the operating conditions of the terminological system. In particular, the parallel use of an original and a borrowed term may be allowed if one of them is not capable of forming derivative forms. We are talking about the derivational ability of the term, for example: compression - compression (if it is impossible to form an adjective from the term pressure), friction - frictional (friction), consonant - but: consonantal letter. There is a stylistic synonymy of the terms (epilepsy - epilepsy, quicklime - boiling lime). In this case, one of the doublets relates to a colloquial style or professional jargon, and there is simply no question of eliminating it. The presence of modern and outdated terms may be noted: anti-collapse gallery - half-tunnel, pilot - aviator, flyer. These synonyms can be used in works of different genres (for example, in fiction). b) Partially matching synonyms, variants. There are a huge number of partial synonyms: instruction - explanation - guidance - instruction - instruction - reminder, spring - spring, shelter - shelter. The use of such synonyms can lead to mutual misunderstanding among specialists, and it is desirable to eliminate them when streamlining terminology. c) As for the short forms of terms, the existence of phonetic, graphic, morphological, word-formation, syntactic and other variants of terms leads to fluctuations in their spelling and gives rise to the requirement for the invariance of terms - the immutability of their form. Compare: lymphangitis - lymphangitis - lymphangitis (in medicine), graffito - grafitto - sgraffito (in architecture), floppy disk - floppy disk (in computer science). This makes it difficult for specialists to communicate, and often the formal difference leads to semantic differentiation, for example: forester - forester.

5. The term must be systematic. The systematicity of terminology is based on the classification of concepts, based on which the necessary and sufficient features included in the term are identified, after which words and their parts (term elements) are selected to form the term. Closely related to the systematicity of a term is its motivation, i.e., semantic transparency, which allows one to form an idea of the concept called by the term. Systematicity makes it possible to reflect in the structure of a term its specific place in a given terminological system, the connection of the named concept with others, its attribution to a certain logical category of concepts. For example, in the classic example of D. S. Lotte: an electron tube and its types - diode, triode, tetrode, pentode - the most important thing is the commonality of the characteristics of concepts (here - the number of electrodes in the lamp: two, three, four, five) of the same classification level and connection with a term meaning a generic concept. Systematicity also requires uniformity of term elements for terms of the same type, for example, the same suffix -an is used in the names of fatty hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane, etc., the word-forming element -on (-ron, -lon) is used in the names of new fibers and fabrics: nylon, nylon, silon, orlon, perlon, dederon, grilon, dacron, velon, nitron, fluorlon, etc. If the characteristics are similar, the term elements are also similar: sulfuric, sulphurous, serous.

Thus, the characteristics that form the basis for the construction of terms reflecting specific concepts, i.e., concepts at the same classification level, must be the same. However, in terminology there are often distortions of this principle. For example, in the terms steam locomotive and diesel locomotive, the place of these concepts in the classification is not taken into account. A steam locomotive and a diesel locomotive are subordinate concepts, being on the same level, while the term reflects the signs of steam and heat, which are in a relationship of subordination (and not subordination!). Systematicity is also violated in the case when the terms for specific concepts are based on features of various kinds that are not related to classification: for example, butt welding (the main feature is the machine on which this welding is performed), roller welding (one of the parts of this machine is a roller). ) and spot welding (the process itself was chosen as a feature). In this case, the terms do not reflect the classification relationship between concepts, whereas in reality this connection exists. The terms welding torch and cutting torch are satisfactory in terms of systematicity, but in practice they are replaced by the less systematic but concise terms: torch and cutter. Brevity is key here.

The more concepts covered by a given classification series, the more important the systematizing properties of the term become. When a limited number of metals existed, a significant number of their non-systemic names were common: iron, silver, copper. The task of replacing these names that have existed for centuries is not set, but the logical consistency in this terminology system is now fully observed. Newly discovered metals have names that have linguistic systematicity: neptunium, plutonium, curium, beryllium, etc.

Thus, any terms that are based on features that are in any other relationship with each other than the relations of the features of the concepts corresponding to these terms may turn out to be unsystematic. Therefore, the actual logical relations between concepts cannot be judged on the basis of the literal meaning of the terms, this can only be done on the basis of their definitions.

6. Brevity of the term. The term should be short. Here we can note the contradiction between the desire for accuracy of the terminology system and the brevity of terms. For modern era Particularly characteristic is the formation of extended terms in which they strive to convey larger number characteristics of the concepts they denote. There is a tendency to complicate the structure of terms and phrases; long, cumbersome names appear, approaching descriptive terms. The need for complex constructions is explained by the fact that by means of an expanded phrase a greater number of features of a special concept are conveyed and thereby the degree of semantic motivation of the term increases, which is very important for it. In addition, in expanded terms it is possible to combine a detailed concept with such a terminated designation of parts that would make this designation understandable out of context, that is, it would be unambiguous. But the downside of such unambiguity is the cumbersomeness of the text: the equipment of the cargo cabin of a transport aircraft for parachute landing of personnel; synchronous operating mode of the control device of switching communication technology with program control. In practice, we are faced with the need to look for a shortened version of a long, awkward name, which corresponds to the law of economy of linguistic resources. And in this case, the question of which phrase can be considered a short version (according to other sources - a form) of the term is of fundamental importance. The short version is a shortened, but functionally equivalent, secondary sign of the terminable concept. It is always derived from the semantic and symbolic structure of the main term. The short version cannot be arbitrary, free; it must retain the necessary systematizing features that are contained in the full term. The most common three linguistic methods for forming short variants are:

1) Lexical reduction, which is carried out either by omitting a word in the phrase (electrovacuum zener diode - zener diode, magnetic variometer - variometer), or by replacing the phrase with one word (emitter region - emitter, steam field - steam).

2) Reduction by means of word formation. Abbreviations of various types: electron beam device - ELP, phased array beam control system - SUL, digital data transmission equipment - digital ADF, microphone-telephone device - UMT, vacuum sealed magnetically controlled contact - vacuum reed switch; homogeneous junction - homojunction, current-carrying wire of an electric machine brush - current conductor; terms created using different word-formation methods: affixation, compounding (basis), substantivization, for example: air intake device - air receiver, aircraft cabin irrigation device - sprinkler, absorption column - absorber; rheo-plethysmovasograph – rheoplethysmograph – rheograph; molding shop - molding.

3) Reduction by means of symbolism (a typical phenomenon in terminology, inherent exclusively to it): hole region - p-region, region of intrinsic electrical conductivity - g-region, electron-electronic transition - PP + transition.

In the works of recent years, pragmatic requirements are identified, determined by the specifics of the functioning of the term, among which the following can be named: embeddedness, modernity, internationality and euphony of the term.

The introduction of a term is characterized by its generally accepted or common use. This quality plays important role, since a firmly rooted term, even if falsely motivated, is very difficult to replace. As a result of gradual practical activity, the incorrect term may be replaced by a new one. Thus, in scientific texts the term lightning rod replaced the falsely motivated term lightning rod. In some cases, a falsely motivated, but deeply rooted term is retained, for example, to denote the concept of a concrete structure with steel reinforcement, the term reinforced concrete is used (iron is also sometimes used as reinforcement). Therefore, attempts are being made to introduce the correctly orienting term steel concrete. Or another example: the word suture, which in the general literary language has the lexical meaning of “tight connection”, in construction is sometimes used in the opposite meaning of “cut, gap”, and at the same time in the direct meaning of “concrete seam”.

The modernity of the term is realized by displacing obsolete terms from use and replacing them with new ones, for example, the term concrete mixer for a concrete mixer, the term cattleman for an animal fattening operator.

The needs of international communication among specialists in connection with the growing trend towards the internationalization of scientific research and the increasing exchange of scientific and technical information are reflected in the growing prestige of internationality, or the similarity in form and similarity in content of terms used in several national languages. This trend reflects the need to reconcile the requirement of scientific accuracy, on the one hand, and practical brevity, on the other.

The good sonority of the term has two aspects: ease of pronunciation and euphony itself. In addition, the term should not cause negative associations outside of highly specialized use, which is clearly seen from the comparison of the following pairs of terms: soldering - soldering, sexual work - floor installation work, degassing - degassing, lice - pediculosis, pig's erysipelas - erysipeloid. In addition, the specifics of some areas of knowledge impose additional requirements on terms, for example, the desire not to injure the patients present leads to the deliberate inaccessibility of medical terminology and the replacement of terms such as cancer with others, such as neoplasm.

All these normative requirements imply an “ideal” term and, of course, are difficult to implement in practice. With standardization, the normative requirements are softened. Thus, unambiguity, brevity and compliance with the norms and rules of the Russian language are put forward as mandatory properties of the term. The remaining requirements for the scientific and technical term are proposed to be considered optional.

Control questions

1. What causes the constant increase in the number of terms and why does their number outstrip the number of commonly used words?

2. List the basic requirements that the term must meet.

3. What are the features of synonymy in terminology compared to synonymy in a common literary language?

4. Why is there a high percentage of foreign words in terminology?

§ 26. Professional version of the norm

Focus on the patterns of formation and use of words in a common literary language as a whole does not mean the absence of independent trends in the field of term formation and term use. Terms are formed according to the laws and methods of word formation of the literary language and in accordance with the word-formation types available in it. But the terminology here has greater independence than other language levels. Terminological innovations are manifested in some expansion of the word-formation base for the formation of terms, in the wider use of international elements. We can distinguish, for example, language levels where certain deviations from the norm are allowed, but subject to the general principles and patterns inherent in the language. In this case, the terminology itself is able to influence the development of the norms of the general literary language. This is most characteristic of terminological word formation. Here sometimes we can even talk about a specifically terminological norm, while spelling, orthoepic, accentuation and grammatical norms are basically general literary norms. The emergence of independent trends in term formation, inherent only in terminology, led to the emergence of such a concept as a professional version of the norm.

In the professional version of the norm, it is necessary to take into account both what is common to the language of science (professional languages) and the general literary language, and what is special that exists in professional languages, but is absent in the general literary language. The professional version of the norm is by no means opposed to the norms of the general literary language, but in order to determine its linguistic status, it is necessary to identify the conditions under which its formation is possible. The need for a professional version of the norm arises mainly in two typical cases: 1) when there are variant means of expressing the same concept or reality; 2) when new means of expressing concepts or realities appear, typical for the language of professional spheres of use, but absent in the general literary language.

In the first case, variant forms of expression of concepts diverge in different spheres of use: general literary and professional. For example, plural forms. The numbers of masculine nouns starting with -a (stressed) are very often unusual for the ear and eye of non-specialists. Compare, for example: workshop, bunker, stopper, color scheme, compass, jupiter (lighting fixtures), profile (vertical sections, sections), dough, cake, cupcake (in the speech of culinary specialists), velvet (in the speech of textile workers), drive (in equipment), torches (for oil workers), etc. The question arises as to whether these options can be considered acceptable within normal limits or whether they are erroneous and the attention of specialists needs to be drawn to this. In this case, the listed options may well be classified as an oral version of the professional version of the norm. It is significant that in modern standard reference dictionaries the forms of navigator, skipper, turner, painter and the like are qualified as facts of terminological speech or professional vernacular, and not at all as deviations from the norm. This position is confirmed by the official codification of such forms in maritime terminology, where many of them were legalized by a special circular: boats (do not write boats), cruisers (do not write cruisers), pilot (do not write pilots), midshipman (do not write midshipmen). The professional version of the norm also includes accentological variants of words: mining, mine (among miners and miners); compass (for sailors); spinner and winder (in weaving); gear and spark (in engineering); agony, epilepsy, stroke (in medicine), etc. We can continue the list of typical variants of professional norms for terminological usage. For example, grammatical variants: component - component, spasm - spasm, etc. Use of forms female can be considered acceptable within normal limits.

When determining the professional version of the norm, it is important to avoid the impression that any professional deviation from the rules of the literary language can be classified as acceptable in special areas and qualified as a professional variant. Sometimes there is a direct error or deviation from the norm in terminological stress, word formation or word usage. For example, those standing outside both the professional variant of the norm and literary norm in general, accents such as: convocation, call, invention, petition, strengthening, concentration, etc.

Some forms, being implemented exclusively in the oral speech of professionals, in an informal setting are qualified by specialists as professionalism: typo - blunder, synchrophasotron - pan, internal work of the zero cycle - zero, zero. A variety of professionalisms are professional jargon: interior design - in construction: internal sanitary systems; flooding of the lung - in medicine: pulmonary edema with obstructive atelectasis; playing accordion is a type of dry wheezing in bronchial asthma. And if some of the professionalisms may well have a normative nature, then the conventions of professional jargon are clearly felt by the speakers.

Within the normal range of terminology there are a number of forms that are not characteristic of the general literary language. For example, the use of tautological phrases such as one-to-one (correlation), electronic-electronic (transition), channel-channel adapter is not a violation of word usage in the language of science, but is quite justified, since it is a technique necessary to reflect the corresponding concept. In professional use, the presence of real nouns in the plural is also allowed. number, when it is necessary to enter a designation, for example, varieties, grades of a substance: feed, marbles, sugars, alcohols, resins, tea, tobacco. Can be used in plural. including some abstract nouns: harmfulness, sonority, heterogeneity, luminosity.

Let us give examples of specifically terminological word-formation elements: a) nouns with a zero suffix are highly productive in modern terminological word-formation: compression, firing, cutting, run-out, bounce, overload, melt, entrainment, etc.; b) the use of the suffix -ist(y) is typical in an additional quantitative meaning, unusual for a common literary language: “possessing a large amount of what is called the producing basis” (wooded, rocky), but, on the contrary, in the meaning: “containing a certain impurity in small quantities "(sandy-silty clay, hypochlorous); c) the group of nouns starting from the bases of relative (not qualitative!) adjectives is actively replenished. In this case, a change in the nature of the base entails a change in the derived word, and the meaning of the name in -ostp becomes a quantitative attribute: lakeness, water content, pagination, exemplaryness.

In addition to the emergence of a professional version of the norm at the intersection of terminology and the common literary language, the need for such a variant appears when implementing special semantic nominations that are not characteristic of the common literary language. These phenomena are assessed from the standpoint of professional expediency, and not from the standpoint of a strict general literary norm. For example, in the general literary language there are no such polybasic formations as vector-electrocardioscope, ultrasonotachocardioscope, antibiotic resistance, etc., but in terminology they are optimal. Within the same category there are special nominations involving various kinds of symbols, abbreviation names of a combined type: P-mesons, - shaped, ventilator (ventilator), M-type device (magnetron-type device), etc.

Thus, in terminology many potential possibilities of the language are realized that do not find an outlet in general literary word formation. Since terminology is an area that is at the forefront of science and is directly influenced by extralinguistic factors, i.e., the need for new terms to denote new phenomena in science and technology, it intensively uses all methods of word formation of the general literary language and all actual terminological word-formation models that do not exist in the common language.

Control questions

1. In what area of grammar are the specific features of terminological innovations particularly strong, distinguishing terminology from the general literary language? Give examples.

2. When does the need for a professional version of the norm arise?

3. What are professionalisms and how do they differ from professional jargon?

Russian speech has its own language genres, which are usually called functional styles. Each of these genres has its own characteristics and exists within the framework of the general literary norm. The modern Russian language uses five styles: artistic, scientific, official business, colloquial and journalistic. Not long ago, linguists put forward a hypothesis about the existence of a sixth - religious style; previously it was not possible to distinguish it due to the state position regarding the existence of religion.

Each style has its own set of responsibilities, for example, the main functions of the scientific style are conveying important information to the reader and convincing the reader of its veracity. This language genre can be identified by the presence in it of a large amount of abstract vocabulary, terms and words of a general scientific nature. The main role in this style is most often played by the noun, since it is the noun that names objects that require detailed consideration.

What is scientific style?

This genre is usually called a style that has a number of qualities, the main ones being the monological principle of narration, strict methods of selecting means for expressing the necessary information, the use of purely normative speech, as well as preliminary preparation for the statement. The main function of the scientific style is to convey true data about a phenomenon, which implies the use of a purely official setting and detailed content of the scientific message.

The style in which such messages are executed is formed on the basis of their content, as well as the goals that their author sets for himself. As a rule, we are talking about the most detailed explanation of various facts and demonstration of connections between certain phenomena. According to linguists, the main difficulty that arises when writing such texts is related to the need to convincingly prove hypotheses and theories, as well as the importance of a systematic narrative.

Main function

The main function of the scientific style of speech is to realize the need to explain a fact, theory, or hypothesis. The narration should be as objective as possible, therefore this genre is characterized by the generality and structure of monologue speech. Texts created in this style must take into account the previous literary experience of the potential reader, otherwise he will not be able to see the intertextual connections with which they are rich.

Compared to other genres, science can seem very dry. Evaluativeness and expressiveness in his texts are minimal; emotive and colloquial elements of speech are not recommended to be used here. Nevertheless, a scientific text can turn out to be very expressive if all the necessary stylistic elements are fully implemented, which includes taking into account the literary experience of the potential reader.

Additional feature

In addition to the main function of the scientific style, scientists identify another one - a secondary one, which is obliged to activate logical thinking in the reader of the text. According to researchers, if the recipient of a text cannot build logical relationships, then he is unlikely to be able to understand its entire semantic component.

The features of the scientific style can manifest themselves in the text in completely different ways, thanks to this it was possible to identify several substyles - popular science, scientific-educational and proper scientific. The first of them is closer to fiction and journalism, but it is the one that is used most often in modern speech. There is often confusion in the literature because substyles are sometimes called standard styles.

Substyles

It is impossible to clearly define the functions of a scientific style without understanding its heterogeneity. Each genre has its own setting, which is associated with the need to convey information to the addressee; on its basis, substyles of a given speech are formed. For example, a scientific-educational one involves a strict narrative that is addressed to highly specialized specialists. Texts in this substyle are required to identify various patterns and describe them, these include dissertations, graduation projects, monographs, reviews and reviews, etc.

The educational and scientific substyle was formed in order to present scientific dogmas in the relevant literature. The texts of this substyle are educational in nature; they are characterized by the formation of various limits when considering disciplines, as well as the presence of a large number of illustrations, explanations of terminologies, interpretations and examples. This should include textbooks, dictionaries, lectures, as well as literature that systematically reveals leading disciplinary issues using various established scientific opinions.

Scientific style words are primarily intended for specialists, with the only exception being those used in the popular science subgenre. Fragments related to this sub-style are created for a wide audience, so it is customary to present everything here in the most understandable form. They are similar to literary prose, they are characterized by the use of emotional overtones, the replacement of highly scientific vocabulary with generally accessible ones, the use of fragments of colloquial speech, and a large number of comparisons. Prominent representatives Such texts include essays, articles in periodicals, essays, books, etc.

Genres of literature in scientific style

The main feature that distinguishes the scientific style is the scope of use; its functions imply the use of relevant texts only for an audience that has a certain experience and is able to read them. It is mainly used in the creation of scientific publications - monographs, reference books, textbooks, information messages, etc. As a rule, the creation of such texts is necessary in educational and research institutions.

Within the style, primary texts are distinguished - lectures, reviews, oral presentations, i.e. all texts that were created by the author for the first time and did not require him to turn to other sources. There are also secondary fragments - they are texts that were created on the basis of previously created ones. They are characterized by a reduction in the information provided and the total amount of information offered in the primary texts.

Where is scientific style used?

The main scope and functions of the scientific style are pedagogical and scientific. With its help, it is possible to create a common intertextual space in which scientists from all over the world can communicate. Tacitly accepted standards for the formation of texts in this genre have been supported by specialists for many years.

The main component when creating text fragments are terms - words that name formulated concepts. The logical information contained in these units of language is enormous and can be interpreted in different ways. The most frequent unit found in this literature are internationalisms - words that are similar in different languages in lexical and grammatical meaning, as well as in pronunciation. For example, “system”, “process”, “element”, etc.

The scientific style, the scope of use, functions and needs of which are constantly updated, must follow the development of language. That is why new terms and words most often appear in it to designate completely new objects or phenomena.

Scientific style: phonetic features

The functions of the scientific style of speech are reflected at various levels of language, including phonetic. Despite the fact that texts in this genre exist primarily in written format, they always have a clear vision of verbal forms, which speakers usually achieve with the help of a slow speed of pronunciation. All intonations are standard and subject to the syntactic features of the genre. The intonation pattern is stable and rhythmic, which is why for oral perception of scientific speech it is necessary to have a sufficiently long endurance.

If we talk about the features of word pronunciation, then the scientific genre is characterized by clear pronunciation of syllables that are in an unstressed position, assimilation of consonants and reduction of vowel sounds. A distinctive feature is that authors of scientific texts prefer to pronounce internationalisms and dependent words as closely as possible to the original language. Discussion in this speech is rare, since in most cases it involves increased emotionality.

Scientific style: lexical features

The main function of the scientific style of speech is to explain various phenomena encountered in the life of mankind. And therefore, it is simply impossible to do without abstract, general scientific, highly specialized and international vocabulary here. It is presented here in the form of four forms - words that form scientific thoughts, general vocabulary, terms, as well as words that have an abstract and generalized meaning.

All terms in the scientific style are divided into two subtypes - special and general scientific. The first ones denote technical objects and subjects (for example, “dysfunction”, “integral”, etc.), they make up approximately 90% of the total vocabulary characteristic of this style. The second ones are designations for technical concepts. For example, “fire” and “air” are common words when used in colloquial speech, but in scientific language they are terms that carry information about the qualities of a given subject in various fields of science.

Scientific style: morphological features

The functions of the scientific style require texts belonging to this genre to frequently use nouns with abstract meaning (“formation”, “direction”). Also here, verbs that have a timeless meaning or an impersonal form, verbal nouns and nouns in the genitive case are often used here. A distinctive feature is that in this style there is a desire for the active use of various abbreviations, which are already considered by modern linguistics as nouns.

In scientific speech, short qualitative and relative adjectives are also actively used. A special place is given to complex forms of superlative and comparative degrees (“the most advantageous”, “the least difficult”, etc.). The next most frequently used parts of speech in the scientific genre are possessive and personal pronouns. Demonstratives are used only to demonstrate logical connections between different parts of a narrative fragment.

Since the main function of the scientific style is description, the verbs here take a passive position, and the noun and adjective take an active position. Long-term existence of this order led to the appearance of a huge number of verbs, the semantics of which is currently half-empty. For example, the verb “expresses” can no longer do without an additional noun, and is not used in a single position.

Scientific style: syntactic features

When analyzing the text to identify the function of the scientific style, you can easily find that sentences are built according to complex algorithms, often with several grammatical bases. This phenomenon can be considered normative, since without it it is almost impossible to convey a complex system of terms, to identify the relationships between conclusions and proofs of a particular theorem, etc. Here the second function of the genre, associated with the education of logical thinking in the reader, is most actively manifested.

Sentences in the scientific style often use prepositional noun phrases (“due to”, “in the course of”, “as a result”), nominal predicates (“revealed the solution”), isolated members of the sentence and participial phrases. In almost every text of this genre one can find impersonal sentences with the help of which the author describes some phenomenon or process. For additional connection between parts of the presentation in a scientific style, introductory structures and words are used (“so”, “probably”, “from our point of view”).

Finally

Despite the fact that the leading function of the scientific style is the description of any fact or phenomenon, the additional one is the ability to build logical relationships, which constantly reminds itself when analyzing texts in a variety of aspects. Linguists believe that the scientific style is one of the most actively developing in the modern Russian language, this is due to the fact that progress does not stand still, and appropriate linguistic means are simply necessary to describe emerging new inventions.

The systematicity of the main functional style consists of general linguistic (neutral) elements, linguistic-listical elements (stylistically colored linguistic units outside the context) and recitalistic elements, which in a certain context (situation) acquire stylistic qualities and/or participate in the creation of the stylistic quality of the context, the text. Each main style has its own principles for selecting these elements and their relationship.

Each functional style has its own objective style-forming factors. They can be depicted schematically as follows.

However, the goals (and especially their ratio) can be adjusted to a greater or lesser extent during the process of creating the text. For example, at first the dissertation may be conceived as a purely

theoretical research, and in the process of work (writing) prospects for the practical application of the theory will open, and the work acquires a pronounced practical orientation. The opposite situation is also possible.

The recipients of works of scientific style are mainly specialists - readers prepared to perceive scientific information.

However, when identifying speech genres of scientific style, one should pay attention to the fact that any functioning language has its own hierarchy of stylistic systems - subsystems. Each lower subsystem is based on elements of higher-ranking systems, combines them in its own way and supplements them with new specific elements. It organizes “its own” and “foreign” elements, including functional ones, into a new, sometimes qualitatively different integrity, where they acquire new properties to one degree or another. For example, elements of scientific and official business styles, when combined, give rise to a scientific and business sub-style, which is implemented in different genres, such as a research report, dissertation abstract, etc.

The functional-style classification of the scientific style of speech can be presented as follows.

Each of these genre subsystems assumes its own correlation of elements of the scientific and other styles proper and its own

principles of organization of a speech work. According to A.N. Vasilyeva, “the model of this organization is formed in the speech consciousness (subconscious) of a person in the process of speech practice, as well as often special training.” Such learning is greatly facilitated by educational and scientific literature, which, while presenting in an accessible form the foundations of a particular science, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other types of scientific literature (problem articles, private monographs, journal collections). Its main features are: subject-logical consistency and gradually unfolding manner of presentation; “compressed completeness”, which is expressed in the fact that, on the one hand, only part of the accumulated information about the subject of a given science is presented, and on the other hand, this part is basic, and in it the subject of presentation is characterized evenly and comprehensively.

Each of the genres of scientific style has its own characteristics and individual features, but due to the fact that it is difficult to describe the specific features of all genres and types of scientific style in one textbook, we will focus on the genre of scientific theses, which is one of the most generally relevant genres of the language of science.

Theses are one of the most stable and normative genres of a speech work, therefore, violations of genre certainty, normativity, purity, and genre mixtures are assessed in it as gross violations of not only stylistic, but communicative norms in general. Among typical violations, such as, for example, substitution of abstracts with the text of a message, summary, abstract, annotation, prospectus, plan, etc., the most unpleasant

The impression is made by the mixture of forms of different genres. This confusion demonstrates the author’s lack of scientific speech culture and casts doubt on his scientific data in general.

Theses also have their own strict norms of linguistic design, characteristic of the scientific style in general, but in this particular case they are even more strict.

According to A.N. Vasilyeva, the general norm of any scientific style “is the high saturation of the statement with subject-logical content.” This norm is implemented in the thesis work “in optimally overcoming the contradiction between content concentration and communicative accessibility” [ibid.]. It should be emphasized that in theses this contradiction is especially difficult to resolve due to the extreme concentration of subject-logical content.

End of work -

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Each functional style has its own objective style-forming factors. They can be depicted schematically as follows.

The recipients of scientific-style works are primarily specialists—readers prepared to perceive scientific information.

However, when identifying speech genres of scientific style, one should pay attention to the fact that any functioning language has its own hierarchy of stylistic systems - subsystems. Each lower subsystem is based on elements of higher-ranking systems, combines them in its own way and supplements them with new specific elements. It organizes “its own” and “foreign” elements, including functional ones, into a new, sometimes qualitatively different integrity, where they acquire new properties to one degree or another. For example, elements of scientific and official business styles, when combined, give rise to a scientific and business substyle, which is implemented in different genres, such as a research report, dissertation abstract, etc.

The functional-style classification of the scientific style of speech can be presented as follows.

Each of the genres of scientific style has its own characteristics and individual features, but due to the fact that it is difficult to describe the specific features of all genres and types of scientific style in one textbook, we will stop. its attention to the genre of scientific theses, which is one of the most generally relevant genres of the language of science.

Theses also have their own strict norms of linguistic design, characteristic of the scientific style in general, but in this particular case they are even more strict.

According to A. N. Vasilyeva, the general norm of any scientific style “is the high saturation of the statement with subject-logical content.” This norm is implemented in the thesis work “in optimally overcoming the contradiction between content concentration and communicative accessibility.” It should be emphasized that in theses this contradiction is especially difficult to resolve due to the extreme concentration of subject-logical content.

Culture of Russian speech / Ed. OK. Graudina and E.N. Shiryaeva - M., 1999

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"ORENBURG INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND CULTURE"

Department of Philology and Foreign Languages

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "PKRO: English"

on the topic: "Translation of scientific style"

Orenburg, 2011

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… 3

Chapter 1 Characteristic features of style.

General characteristics of the scientific style………………………………….4

1.1 The origins of the scientific style…………………………………………. 9

1.2 Specifics of scientific prose………………………………………… 10

1.3 Genre diversity of scientific speech style……………………… 11

1.4 Lexical features of scientific style…………………………. 16

5 Phraseology of scientific style………………………………………….. 17

6. Grammatical features of scientific style………………………. 20

7. Syntax of scientific speech…………………………………………… 25

Chapter 2 Features of translating scientific style into Russian…… 29

2.1 Translation of scientific prose terms……………………………………………………31

2.2 Attributive combinations…………………………………………… 34

2.3 Translation of impersonal verbs and sentences………………………. 37

2.5 Translation transformations of the scientific style (explication, compression)……………………………………………………………………………….. 40

2.6 Absolute participial phrases………………………………… 42

2.7 Stylistic editing of the text during translation, the problem of translating metaphors………………………………………………………………………………………. 43

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………… 46

References……………………………………………………….. 47

Introduction

This course work is devoted to the study of scientific style and ways of translating it from English into Russian.

The object of the study is the language of scientific articles in English.

The scientific style occupies a special place among other functional styles, since its text has its own structure and a certain set of linguistic means used. Today, the scientific style is extremely widespread and is used in many areas of human activity, which explains its genre diversity. An important issue for us is the translation of text from one language to another, since in different languages the scientific style has its own characteristics.

The relevance of this work is due to the leading role of science in society and the need to disseminate scientific knowledge in all countries, incl. through the translation of scientific articles.

This work has practical value from the point of view of systematizing the most effective ways of translating scientific texts from English into Russian.

The purpose of this work is to describe the characteristics of the language of scientific prose as a functional style and to determine the methods and techniques of its translation from English into Russian.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were completed:

¨ define the functional style and list the main characteristics of its variety;

¨ give a general description of the scientific style, consider its origin, specificity, genre diversity, lexical, phraseological, grammatical and syntactic features;

¨ consider ways of translating scientific prose terms, attributive combinations, impersonal verbs and sentences. Transcategorial correspondences are determined, the use of translation transformations (explication, division, compression) is considered, taking into account the stylistic editing of the text during translation.

Chapter I . Functional style.

Style - from lat. stylos is the name of a pointed stick used for writing on waxed tablets. Even in Latin, the word “stylos” was rethought and began to mean not only a writing instrument, but also a manner of writing, a method of presentation, a syllable. In this second meaning, this word was borrowed into all European languages. The French and English changed the spelling of the root vowel in this word (y instead of i), erroneously deducing its origin from the related, but not having the same meaning, Greek noun “stylos” (“pillar”, “rod”).

Functional style is a subsystem of a language that has its own specific features in vocabulary and phraseology, in syntactic structures, and sometimes in phonetics.

The functional style of a language is, as defined by Academician V.V. Vinogradov, “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of techniques for using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of one or another popular, national language, in relation to other similar methods of expression that serve other purposes, perform other functions in speech social practice of a given people."

Each functional style, according to V.I. Maksimov. - this is a subsystem of the literary language, which is determined by the conditions and goals of communication in some sphere of social activity and has a certain set of stylistically significant linguistic means.

1. There are five functional styles: colloquial and everyday (communication function), scientific and official business (message function), newspaper journalistic and artistic (influence function).

1. Formal business style.

The main area in which the official business style of the Russian literary language functions is administrative and legal activity. This style satisfies the need of society for documenting various acts of state, social, political, economic life, business relations between the state and organizations, as well as between members of society in the official sphere of their communication.

Official business style is characterized by:

¨ highly regulated speech (a certain supply of means of expression and ways of constructing them);

¨ formality (rigor of presentation; words are usually used in their direct meanings; there is no imagery);

¨ impersonality (the specific and personal are excluded).

2. Conversational style.

The colloquial style functions in the sphere of everyday communication. This style is realized in the form of casual, unprepared monologue or dialogic speech on everyday topics, as well as in the form of private, informal correspondence.

The conversational style is characterized by:

¨ lack of official relations between participants,

¨ direct communication (no intermediaries),

¨ unprepared speech, improvisation.

3. Artistic style.

Artistic style as a functional style is used in fiction, which performs a figurative-cognitive and ideological-aesthetic function.

The artist of words influences not the mind, but the feeling, the imagination; he does not reason, does not prescribe, does not prove, but draws, shows, depicts. This is the specificity of the language of fiction.

The artistic style is characterized by the following features:

¨ focus on expressiveness,

¨ rich, varied vocabulary,

¨ individuality of the syllable (each writer chooses his own style of writing, his own system of artistic techniques)

4. Newspaper and journalistic style.

The newspaper-journalistic style functions in the socio-political sphere and is used in oratory speeches, in various newspaper genres, and in journalistic articles in periodicals.

One of the main features of this style is the combination of two trends - the tendency towards expressiveness and the tendency towards standard. This is due to the functions that journalism performs: informational and content function and the function of persuasion, emotional impact. Information in this area of public activity is addressed to a huge circle of people, all native speakers and members of a given society. For the relevance of information, the time factor is very important: information must be transmitted and become generally known in the shortest possible time. Persuasion is carried out through an emotional impact on the reader or listener, therefore the author always expresses his attitude to the information being communicated, but it, as a rule, is not only his personal attitude, but expresses the opinion of a certain social group of people.

5. Scientific style.

The sphere of social activity in which the scientific style functions is science. The leading position in the scientific style is occupied by monologue speech. This functional style has a wide variety of speech genres.

Features of the scientific style according to I.V. Arnold: the need for logical structure and maximum objectivity of presentation, the need for intelligibility and logical consistency in the presentation of the material, the presence of a harmonious, dense, stereotypical syntactic structure; absence or limited contact with the recipient, the scientific style meets the requirements of logical construction and maximum objectivity of presentation, reflects the work of the mind and is addressed to the mind.

Conclusion: Thus, many scientists have dealt with the problem of functional stylistics. There are many definitions of functional style, and, first of all, it is a subsystem of language and a set of techniques characteristic of a certain social circle. It is generally accepted to distinguish five functional styles: official business (business correspondence, government negotiations), colloquial (in everyday communication), artistic (characteristic of the book sphere), newspaper-journalistic (press, public speaking) and scientific (the language of science) styles.

Chapter II . General characteristics of scientific style.

1. The origin of the scientific style.

The style of scientific prose is called differently: scientific and technical style; business style; style of intellectual speech; rational syllable; scientific and professional style; technical style; style of scientific presentation; style of scientific papers, etc.

The origin of the functional style of scientific prose in English dates back to XVI century. Before this, serious prose (scientific, philosophical, didactic) was the area of the undivided dominance of the Latin language. In English scientific literature of the 16th century, there was no genre differentiation of scientific prose; whatever the topic, purpose, scale of the research, they all took the form of a narrative.

In the 17th century, the process of genre ordering of scientific texts began, and fully formed genres of essay, treatise, argument, and pamphlet were observed. The scientific epistolary genre played a major role, especially before the appearance of the first scientific journals “Journal de Savants” in Paris, “Philosophical Transactions” in London, and “Acta eruditorum” in Leipzig.

In the 18th century, one of the leading features of English scientific prose became a further consistent orientation towards the norms of book writing. During this period, the genre of monographs (treaties) emerged with a clearly defined division of the text (into books, parts, chapters, etc.) and almost all other genres that exist today.

Special terminology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century. And in 1965, the 300th anniversary of European scientific periodicals was celebrated.

Conclusion: Thus, the scientific style begins to take shape in English prose in the 16th century. Certain genres began to develop only in the 17th century. Since the 18th century, one of the leading features of English scientific prose has been a further consistent orientation towards the norms of book writing.

2. Specifics of scientific prose.

The function of scientific thinking is the knowledge of the world around us by creating logical categories. In turn, theoretical thinking, carried out in logically formulated concepts and systematized using words-terms, is included in the content of types of social consciousness - science, philosophy, ethics.

The tasks of scientific prose should first of all include the proof of certain provisions and hypotheses; argumentation; accurate and systematic presentation of scientific issues in order to describe, define and explain phenomena of nature and social life, in order to transfer the amount of knowledge, communicate new research results. With the help of a set of expressive means inherent in the language of scientific presentation, what actually exists is described and the truth is proven.

As a result, scientific prose consists mainly of a series of arguments and evidence. The accuracy of the latter is achieved by the completeness of the statement (which is not supplemented here by knowledge of the situation of a given moment, but is designed for constant significance) and semantic accuracy. Logical rigor, objectivity, consistency and accuracy are the properties that are considered the ideal of scientific prose.

The scientific and technical style is characteristic of presentation that has special content. The purpose of such a presentation is to convey a body of knowledge related to a particular field, report new research results, or explain both.

The scientific style is characteristic of texts intended to convey accurate information from any special field and to consolidate the process of cognition. The most striking, but not the only feature of this style is the use of special terminology.

Extra-linguistic factors that determine the formation of scientific prose in the process of its formation include the development of precise research methods, an increase in the degree of objectivity of knowledge, accompanied by a desire for brevity, consistency, logic and explicitness in the construction of a scientific text.

The style-forming factors are the need for clarity and logical consistency in the presentation of complex material, and greater traditionalism. The lack of direct contact or limited contact with the recipient of the speech (report, lecture) excludes or severely limits the use of extra-linguistic means; the lack of feedback requires greater completeness. The syntactic structure should be harmonious, complete and, if possible, stereotypical.

Conclusion: Thus, the main features of the scientific style are:

1. accuracy of reasoning of evidence, which is achieved by the completeness of the statement;
2. logical rigor, objectivity, consistency;

3. narrow focus of content;

4. the presence of special terminology.

3. Genre diversity of scientific speech style.

The widespread and intensive development of the scientific style led to the formation within its framework of the following varieties (substyles):

1) Proper scientific (monographs, dissertations, scientific articles, reports);

2) Popular science (lectures, articles, essays);

3) Educational and scientific (textbooks, teaching aids, programs, lectures, notes);

4) Scientific and business (technical documentation, contacts, test reports, instructions for the enterprise);

5) Scientific and informative (patent descriptions, informative abstracts, annotations);

6) Scientific reference (dictionaries, encyclopedias, reference books, catalogues).

Each substyle and genre has its own individual stylistic features, which, however, do not violate the unity of the scientific style, inheriting it general signs and features.

Genre varieties (within genres) are determined by the communicative intention of the author and the content of the given text. Thus, an article can be presented in the following varieties:

o Article – a brief report on the results of the research;

o A proper scientific article containing justification for the results of the research;

o An editorial summarizing a certain stage in the development of scientific research and defining tasks for the future;

o Historical review article on any issue;

o Scientific journalistic article;

Let us briefly describe the main of these genres.

Monograph– a scientific study written by one author or a team of authors, devoted to one question, topic, usually of large volume, and published in a separate publication. In the history of science and linguistics, there are often cases when the publication of a particular monograph marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of linguistics.

Article- a scientific essay of relatively small size, placed in a collection, magazine, or non-periodical publication. The article usually poses more specific questions than in monographs, but there have been cases, not uncommon, when not a monograph, but a small article determined the development of linguistics for a long time.

Essay– a brief summary of one or more works, combined according to some criteria (works of one author on different topics, works of different authors on the same topic, etc.). Abstract– a brief summary of the contents of the work, a small volume, written by the author himself. annotation- a brief summary of the contents of the work, a small volume, usually preceding the book. Abstracts- provisions that briefly outline the main thoughts, ideas of the lecture, report.

Review. The purpose of a review is to evaluate a particular publication, therefore it carries substantive and factual information - information about the structure and volume of the publication, and intellectual information - about the content of the publication and information of an evaluative nature, which, in turn, can be general or specific.

Whether a text belongs to a particular type or variety depends only to some extent on the genre of the scientific work. The type of scientific publication can impose only certain restrictions on the construction and selection of linguistic means in a scientific work.

Usually there are three or four main methods of presentation: description, narration, reasoning, and the critical-polemical method of presentation (consists of evaluating certain provisions and defending one’s point of view).

Scientific texts are constructed according to non-rigid models that are of a conventional nature.

Let's consider the main features of the genre of a scientific article. Any article has a heading complex that performs two functions - onomastic (the heading distinguishes one text from another) and contact-establishing (the heading directly and directly indicates the object of research). Next, indicate the name of the author and his place of work. The title complex also includes a brief abstract of the article, allowing the reader to form an opinion about its content. A characteristic feature of the annotation is its freer style, compared to a purely scientific one, which even allows the use of original metaphors.

The second necessary component of a scientific text, not just an article, is the introductive communicative block (ICB), which can be presented as a separate chapter (Introduction, Introduction, Preface) in monographs or several paragraphs in an article. The main function of the IKB is to give the addressee the minimum background knowledge necessary to perceive a given text and determine the need to read it. The IKB contains the following information: the formulation of the topic or object (subject) of the research, the objectives of the research being conducted, the connection of the problem under consideration with other similar or related problems, a description of the structure of the work.

The final communication blocks (FCB) - conclusion, afterword, conclusions - represent a condensed formulation of the most general conclusions of the study, and here it is possible to indicate the further direction of research in this area.

A special place in the texts under consideration is occupied by the so-called scientific apparatus of work. It means: a system of links to cited and used works, indications of sources of factual material used, formulation or clarification of existing formulations of the concepts with which the author will operate, a description of the research methodology used and description of the material, a list of used and cited literature, etc.

It is difficult to imagine a modern scientific work whose author would not, to a greater or lesser extent, resort to the use of data relevant to the topic of his research and obtained some time ago by other authors. Scientific works starting from absolute scratch, i.e. those that are not associated with accumulated knowledge and experience, already reflected in the specialized literature, practically do not exist. This connection may be greater or lesser, it may be direct or associative in nature, but its very existence, in other words, the presence of analogues and predecessors, is unlikely to be in doubt.

Bibliographical references are not just incidental mentions of the names of other authors and the titles of their works, but an extremely complex process of correlating one’s own research, own experience with an already existing body of scientific data. Bibliographic references allow you to quickly identify connections between this scientific work and previous studies, characterize the source base of the study and, to a certain extent, the scientific positions of the author.

A bibliographic reference contributes to the creation of a unique dialogical nature of a scientific text: dialogue-agreement, dialogue-discussion, dialogue-disagreement. The very introduction of a bibliographic reference is an expression of evaluation. Perhaps it is not an exaggeration to say that a link is always an attitude, always an assessment. From here arise significant, not yet studied, modal possibilities of a scientific text.

Conclusion: Thus, the main genres of scientific style are: monograph, article, abstract, review. The structure of a scientific article consists of:

¨ header complex;

¨ introductive communicative block (minimum background knowledge for text perception);

¨ main communication block;

¨ final communication block (concise formulation of the most general conclusions of the study).

An important feature of scientific works are bibliographic references, which serve as an expression of evaluation and contribute to the creation of a kind of dialogic nature of the scientific text.

4. Lexical features of scientific style.

From a semantic point of view, the lexical and phraseological composition of the scientific style can be divided into three groups. The first includes words and expressions characteristic of the national literary language and used in book speech with the same meaning that is fixed in the language. They form the basis of the vocabulary and phraseology of the book style, but do not create its originality.

The second group includes words and expressions of the national literary language, which in a scientific style changed their semantics and became terms. Therefore, not their very presence in the text, but the specificity of the meaning can serve as an indication that the text belongs to the scientific style.

The third group includes special words and combinations that are not used anywhere except in scientific speech. This includes highly specialized and general scientific terminology.

According to Savory, “scientific vocabulary” consists of words that are characterized by: 1) unambiguity, 2) unchangeable meanings over the centuries.

Since the leading form of scientific thinking is the concept, almost every lexical unit in the scientific style denotes a concept or an abstract object. Special concepts of the scientific sphere of communication are accurately and unambiguously named and their content is revealed by special lexical units - terms. A term is a word or phrase that denotes the concept of a special field of knowledge or activity and is an element of a certain system of terms. Within this system, the term tends to be unambiguous, does not express expression and is stylistically neutral. Terms, a significant part of which are international words, are conventional language Sciences.

The term is the main lexical and conceptual unit of the scientific sphere of human activity. In quantitative terms, in scientific style texts, terms prevail over other types of special vocabulary (nomenclatural names, professionalisms, professional jargon, etc.); on average, terminological vocabulary usually accounts for 15-20 percent of the total vocabulary of a given style.

Terms, as the main lexical components of the scientific style of speech, as well as other words in a scientific text, are characterized by use in one, specific, definite meaning. If a word is polysemantic, then it is used in a scientific style in one, less often - in two meanings, which are terminological: strength, size, body, sour, movement, hard (Strength is a vector quantity and at each moment of time is characterized by a numerical value.). The generality and abstractness of presentation in a scientific style at the lexical level is realized in the use of a large number of lexical units with an abstract meaning (abstract vocabulary). “Scientific language coincides with conceptual-logical language, ... conceptual language acts as more abstract.”

Conclusion: a scientific article uses:

1. neutral words (in direct meanings);

2. neutral words that have changed their semantics and become terms;

3. special words that are not used anywhere except in scientific speech.

5. Phraseology of scientific style.

The scientific style also has its own phraseology. The free equivalent of a phraseological unit is an actual type of phrase in scientific speech. In the scientific style, figurative-expressive phraseological units are practically absent as normative forms that reflect the essence of the style. They can occasionally be used only as accompanying elements in polemical, journalistic, and popularizing parts of a scientific work. The reasons for this lie in their semantic lack of differentiation, lack of independence and vagueness of the meanings of the components, the disorienting contradiction between the meaning of the whole and the sum of the values of the components, as well as the usual vagueness and incomprehensibility of the meaning of the whole in its dependence on the constitution.

This does not mean that in scientific speech there are no phraseological units at all and that there is no sign of phraseology at all. There are general linguistic phraseological units of a conceptual nature: rational grain, cornerstone, find the key to the problem, etc.

There is a concept of “terminological phraseological unit”. We are talking about special terminological concepts, the nominations of which have individual qualities of phraseological units. In addition to structural stability, which in itself is not a sign, they are conditionally metaphorical and the meaning of the whole is not identical to the sum of the meaning of the components. The last two signs can act with more or less activity, so that the remnants of “phraseology” in these nominations can manifest themselves to a greater or lesser extent. Therefore, in such, for example, terminological phrases as: solar corona, demographic explosion, artistic fabric - we fully feel the figurative and metaphorical connotations accompanying the concept and, accordingly, elements of phraseology. But – the abstract conceptual meaning dominates, the certainty of which is determined by the definition of the term.

In accordance with the scope of their use, phraseological units used in scientific literature can be divided into three types: colloquial, neutral and bookish. At the same time, the differences between colloquial and neutral vocabulary, on the one hand, and neutral and literary-book vocabulary, on the other, are primarily expressed in emotional and expressive overtones. The stylistic contrast of colloquial and literary-book phraseological units helps to distinguish them from the general background of neutral phraseology. The unusualness and seemingly inappropriateness of colloquial vocabulary in a scientific article, book, monograph, etc., gives it a noticeable emotional and expressive coloring.

Three types of phraseological units:

I . Conversational

at second hand - “from second hand, hearsay”

on hand - "available"

II . Neutral

on foot - "in motion"

to pave the way for something - “remove an obstacle, clear the way”

to throw light on something - “to shed light on something”

III . Literary and book

to fiddle while Rome is burning - “to have fun during a national disaster”

to pass the Rubicon - “cross the Rubicon”

In scientific speech, a distinction is made between atomic and molecular phrases. The activity of the attribute category, characteristic of scientific thinking and speech, causes the activity of the genitive case form, and in other cases. The attribute of a given object can be expressed in the genitive case through another object: a transformer coil, a base area. The sign of action can be expressed in the genitive case through the subject (the coil rotates - rotation of the coil) or “through a direct object” (accelerating the technical re-equipment of the enterprise, accelerate the re-equipment, re-equip the enterprise). This explains the exceptional activity of the genitive case in scientific speech, especially as part of a noun phrase.

Another characteristic feature of the noun phrase of scientific speech is the activity of forms of indirect-objective and adverbial control in its composition.

So, scientific speech at the level of phrases is characterized by the extreme passivity of phraseology itself and the activity of a special kind of freely connected combination of a conceptual nature, normative and general language in construction and more or less idiomatic for a non-specialist in content. The scientific style is characterized by the activity of multicomponent combinations, primarily nominative, and among them molecular, which represent the condensed form of one or several sentences and thus provide greater semantic concentration. As a result of these transformations, the activity of the genitive case increases. As part of a phrase, homogeneous constructions acquire relative activity, however, without complicated configurations. In each sublanguage of science, with the general dominance of the principle of complete structural speech formation, processes of reduction of conceptual phrases slowly occur, enhancing their “ideomaticity” beyond the data of the sublanguage. Penetrating from scientific speech into newspaper-journalistic, colloquial, artistic, scientific-conceptual combinations usually lose their terminology and acquire new qualities of a sub-style - an adapter.

Conclusion: neutrally colored stable combinations of a conceptual nature are used. In the scientific style, phraseological units of three types are used: colloquial, neutral, bookish, characterized by the activity of the genitive case form and the activity of the forms of indirect-objective and adverbial control in its composition.

6. Grammatical features of scientific style

The abstractness and generality of scientific speech are manifested in the peculiarities of the functioning of various grammatical, in particular morphological units, which is revealed in the choice of categories and forms, as well as the degree of their frequency in the text. The implementation of the law of economy of linguistic means in the scientific style of speech leads to the use of shorter variant forms, in particular forms of masculine nouns instead of feminine forms: klyuchi (instead of key), cuffs (instead of cuff).

Naming concepts in scientific style predominates over naming actions, resulting in less use of verbs and more use of nouns. When using verbs, there is a noticeable tendency towards their desemantization, i.e. loss of lexical meaning, which meets the requirement of abstraction and generalization of the scientific style. This is manifested in the fact that most of the verbs in the scientific style function as connectives: to be, to be, to be called, to be considered, to become, to become, to conclude, etc. There is a significant group of verbs that act as components of verb-nominal combinations, where the main semantic load falls on the noun denoting an action, and the verb plays a grammatical role (denoting actions in the broadest sense of the word, conveys the grammatical meaning of mood, person and number): lead – to emergence, to death, to disruption; make - calculations, calculations, observations. The desemantization of the verb is also manifested in the predominance in the scientific text of verbs of broad, abstract semantics: to exist, to occur, to have, to appear, to change, etc.

Scientific speech is characterized by the use of verb forms with weakened lexical and grammatical meanings of time, person, number, which is confirmed by the synonymy of sentence structures: distillation is carried out - distillation is carried out; you can draw a conclusion - a conclusion is drawn, etc.

Another morphological feature of the style of scientific prose is the use of the present timeless (with a qualitative, indicative meaning), which is necessary to characterize the properties and characteristics of the objects and phenomena being studied: Ozone is one of allotrophic form of oxygen. Its molecule, in contrast to common O 2 consists of three atoms, due to which it acquires specific physical-chemical characteristics, responsible for unique biological effects. Live plants produce from 60 to 240 mn tons gas annually; 0.5 to 7 mn tons are produced by dead leaves.

Person forms of the verb and personal pronouns in a scientific style are also used in accordance with the transfer of abstract generalizing meanings. The 2nd person forms and pronouns you, you are practically not used, since they are the most specific; the percentage of 1st person singular forms is small. The most common in scientific speech are the abstract forms of the 3rd person and the pronouns he, she, it. The pronoun we, in addition to being used in the meaning of the so-called author's we, together with the form of the verb, often expresses the meaning of varying degrees of abstraction and generality in the meaning of “we are the totality” (I and the audience): We come to the result. We can conclude.

The desire to point to real objects, to operate with things, leads to the predominance of nominal structures in the English scientific and technical style, to its characteristic nominativity. The point is not only that technical texts contain many names of real objects. Research has shown that in such texts descriptions of processes and actions are also nominalized. Instead of saying to clean after the welding, the specialist says to do post-welding cleaning; if it is necessary to indicate that the particle is located near the nucleus, they say it occupies a juxtanuclear position; instead of The contents of the tank are discharged by a pump, preference is given to Discharge of the contents of the tank is effected by a pump. The removable cover in the device exists not just so that it can be easily cleaned and repaired, but for ease of maintenance and repair.

The desire for nominativity also leads to the replacement of adverbs with prepositional-nominal combinations. So, accurately becomes with accuracy, very easily - with the greatest ease or the easy way.

Only intensifying adverbs stubbornly resist this tendency, which act in scientific and technical texts as the main modal-expressive means, which does not look like an alien element in a serious presentation. These are the adverbs: clearly, completely, considerably, essentially, fairly, greatly, significantly, markedly, materially, perfectly, positively, reasonably, etc.

Evidence of the same anti-verb tendency in scientific and technical style is the widespread use of verbal adjectives with prepositions: to be attendant on, to be conducive to, to be destructive of, to be incidental to, to be responsive to, to be tolerant of, etc.

Of course, the nominative nature of the scientific and technical style does not mean that the materials of this style completely lack full-valued verbs in personal forms.

Verbality in scientific language appears not in the form of the verbs themselves, but in the form of derivatives of the verb. “Personal verbs usually denote specific actions. Verbal nouns express an abstract concept of action.”

Without such verbs it is difficult to imagine a coherent presentation of significant length, although according to some estimates the number of verbal predicative forms in scientific and technical texts is half as much as in literary works of the same length. Linguistic works have repeatedly noted such features of the use of verbs in the scientific and technical style of the English language as a significant predominance of passive forms and forms of the simple present tense, which is undoubtedly associated with the main characteristics and goals of scientific presentation.

One can also note numerous cases of omission in scientific and technical materials of the article, especially the definite one, where in texts of another type its use is considered absolutely mandatory: General view is that..., First uranium mine in the region was....

The article is often absent before the names of specific parts in specifications, technical descriptions, instructions, etc.: Armstrong Traps have long-live parts, valve and seat are heat treated crome steel, lever assembly and bucket arc stainless steel.

The same phenomenon is observed in front of the names of scientific fields: ...in such fields as work study, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, telecommunication, standardization, higher education, etc.

In linguistic works exploring the specifics of the scientific and technical style in modern English, a number of more specific grammatical features are also indicated, such as: the widespread use of the plural of material nouns (fats, oils, greases, steels, rare earths, sands, wools, gasolines, etc.), plural in the names of instruments (clippers, jointers, shears, dividers, compasses, trammels, etc.), the use of the preposition of to convey species-generic relations (the oxidizer of liquid oxygen, the fuel of kerosene), prevalence of attributive combinations with the words type, design, pattern, grade: Protective clothing and dry-chemical-type fire extinguisher should be readily available in the area.

The noted lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials have a direct impact on the communicative nature of such materials, which must be reproduced during translation.

Conclusion: The following morphological features are characteristic of scientific speech:

1. the use of shorter variant forms, in particular masculine forms of nouns instead of feminine forms;

2. less use of verbs and more use of nouns;

3. using verbal adjectives with prepositions instead of verbs;

4. predominance of passive forms;

5. use of the present timeless;

6. the most common are abstract third-person pronouns, as well as the author’s we;

7. replacing adverbs with prepositional-nominal combinations;

8. frequent omission of the article;

9. widespread use of the plural of material nouns.

7. Syntax of scientific speech.

The syntax of the scientific style of speech is characterized by a tendency towards complex constructions, which contributes to the transfer of a complex system of scientific concepts, the establishment of relationships between generic and specific concepts, between cause and effect, evidence and conclusions. For this purpose, sentences with homogeneous members and generalizing words with them are used. In scientific texts, various types of complex sentences are common, in particular with the use of compound subordinating conjunctions, which is generally characteristic of book speech: due to the fact that; due to the fact that, while, etc. The means of connecting parts of the text are introductory words and combinations: firstly, finally, on the other hand, indicating the sequence of presentation. To combine parts of the text, in particular paragraphs that have a close logical connection with each other, words and phrases indicating this connection are used: thus, in conclusion, etc. Sentences in a scientific style are uniform in the purpose of the statement - they are almost always narrative. Interrogative sentences are rare and are used to attract the reader's attention to some issue.

Such materials are especially characterized by definitions of concepts and descriptions of real objects by indicating their properties. This predetermines the widespread use of structures like A is B, i.e. simple two-part sentences with compound predicate, consisting of a linking verb and a nominal part (predicative): The barn is a unit of measure of nuclear cross sections, An adjective or prepositional phrase is often used as a predicative: The pipe is steel, The surface is copper. Similar structures are also used in the negative form, where instead of the usual verbal negation (do not), a compound predicate is often used, in which the predicate is preceded by the negation non: The stuff is non-shrink.

But in works from the field of social sciences and humanities, much more developed syntactic structures and much more flexible word usage are noticeable, allowing figurative rethinking and generally different figures of speech. In some literary, philosophical, pedagogical, etc. In his works, the scientific and professional style often alternates with the journalistic style.

American Scene Painting (c. 1931-42) describes a realist style of painting in the United States, which was particularly prevalent during the Great Depression. A government-sponsored reaction against the European styles that had surfaced following the New York Armory Show in 1913, it was an attempt to define a uniquely American aesthetic that combated Cubism, abstraction, and even Art Deco. It is loosely divided into two main schools: urban and politically-oriented Social Realism, and Regionalism, although the evocative Hopper and the fantastical Burchfield fall into neither camp.

Important characteristic English scientific and technical style, which is reflected in the selection and use of linguistic means, also lies in its desire for brevity and compactness of presentation, which is expressed, in particular, in the fairly widespread use of elliptical constructions. Misunderstanding of these constructions often leads to ridiculous errors in translation. Having encountered the combination a remote crane or a liquid rocket in the text, the translator should recognize in them the elliptical shapes of the combinations a remote-operated crane and a liquid-fuelled rocket.

The scientific and technical style is characterized, for example, by the replacement of attributive clauses with adjectives in postposition (especially with suffixes -ible, -able, -ive etc.): the materials available, excellent properties never before attainable, all factors important in the evaluation of, problems difficult with ordinary equipment, etc. The same goal can be achieved by using the infinitive forms in the function of determining: the properties to be expected, the temperature to be obtained, the product to be cooled, etc.

In connection with the consistency and evidence of scientific presentation noted above, there is also an increased use of cause-and-effect conjunctions and logical connectives such as since, therefore, it follows that, so, thus, it implies, involves, leads to, results in.

In scientific prose, we are faced with the use of a complex syntactic whole (supraphrasal unity), which, as a rule, is constructed as follows: at the beginning, one or another position (fact, hypothesis, concept) is formulated, and then its justification, motivation, and interpretation are given. The study of a complex syntactic whole in scientific prose as a structure characteristic of written book speech is of considerable interest precisely because the very nature and essence of scientific communication (its argumentation, the requirement of motivation, consistency in the presentation of the material) give rise to this method of syntactic organization of the utterance. It can be said without exaggeration that superphrasal unity is that element of the syntactic organization of a scientific text, which (among other syntactic features of scientific prose) gives it qualitative certainty and originality.

The generalized-abstract nature of scientific speech and the timeless plan for presenting the material determine the use of certain types syntactic constructions: vaguely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences. The character in them is absent or is thought of in a generalized, vague way; all attention is focused on the action and its circumstances. Vague-personal and generalized-personal sentences are used when introducing terms, deriving formulas, and explaining material in examples (Speed is represented by a directed segment; Consider the following example; Compare sentences)

Conclusion: The above-mentioned features of scientific prose are of a permanent nature, giving the style as a whole a stable linguistic expression.

Syntactic features of the scientific style:

1. different types of complex sentences using compound subordinating conjunctions;

2. introductory words and phrases;

3. use of a complex syntactic whole (supraphrasal unity);

4. the use of certain types of syntactic constructions, indefinitely personal, generalized personal and impersonal sentences;

5. simple two-part sentences with a compound predicate consisting of a linking verb and a nominal part;

6. increased use of cause-and-effect conjunctions and logical connectives.

Chapter III . Translation of scientific style.

According to Komissarov’s definition, translation is a type of language mediation in which the content of a foreign language original text is transferred to another language by creating a communicatively equivalent text in that language.

Krupnov defines the translation process as a kind of linguistic activity aimed at the most complete recreation in another language of the content and form of a foreign language text.

Translation, according to Breus, is a type of human activity, the process of transition from the source language to the target language, the resulting text and, finally, understanding the laws of the translation process.

Barkhudarov defines translation as the process of transforming speech in one language into a speech work in another language while maintaining an unchanged content plan, that is, meaning.

One of the main tasks of the translator is to convey the content of the original as completely as possible, and, as a rule, the actual commonality of the content of the original and the translation is very significant. It is necessary to distinguish between potentially achievable equivalence, which is understood as the maximum commonality of the content of two multilingual texts, allowed by the differences in the languages in which these texts are created, and translation equivalence - the real semantic similarity of the original texts and the translation, achieved by the translator in the translation process. The limit of translation equivalence is the maximum possible (linguistic) degree of preservation of the content of the original during translation, but in each individual translation the semantic proximity to the original approaches the maximum to varying degrees and in different ways. Differences in the FL and TL systems and the peculiarities of creating texts in each of these languages, to varying degrees, may limit the possibility of fully preserving the content of the original in translation. Therefore, translation equivalence can be based on the preservation (and, accordingly, loss) of various elements of meaning contained in the original.

Revealing the specifics of a separate subtype of translation, a special theory of translation studies three series of factors that must be taken into account when describing translation.

1) The very fact that the original belongs to a special functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques.

2) focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to select such linguistic means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL.

3) As a result of the interaction of these two factors, actual translation features can be discovered, associated both with the common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in the FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of the translation process of this type.

In other words, a special theory of translation studies the impact on the translation process linguistic features a certain functional style in a foreign language, a similar functional style in the TL and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.

The dominant function of scientific and technical materials is to describe, explain or provide instructions for manipulating objects in the surrounding world. The pragmatic influence on the Receptor is to provide him with the necessary information to carry out certain activities of a scientific or technical nature.

Conclusion: So, the translation carried out by the translator must be adequate. That is, according to V.N. Komisarov’s definition, translation must ensure the pragmatic tasks of the translation act at the highest possible level of equivalence to achieve this goal, without violating the norms and usage of the TL, observing genre and stylistic requirements for texts of this type and compliance with the conventional norm of translation .

1. Translation of terms.

From the point of view of vocabulary, the main feature of the text is its extreme saturation with special terminology characteristic of this branch of knowledge. The term we call an emotionally neutral word (phrase) that conveys the name of a precisely defined concept related to a particular field of science or technology. Terminological vocabulary makes it possible to most accurately, clearly and economically present the content of a given subject and ensures a correct understanding of the essence of the issue being treated. In specialized literature, terms carry the main semantic load, occupying the main place among other general literary and functional words. The term is unambiguous, the term has no connotative meanings, the term is devoid of synonyms, regardless of the context, the term is translated by the term - a complete and absolute equivalent - and, therefore, according to unanimous According to experts, it is one of the units that does not hinder the translator. In ordinary speech, words are usually polysemantic, i.e. they convey a range of meanings that can sometimes diverge quite widely. Such polysemy of words in a common literary language is a factor indicating the richness of linguistic figurative means. The situation is different in scientific and technical texts.

Structurally, all terms can be classified as follows:

Simple terms type : glottis, range, strain, thalamus.

Complex terms, formed by compounding words. The components of such a term are often connected using a connecting vowel:

gas + meter = gasometer

In this case, truncation of components sometimes occurs:

Collocations, the components of which are in an attribute relationship, i.e. one of the components determines the other:

Directive current - direct current

Often the attributive element is itself expressed by a phrase representing a semantic unity. This unity is often expressed orthographically by writing with a hyphen:

High-frequency range - high-frequency range

Abbreviation, i.e. letter abbreviations of phrases:

SPL = Sound Pressure Level - sound pressure level

Part of the phrase may be abbreviated:

D.C. amplifier = direct current amplifier - direct current amplifier

Syllable contractions, turned into independent words:

radar (radio detection and ranging) - radar

Literal terms, in which the attributive role is assigned to a specific letter due to its graphic form:

T – antenna - T-shaped antenna

Sometimes this letter is only a conditional, unmotivated symbol:

X-rays X-rays

When translating terms, we may encounter the following points:

a) Some terms of an international nature are transmitted by transliteration and do not need translation:

antenna – antenna

formant - formant

b) Some terms have direct correspondence in Russian and are conveyed by the corresponding equivalents:

voltage - voltage

cochlea - cochlea

c) A certain part of the terms during translation is translated, i.e., transmitted using Russian words and expressions that literally reproduce words and expressions of the English language:

superpower system - super-powerful system

d) It often happens that the dictionary does not give a direct match English term. In this case, the translator must resort to a descriptive translation that accurately conveys the meaning of the foreign word in a given context:

Tonotopic - denoting the spatial organization of structures that ensure the conduction of tones of a certain frequency in the auditory pathways.

When translating terms, you should, if possible, avoid using foreign words, giving preference to words of Russian origin: that is, for example, instead of the word “impedance”, it is preferable to say “total resistance”.

Since a characteristic feature of a term is the clarity of semantic boundaries, it has significantly greater independence in relation to the context than ordinary words.

The dependence of the meaning of a term on the context arises only if there is polysemy in it, that is, if in a given field of knowledge more than one meaning is assigned to a term.

For example,

Most of the modern radio-transmitters can communicate both telegraph and telephone signals.

A translator who is thoroughly unfamiliar with radio business and the corresponding Russian terminology would translate this sentence as follows:

Most modern radio transmitters can send both telegraph and telephone signals.

However, a technically competent translation should be as follows:

Most modern radio transmitters can operate in both telegraph and telephone modes.

Conclusion: From all of the above, we can conclude that when translating terms, the following translation techniques are used:

1. transliteration;

2. selection of the appropriate equivalent;

3. tracing;

4. descriptive translation.

When translating terms, you should, if possible, avoid using foreign words, giving preference to words of Russian origin.

2. Attributive phrases.

Attributive constructions are one of the most common types of free phrases in modern English. They are often found in socio-political and scientific-technical texts.

Translation researchers point out that prepositive attributive groups are of particular interest for translation, that is, such phrases in modern English that have “a number of specific features and pose many difficult tasks for the translator.”

In order to achieve the correct translation of attributive phrases, the translator must know the structural and semantic features of such phrases and imagine what means he has in Russian to overcome the difficulties that arise. Therefore, when considering the issue of translating such phrases, it is advisable to first dwell on their structural and semantic features, and then note the main methods of their translation.

The study of the structural and semantic features of attributive groups in modern English reveals a larger range of semantic connections between members of the phrase, compared to the Russian language. Let's look at this phenomenon using a number of examples.

welfare expenditures - expenses for social needs

Background paper - a reference document with a brief summary of the history of the issue birth control - birth control; birth control; family planning; intra-family regulation of family composition From the above examples it follows that the translator has to do significant analytical work in order to correctly convey in translation the semantic connections between elements in English attributive combinations.

On the other hand, it should be recognized that in many cases such semantic development is not required, and then the translation process is greatly facilitated.

district attorney - district prosecutor

space age - space era

expenditure pattern - expenditure structure

The most difficult to translate are attributive combinations that include more than two or three words, such as: "World without bombs" conference program - conference program for a world without bombs ; Africa denuclearization declaration - declaration declaring Africa a nuclear-weapon-free zone ; European Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers Federation -European Federation of Petroleum Equipment Manufacturers etc.

In these cases, you first need to find a keyword with which to start the translation. Such a word is always found at the end of an attributive combination. Then you should understand the internal semantic connections of the attributive construction, going from the final keyword to its immediate definition.

Auditory-nerve fiber - auditory nerve fiber

Low sound pressure level

In accordance with the above recommendation, we define the keyword. This word Level. Therefore, we are talking about level. Let's look at the definitions for the word level: pressure level- lit. "pressure level". Further semantic clarifications need to be made low sound pressure level – low sound pressure level. Thus, a whole chain of interconnected words related to the keyword is formed.

Of course, in scientific and technical materials, not only terminological and special vocabulary is used. They contain a large number of common words used in any functional style. When translating such lexical units, a translator of scientific and technical literature faces the same difficulties and uses the same techniques to overcome them as his colleagues working in other fields. There are also lexical elements in scientific and technical materials that are more characteristic of a conversational style, when translating which the translator has to face the need to choose expressive and stylistic options. Scientific and technical presentation sometimes turns out to be far from neutrally objective. Linguistic studies have repeatedly noted the use of seemingly foreign elements such as:

A large part of industrial America is rushing to get on the nuclear bandwagon.

Branched chain paraffins will be the fair-haired boys in our future gasolines.

Calcium cyanamide has been getting a big play in Germany recently.

Buick has stolen a march on the rest of the industry with a cast-iron V-6 engine.

Cellulose triacetate will give other fibers a run for their money.

Conclusion: Attributive phrases are especially difficult. In order to correctly convey in translation the semantic connections between elements in English attributive combinations, it is necessary to find a keyword. Then you should understand the internal semantic connections of the attributive construction, going from the final keyword to its direct definition

3. Translation of impersonal verbs and sentences; manifestation of the subject.

Characteristic of Russian-language scientific texts is the use of impersonal and vaguely personal sentences. These constructions do not have complete structural analogues in English and are mainly conveyed by sentences in which the subject of the sentence appears in the position of the first noun phrase. In this case, special mention should be made of sentences with the formal subject “it” and constructions with “there to be”, which in a sense can be likened to the impersonal constructions of the Russian language, with the only difference that in the Russian language some mysterious “it” is implied, and in In English, “it” - “it” is explicitly present. What can be hidden behind the formally expressed subject?

According to Stepanov Yu.S., in an impersonal sentence like Russian Freezing the subject will be something defined by the word "weather". Locus sentences in which the subject designates - in a broad sense - a place (or time) in the objective world: It’s cold today, etc.

If we consider the impersonal sentences of the Russian language and their possible translations into English, i.e. bilingual situation, then one can notice the “manifestation” of the subject. Moreover, the semantic characteristics of these subjects may be different, but to a large extent they are determined by impersonal verbs. In grammar, the following most common semantic groups of impersonal verbs are distinguished.

1. Impersonal verbs that denote natural phenomena.

Hot. It's hot. The day is hot.

It was getting dark. Dusk was falling. It was getting dark.

It was blowing on the terrace. There was draft on the terrace.

2. Impersonal verbs that denote a person’s state.

He was worried. He felt uneasy.

It's easy to breathe in the forest. It is easy to breathe in the wood.

He couldn't sleep. He couldn't sleep.

In communicative grammar, these sentence patterns are considered to have a subject, which is expressed in the dative or accusative form.

Let's look at the translation of this phrase made by a native English speaker.

Communicative grammar treats these sentence models as having a subject expressed by the forms of the Dative or Accusative cases.

From the point of view of simultaneous translation methodology, this option is the most correct. This method is called translation transformation.

NP (indirect case) -> NP (subject of an English sentence)

Sentence patterns that are classified as impersonal in traditional grammar are characterized in communicative grammar as involutive. The sign of involutivity is decisive for combining into one group of sentences in which the sentential predicator denotes an action (or state) performed (or taking place) against the will of the subject of this sentence.

3. Constructions with existential verbs, expressing the presence/absence of something, correlated with a certain locus.

All this has always been in abundance in Russian history.

Russian history has always had a lot of it.

4. Impersonal verbs that denote obligation.

You should stay at home.

English scientific speech requires the presence of a subject in a sentence. Conclusion: Considering the four groups of impersonal sentences mentioned above, we can conclude that in any such sentence there is a subject. The difference between the two languages is that in English this subject is “active”, but in Russian it is “passive” (that is, the subject is not named, but is implied).

The lack of complete coincidence between English and Russian linguistic constructions in scientific and technical texts can be detected by studying the comparative frequency of use of individual parts of speech in them. Scientific presentation as a whole is characterized by the sign of nominativity, i.e. greater use of nouns than in other functional styles. At the same time, a comparative analysis of translations shows that in Russian this tendency is more clearly expressed, and when translating English verbs often replaced by nouns.

Software is the term used to describe the instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.

Software intended for prescription equipment instructions for performing tasks.

Memory is the system of component of the computer in which information is stored .

Memory is a system component of a computer for storage information.

Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data and graphics.

The printer is an external device for production copies of data and graphs on paper.

Conclusion: in Russian the tendency towards nominativity is more clearly expressed. When translated into English, verbs are often replaced by nouns.

5. Translation transformations in scientific texts.

During translation, expansions of structures may occur. For example, expanding a collapsed predicate into a clause.

All this had to be taken into account during the preparation of the concept.

We had to take this into account as we worked out the basis concept.

Explication or descriptive translation is a lexico-grammatical transformation in which a lexical unit of a foreign language is replaced by a phrase that explains its meaning, i.e. giving a more or less complete explanation or definition of this meaning in PL. Using explication, you can convey the meaning of any non-equivalent word in the original. The disadvantage of descriptive translation is its cumbersome and verbose nature.

Low-pressure producers – producers of polyethylene using the low-pressure method.

High-pressure chuck – chuck with high clamping force.

Abnormal steel - 1) low-carbon steel that cannot be carburized

2) steel with a pearlitic structure, which forms globular carbides along the grain boundaries when cooled.

They used in their work abnormal steel.

They used it at work not amenable to cementation steel.

Compression during translation or Integration of statements.

At the same time, there are many examples where the Russian language is more discrete than English. This leads to the need to use the opposite translation transformation, which involves not dividing, but combining statements.

The desire for a more detailed description of a subject situation is not only a property of the English language. There are many cases where the Russian language describes a situation in more detail than English. These two tendencies are balanced, and the combination of statements is the same widely used translation technique as division. Among the many reasons for combining statements, we will consider two that occur most often - the presence of a close semantic connection between them and the folding of a subordinate clause into a phrase with a verbal noun.

Scientific and technical materials in the English language are characterized by a predominance of simple sentences, which, according to rough estimates, constitute on average about 53% of the total number of sentences in the text. This phenomenon is unusual for the scientific style in the Russian language, where complex sentences are used very widely. In this regard, in English-Russian technical translations the technique of combining sentences is often used, as a result of which two or more simple sentences in the English original correspond to one complex sentence in the Russian translation.

This condition, however, changes at certain critical energies of the electrons. At this critical energies the gas atoms do absorb energy, and a sudden drop in the electron current is simultaneously observed.

However, this condition is violated at some critical electron energies, when gas atoms absorb energy and at the same time a sudden drop in electric current is observed.

Conclusion: The following transformations are used in scientific text:

1. explication or descriptive translation (expansion of structures);

2. compression during translation (one complex sentence in Russian translation often corresponds to two or more simple sentences in English).

5. Absolute participial phrases.

The absolute participial phrase of the English language is actually an independent sentence with its own “subject”, however, the verb in it is in non-finite form, i.e. is not a predicate in English sentence. When translated into Russian, the impersonal form of the verb is transformed into the personal form and becomes the predicate in the subordinate clause. If the phrase is at the beginning of a sentence, then it is usually attached to the main one with subordinating conjunctions “since”, “although”, “if”, “after” and others.

The other conditions being equal , the acceleration will be the same.

If all other conditions equal , the acceleration will be the same.

If the phrase is at the end of a sentence, then during translation it is usually attached to the main sentence with coordinating conjunctions “and”, “a”, “and”.

Auditory-nerve fibers phase-lock most effectively to frequencies up to 800 kHz, progressively diminishing in their temporal encoding potential with increasing frequency.

The hairs of the auditory nerve most effectively carry out phase adjustment at frequencies up to 800 kHz, and the frequency increases , and the potential of time coding is progressively reduced.

Conclusion: The English language is characterized by the use of the absolute participial phrase. When translated into Russian, the non-finite form of the verb is transformed into the personal form and becomes the predicate in the subordinate clause

6. Stylistic editing of the text during translation, the problem of translating metaphors.

The scientific and technical style in both English and Russian is characterized by a desire for clarity and rigor of presentation, precise use of terms, rejection of indirect, descriptive designations of objects, and widespread use of stereotypes of special vocabulary. A more detailed analysis shows that rigor in the use of terms and customary formulations, in general, is more characteristic of the Russian scientific and technical style than the English one. Therefore, when translating into Russian, the translator often makes “stylistic edits” of the original, introduces an exact term instead of a description, and replaces the author’s phrase with a more familiar cliche.

Let us compare, for example, the following translation with its original:

It was discovered, however, that X-rays scattered by atoms exhibited not only the frequency V 0 of the incident X-rays but also a new frequency V 1 not present in the original X-rays.

However, it was discovered that the X-ray radiation scattered from the atoms contains not only the frequency V 0 of the incident radiation, but also a new frequency V 1 that was not in the spectrum of the original X-ray radiation.

English scientific literature is characterized by the use of various stylistic devices. In stylistic devices (in comparison with the lexical ones discussed above expressive means language) the element of subjective (creative, individual) and, therefore, emotional-evaluative is more significant. Characterizing one of the stylistic devices, namely metaphor, V.V. Vinogradov writes that a metaphor, if it is not stamped, is an act of affirmation of an individual worldview, an act of subjective isolation. In the metaphor, a strictly defined subject with his individual tendencies of worldview appears sharply. Therefore, a verbal metaphor is narrow, subjectively closed and intrusively “ideological,” that is, it imposes on the reader the subjective author’s view of the subject and its semantic connections.

According to our data, the main ways of translating metaphors of an English scientific text into Russian are tracing paper (for example, a “friendly” interface), transliteration, an appropriate image and explication. It should be noted that metaphor in English scientific prose is a very important cognitive tool.

According to the American philosopher and logician M. Black, metaphor works by projecting onto what we must understand a set of associative connections corresponding to a set of ideas about the pattern with the help of which a person masters the unknown. The authors of many metaphors in genetics are major biologists (A. Weisman, K. Waddington and others), for example, mitotic spindle, quantum species, biological clock.

Lakoff and Johnson describe in detail the process of structuring metaphors and identify three main areas of “conceptual structures” from which “root” metaphors are drawn. The first is the area of the “physical”, i.e. a structure that defines the understanding of objects and ideas as “objects that exist independently of us.” The second area is culture, the third is intellectual activity itself. These areas limit our ability to describe the world. By choosing a concept belonging to one of these conceptual frameworks and comparing it with a concept included in another structure, we connect different areas and “structure one in terms of the other.”

Big Bang Theory - big bang theory;

Axis of evil - axis of evil;

About the old bear – regarding a possible Russian threat.

Although the style of scientific prose is characterized by rigor of presentation, in English scientific texts there are often emotional epithets, figurative and figurative expressions, rhetorical questions and similar stylistic devices that enliven the narrative and are more characteristic of conversational style or artistic speech. Such freedom of style is less typical for scientific and technical materials in Russian. A comparative analysis of translations shows that translators regularly carry out stylistic adaptation of the translated text, omitting the emotional and stylistic elements of the original, which seem to them inappropriate in a “serious” scientific presentation. For example, evaluative epithets such as dramatic, successful, excellent, etc. often turn out to be redundant in Russian translation:

The spectral lines provide one dramatic example of the discreteness in nature.

Spectral lines are an example of discreteness in nature.

Conclusion: Despite the fact that the scientific style is characterized by rigor of presentation, emotional epithets, metaphors, figurative and figurative expressions and other stylistic devices are often found in English scientific texts. Metaphors are often introduced as terms, so they are most often translated literally. In other cases, emotional and stylistic elements in the Russian translation should be avoided.

Conclusion.

This paper examined the problem of translating scientific text from English into Russian. This topic was addressed by such famous linguists as Arnold I.V., Budagov R.A., Komissarov V.N. and many others. The origin of the scientific style dates back to the 16th century. And since then, the main features of the scientific style have been determined by its communicative orientation. The language of scientific prose is specific, logical, strict and objective. Among the many genres of scientific style, the scientific article is the most widespread. The main lexical feature of the article is the use of so-called terms. Phraseology is unexpressive and devoid of evaluation. Grammatical features - the use of the present timeless, the predominance of nominative constructions over verbal ones, etc. Complex sentences are used more often than simple ones. Characteristic use of introductory words, connecting conjunctions and complex words in prepositions.

The main ways to translate terms in a scientific article are:

¨ tracing;

¨ descriptive translation;

¨ transliteration;

¨ absolute equivalent.

Translation transformations are also used - explication, compression. Despite the fact that a scientific text is devoid of imagery, the translator may encounter cases of the author’s use of metaphors: if a metaphor is used as a term, then it should be translated literally, in other cases, emotional and stylistic elements should be avoided in the Russian translation.

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