Russian literature of the 18th century – general characteristics. History of Russia (briefly) What happened in the 18th century

Russia in the 18th century.

1. Features of the historical process in Russia in the 18th century.

2. Reforms of Peter 1 and their influence on the history of Russia.

3.The era of palace coups and its consequences.

4. “Enlightened absolutism” by CatherineII.

5. PaulI.

1. The 18th century was in many ways a turning point in world and Russian history, a time of violent social upheaval. It included the grandiose reforms of Peter I, which radically changed the face of Russia, and an endless series of palace coups. This is the time of the great reforms of Catherine II, the heyday of Russian culture, the time of sharp class battles (peasant wars under the leadership of K. Bulavin (1707-1709), E. Pugachev (1773-1775).

The 18th century was a time of heyday and then crisis of the feudal system. A period of decline of absolutism is beginning in Europe. In Russia at this time, feudalism was experiencing its apogee, but from the end of the century the crisis of the feudal system intensified, however, unlike the West, the crisis of feudalism was accompanied not by a narrowing of its scope, but by its spread to new territories. The 18th century was a time of constant wars for the expansion of Russian territory. Back in the 17th century, Russia included Siberia, the Far East, and Ukraine. In the 18th century, it included Northern Kazakhstan, the Baltic states, Belarus, the Baltic, the Black and Azov seas. The multinationality of Russia grew. In the 18th century, the population more than doubled (37.5 million people). New large cities are emerging. At the beginning of the century, Russia was experiencing an industrial boom. Serfdom continues to dominate agriculture. The social structure was based on the class principle. The tax-paying classes were artisans, peasants, burghers, merchants up to 1 guild. The boyars are increasingly losing their leading positions. During the time of Catherine the Second, the first estate became the nobles, who received enormous benefits. The privileged classes also included foreigners, clergy, and Cossack elders.

In the 18th century, the nature of power changed. Under Peter I, absolutism (autocracy) was finally established. Subsequently, absolutism transformed into the regime of the enlightened monarchy of Catherine II. The 18th century was characterized by constant, comprehensive intervention of the state in the affairs of society; wars played the role of a catalyst for many processes - out of the 36 years of the reign of Peter I, Russia was at war for 29 years.

2. In the 17th century Rus' remained a deeply patriarchal state. The Russian Tsars Mikhail (1613-1645) and his son Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) were people committed to antiquity, and Rus' needed modernization. The first attempts at reform were carried out by Alexei's son, Fedor (1676 -1682). Alexey had 11 children and was an exemplary family man. Under the influence of Sophia, the sister of Peter I, after the death of Fyodor, Peter I and Ivan V were proclaimed kings (Ivan V is the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich along the Miloslavsky line). Only in 1689 did Peter overthrow Sophia (she died in the monastery), and in 1696 Peter I became the sole king. He reigned for 36 years - from 1689 to 1725. He is considered the largest reformer in Russia.

Peter was a classic supporter of the ideology of rationalism. His ideal was a regular state headed by a sage on the throne. He believed that the state is the fruit of the creation not of God, but of man; it can be built like a house. Therefore, it is necessary to invent wise laws that will be implemented by the sage on the throne. The state is a tool to make society happy (an illusion). Peter wanted there to be clear laws for all occasions. Peter’s main idea is the modernization of Russia “from above” (without the participation of the people), according to the European model. From Peter to this day, the tendency to catch up with the West, from which we lagged behind “thanks” to the Mongol-Tatars, began.

In the first years, Peter looked closely and outlined a plan for reforms (amusing troops, amusing ships). He travels abroad, visiting France, Holland, England, Switzerland, Belgium, where he gets acquainted with the experience of Europe. As a simple soldier, Peter took part in two campaigns against Azov. Peter knew 15 crafts; he sought to adopt all the best in the West. It is difficult to compare Peter with anyone else. He was a genius, but there were no people of the same rank next to him.

He was a man of enormous height (2m 4 cm) and gigantic strength.

Peter's main reforms turned out to be in tune with the interests of Russia. The first recruitment was held in 1705, and the last in 1874. That is, the recruitment lasted 169 years.

The Senate, the main governing body of the country, existed for 206 years - from 1711 to 1917.

The Synod, the state governing body of the church, existed for 197 years, from 1721 to 1918.

The poll tax lasted 163 years, from 1724 to 1887. Before the poll tax there was a farmstead.

Peter's reforms were comprehensive and affected all spheres of life. Peter's system of government was distinguished by: unification and militarization (of the 36 years of Peter's reign, Russia fought for 29 years), centralization and excessive differentiation of functions. Under Peter, the book “Honest Mirrors of Youth” was published; it described the behavior of young people in different places and in different situations.

The reforms affected the management system. New authorities were created: the Senate, the prosecutor's office (1722) and the Synod, the institution of fiscals (Eye of the Sovereign - secret inspection).

In 1718, instead of Orders, Collegiums were created - collective management bodies (Commerz Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, Berg Collegium, etc.).

Peter changed the system of territorial management. He introduced the Town Hall and Zemsky huts - the main tax collectors. The town hall is in the capital cities, the zemstvos are in the localities.

In 1708, a regional reform was carried out, according to which 8 provinces were created, headed by governors general. After 10 years, the country was divided into 50 provinces. In 1720, Peter created the chief magistrate - a body for managing territories.

The General Regulations were created - a collection of basic legislative acts.

Peter I destroys the Boyar Duma, but creates a bureaucracy - the Senate, the Synod.

His reforms in the fields of economics and culture were radical. From the beginning of the 18th century. Peter begins the construction of an industrial base in the Urals and a fleet. In the conditions of the Northern War, he carries out a monetary reform - reduces the amount of metal in money.

Trying to protect Russian industry from competition, he pursues an active policy of protectionism (protecting his industry through high customs tariffs) and mercantilism (encouraging his own entrepreneurs). The economy is booming. The number of manufactories increased 10 times. Russia's exports exceeded imports by almost 2 times (surplus).

Under Peter, the way of life and traditions of society changed radically. In 1703, he creates an ideal city - St. Petersburg - a model for the whole country.

Peter introduced a new calendar - from the birth of Christ - the Julian calendar (from the creation of the world). The New Year begins not on September 1, but on January 1. Peter introduced the celebration of the New Year (this tradition of bringing fir branches came from Peter). He created the first library, the first public newspaper Vedomosti, the first museum, and the first state theater. He developed the idea of ​​​​creating an Academy of Sciences, but Peter died in January 1725, and the Academy was created according to his project, but after his death.

Peter created a wide network of primary schools, digital schools, a network of parish schools, education becomes a priority area. The first specialized institutions appeared: artillery, medical schools, mathematical and navigational sciences (Sukharev Tower). Peter changes everyday traditions; he organizes assemblies (get-togethers) where young people play chess and checkers. Peter imported tobacco and coffee. The nobles learned the art of etiquette. Peter introduced European clothing and shaving of beards. There was a beard tax of 100 rubles (5 rubles could buy 20 cows).

In 1721, Peter took the title of emperor, and in 1722 he introduced the Table of Ranks (ladder to the future), according to which the entire population was divided into 14 ranks (chancellor, vice-chancellor, privy councilor, etc.).

Thus, Peter's reforms radically changed Russia. The French sculptor Etienne Maurice Falconet captured the image of Peter in the form of a sculpture of the Bronze Horseman, in which the horse personifies Russia, and the rider is Peter.

Peter's ideal - a regular state - turned out to be a utopia. Instead of an ideal one, a police state was created. The cost of Peter's reforms was too high. He acted on the principle “The end justifies the means.”

Peter is a figure of enormous historical proportions, complex and contradictory. He was smart, inquisitive, hardworking, energetic. Having not received a proper education, he nevertheless had extensive knowledge in various fields of science, technology, crafts, and military art. But many of Peter’s character traits were determined by the nature of the harsh era in which he lived; they determined his cruelty, suspicion, and lust for power. Peter liked being compared to Ivan the Terrible. In achieving his goals, he did not disdain any means, he was cruel to people (in 1689 he cut off the heads of archers, he looked at people as material for the implementation of his plans). During Peter's reign, taxes in the country increased 3 times and the population decreased by 15%. Peter did not hesitate to use the most sophisticated methods of the Middle Ages: he used torture, surveillance, and encouraged denunciations. He was convinced that moral standards could be neglected in the name of state benefit.

Merits of Peter:

Peter made a gigantic contribution to the creation of a mighty Russia with a strong army and navy.

Contributed to the creation of industrial production in the state (a giant leap in the development of productive forces).

His merit is the modernization of the state machine.

Reforms in the field of culture.

However, the nature of their implementation was reduced to a mechanical transfer of Western cultural stereotypes and suppression of the development of national culture.

Peter's reforms aimed at the Europeanization of Russia were grandiose in scale and consequences, but they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, because were carried out by force and reinforced a rigid system based on forced labor.

2 . With the light hand of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from 1725 to 1762. 37 years of our history began to be called the “era of palace coups.” Peter I changed the traditional order of succession to the throne. Previously, the throne passed through direct male descent, and according to the manifesto of February 5, 1722, the monarch himself appointed a successor. But Peter did not have time to appoint an heir for himself. A struggle for power between the two factions began. One supported Catherine I - the wife of Peter (Tolstoy, Menshikov), the other - the grandson of Peter I - Peter II (the old aristocracy). The outcome of the case was decided by the guards. From 1725 to 1727 rules of Catherine I. She was incapable of governing. In February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, headed by Menshikov. Before her death, Catherine drew up a decree on succession to the throne (testament), according to which power was to belong to Peter II, the grandson of Peter I, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, and then Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I, then Anna Petrovna and Elizaveta Petrovna (daughter of Peter I). After the death of Catherine I, Peter II, a 12-year-old boy, the son of Alexei, under whom Menshikov ruled, ascended the throne. In the fall of 1727, Menshikov was arrested and stripped of his ranks and titles. Under him, affairs were managed by the Privy Council, and Peter II's main activities were hunting and love affairs.

After the death of Peter II, Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) came to power. This was the daughter of Ivan V, brother of Peter I. She was not distinguished by her intelligence, beauty, or education. She transferred control to Ernst Biron, Duke of Courland (since 1737). The reign of Anna Ioannovna was called the “Bironovschina”. During her reign, the autocracy was strengthened, the responsibilities of the nobles were reduced and their rights over the peasants were expanded. Before her death, Anna Ioannovna announced the baby John VI Antonovich, the son of her niece, as her successor. Biron was the regent under Ivan, and then his mother, Anna Leopoldovna.

On November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, the daughter of Peter I, came to power, overthrowing the young Ivan with the help of the Guard. She ruled for 20 years - from 1741 to 1761. The cheerful and loving empress did not devote much time to state affairs. Her policy was distinguished by caution and gentleness. She was the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty. Klyuchevsky called her “a smart and kind, but disorderly and wayward Russian young lady.”

Peter III (Karl Peter Ulrich - son of Anna Petrovna - daughter of Peter I and Duke Karl Friedrich) ruled for 6 months (from December 25, 1761 to June 28, 1762) (born 1728-1762). His wife was Catherine II the Great. Peter did not enjoy respect either from his wife, or from the courtiers, or from the guards, or from society.

On June 28, 1762, a palace coup took place. Peter III was forced to abdicate the throne, and a few days later he was killed.

4. The era of palace coups ends, the Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II begins.

Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name of Catherine the Great. Her reign became a new era in the history of Russia. The beginning of her reign was morally difficult for Catherine. Peter III was the legitimate sovereign, the grandson of Peter the Great, and Catherine’s real name was Sophia Frederica-Augusta, the German princess of Anhald of Zerbst. She proved herself to be a patriot of the Russian land. For the first 15 years she did not play a significant role in government affairs. She persistently studied the Russian language and literature, the works of ancient authors, the works of French educators, the traditions and customs of the Russian people. Catherine's first steps spoke of her intelligence. One of her decrees reduced taxes on bread and salt. Catherine was the first to vaccinate herself against smallpox and saved the lives of thousands of peasants.

She was crowned in Moscow on September 22, 1762 (she awarded everyone who helped her - the participants in the coup received lands with serfs, ranks, money). Catherine was a typical Westerner. She tried to introduce the ideas of enlightenment and freedom into Russia. Catherine was a supporter of autocracy and an ardent follower of Peter I. She wanted to create a regime of enlightened absolutism in Russia - a regime in which the monarch cared about the freedom, welfare and enlightenment of the people. The monarch is the wise man on the throne. True freedom, according to Catherine, lay in strict adherence to the law. She came up with the idea of ​​​​limiting state intervention in the economy and defended freedom of enterprise. Catherine provided extensive benefits to manufactories. Its main goal is to strengthen the social support of absolutism by making the nobles the first estate. Until 1775, reforms were carried out spontaneously (spontaneously), and from 1775 the second stage of reforms began, which finally established the power of the nobles in Russia.

Catherine tried to develop new legislation based on the principles of the Enlightenment. In 1767, a commission was created to revise Russian laws, which received the name Stacked. The commission was composed of deputies from different class groups - the nobility, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. The deputies came to the commission with instructions from their electors. Catherine addressed the Commission with an Order, which used the ideas of Montesquieu and the Italian lawyer Beccaria about the state and laws. In December 1768, the Commission ceased its work due to the Russian-Turkish War. The main goal - the development of the Code - was never achieved. But this helped Catherine become familiar with the problems and needs of the population.

Catherine's greatest act was Certificate of Complaint to the nobility and cities in 1785. It determined the rights and privileges of the noble class. It finally took shape as a privileged class. This document confirmed the old privileges - the right to own peasants, lands, mineral resources, freedom from poll tax, conscription, corporal punishment, the transfer of the title of nobility by inheritance and freedom from public service.

In the Charter, the cities were listed all the rights and privileges of the cities described by previous legislation: the exemption of the top merchant class from the capitation tax and the replacement of conscription duty with a monetary contribution. The charter divided the urban population into 6 categories and determined the rights and responsibilities of each of them. The privileged group of townspeople included the so-called. eminent citizens: merchants (capital over 50 thousand rubles), rich bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), and urban intelligentsia (architects, painters, composers, scientists). Another privileged group included the guild merchants, which were divided into 3 guilds. Merchants of the first two guilds were exempt from corporal punishment, but the latter was not. The charter granted to cities introduced a complex system of urban self-government. The most important body of self-government was the citywide “Meeting of the City Society”, which met once every three years, at which officials were elected: the mayor, burgomasters, magistrate assessors, etc. The executive body was the six-vocal Duma, which consisted of the city mayor and six vowels - one from each category of the city population.

Senate reform

It was divided into 6 departments with 5 senators in each. Each was headed by a chief prosecutor. Each department had certain powers: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial affairs in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - Moscow judicial department. The general powers of the Senate were reduced; in particular, it lost legislative initiative and became a body for monitoring the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Catherine and her office with secretaries of state.

Before the reform, senators could sit back and consider it their task to be present in the institution, and in departments the opportunity to hide behind the backs of others was reduced. The efficiency of the Senate increased significantly.

The Senate became a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court, but lost the legislative initiative, which passed to Catherine.

Since 1764, Catherine has been conducting secularization of the lands and peasants. 1 million peasants were taken away from the church. The church became part of the state machine. In the same year, Catherine abolished the autonomy of Ukraine.

Catherine tried to solve the peasant issue - to limit the power of the landowners, but the nobles and aristocracy did not support these attempts and subsequently decrees were issued strengthening the power of the landowners.

In 1765, a Decree was adopted on the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia without trial. In 1767 - about the ban on peasants complaining about landowners. Catherine's time was a time of serfdom. Taxes on peasants doubled. In the 60-70s there was a wave of peasant uprisings.

In 1765, Catherine founded the Free Economic Society - the first Russian scientific society (K.D. Kavelin, D.I. Mendeleev, A.M. Butlerov, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky), which existed until 1915. It published the first statistical and geographical study of Russia, promoted the introduction of new agricultural technology into agriculture and discussed economic problems. By decree of Catherine, the Encyclopedia of Labor, Crafts and Arts, which was banned in the West, was translated in Russia.

In 1765, Catherine issued two Decrees: “On general land surveying,” according to which the nobles secured previously acquired lands, and “On distillation,” according to which the nobles received a monopoly on the production of alcohol.

In 1775 it was carried out provincial reform. The country was divided into 50 provinces with 10-12 districts in each province. The position of governors and noble assemblies were introduced. A special chamber of public charity was created, which took care of education and health care (schools, hospitals, shelters).

Catherine died in 1796, she reigned for 34 years. By the standards of that time, Catherine lived a long life and died at 66 years old. Her reforms turned out to be ineffective and ineffective, divorced from Russian reality.

To prepare for the seminar

From the Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius:

Catherine, the daughter of Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna Elisabeth (née Princess Holstein-Gottorp), was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She was educated at home: she studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. Already in childhood, her independent character, curiosity, perseverance, and at the same time a penchant for lively, active games were evident. In 1744, Catherine and her mother were summoned to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, baptized according to Orthodox custom under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna and named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Emperor Peter III), whom she married in 1745.

Catherine set herself the goal of winning the favor of the empress, her husband and the Russian people. However, her personal life was unsuccessful: Peter was infantile, so during the first years of marriage there was no marital relationship between them. Paying tribute to the cheerful life of the court, Catherine turned to reading French educators and works on history, jurisprudence and economics. These books shaped her worldview. Catherine became a consistent supporter of the ideas of the Enlightenment. She was also interested in the history, traditions and customs of Russia. In the early 1750s. Catherine began an affair with guards officer S.V. Saltykov, and in 1754 gave birth to a son, the future Emperor Paul I, but rumors that Saltykov was Paul’s father have no basis. In the second half of the 1750s. Catherine had an affair with the Polish diplomat S. Poniatowski (later King Stanislav Augustus), and in the early 1760s. with G. G. Orlov, from whom she gave birth to a son, Alexei, in 1762, who received the surname Bobrinsky. The deterioration of relations with her husband led to the fact that she began to fear for her fate if he came to power and began to recruit supporters at court. Catherine's ostentatious piety, her prudence, and sincere love for Russia - all this sharply contrasted with Peter's behavior and allowed her to gain authority both among the high society metropolitan society and the general population of St. Petersburg.

Accession to the throne

During the six months of Peter III's reign, Catherine's relationship with her husband (who openly appeared in the company of his mistress E.R. Vorontsova) continued to deteriorate, becoming clearly hostile. There was a threat of her arrest and possible deportation. Catherine carefully prepared the conspiracy, relying on the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panin, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova and others. On the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, Catherine secretly arrived in St. Petersburg and in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment she was proclaimed an autocratic empress. Soon soldiers from other regiments joined the rebels. The news of Catherine's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city and was greeted with delight by St. Petersburg residents. To prevent the actions of the deposed emperor, messengers were sent to the army and to Kronstadt. Meanwhile, Peter, having learned about what had happened, began to send proposals for negotiations to Catherine, which were rejected. The Empress herself, at the head of the guards regiments, set out for St. Petersburg and on the way received Peter’s written abdication of the throne.

Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent judge of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine’s time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, generals, writers, artists, and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine was, as a rule, restrained, patient, and tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist and knew how to listen carefully to everyone. By her own admission, she did not have a creative mind, but she was good at catching every sensible thought and using it for her own purposes. During the entire reign of Catherine there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles were disgraced, exiled, much less executed. Therefore, there was an idea of ​​Catherine’s reign as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else in the world. In order to preserve it, she is ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her beliefs.

Attitude to religion and the peasant question

Catherine was distinguished by ostentatious piety, considered herself the head and protector of the Russian Orthodox Church and skillfully used religion in her political interests. Her faith, apparently, was not very deep. In the spirit of the times, she preached religious tolerance. Under her, the persecution of Old Believers was stopped, Catholic and Protestant churches and mosques were built, but the transition from Orthodoxy to another faith was still severely punished.

Catherine was a staunch opponent of serfdom, considering it inhumane and contrary to human nature itself. Her papers contain many harsh statements on this matter, as well as discussions on various options for the elimination of serfdom. However, she did not dare to do anything concrete in this area due to a well-founded fear of a noble rebellion and another coup. At the same time, Catherine was convinced of the spiritual underdevelopment of Russian peasants and therefore in the danger of granting them freedom, believing that the life of peasants under caring landowners was quite prosperous.

Catherine ascended the throne with a well-defined political program, based, on the one hand, on the ideas of the Enlightenment and, on the other, taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. The most important principles for the implementation of this program there was gradualism, consistency, and consideration of public sentiment.

Catherine spent the first years of her reign Senate reform (1763), making the work of this institution more efficient; carried out the secularization of church lands (1764), which significantly replenished the state treasury and alleviated the situation of a million peasants; liquidated the hetmanate in Ukraine, which corresponded to her ideas about the need to unify management throughout the empire; invited German colonists to Russia for the development of the Volga and Black Sea regions. During these same years, a number of new educational institutions were founded, including the first in Russia educational institutions for women(Smolny Institute, Catherine School). In 1767, she announced the convening of a Commission to draw up a new code, consisting of elected deputies from all social groups of Russian society, with the exception of serfs. Catherine wrote the “Mandate” for the Commission, which was essentially the liberal program of her reign. Catherine's calls, however, were not understood by the deputies of the Commission, who were arguing over minor issues. During their discussions, deep contradictions between individual social groups, a low level of political culture and the outright conservatism of the majority of the Commission members were revealed. At the end of 1768 the Laid Commission was dissolved. Catherine herself assessed the Commission’s experience as an important lesson that introduced her to the sentiments of different segments of the country’s population.

The 18th century is a period of a qualitative leap in the history of Russia. Enormous changes were carried out in its economy, government system, army organization, and culture. Russia's place in the international arena has changed radically. An important line between medieval Muscovite Russia and the Russian Empire is the time of Peter I.

Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century. Main directions and features of foreign policy. The main foreign policy task facing Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the seas: the Black, Azov, and Baltic. In setting these tasks, Russia continued the foreign policy of the previous period, but sought to solve them by more advanced military and diplomatic means, with unprecedented persistence and energy. Peter I did not fight with his main enemies (Turkey and Sweden) like his predecessors, now these were coalition wars, allied ones.

Azov campaigns. The entire reign of Peter I (1682-1725) was entirely devoted to the Black Sea problem, so the first major step of his foreign policy was the organization of a campaign to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas. The Black Sea at that time was an inland sea of ​​Turkey, which, in the figurative expression of one diplomat, cherished it “like a pure and immaculate maiden whom no one dares to touch.” Thus, one of the most important tasks of Russian foreign policy at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. there was a struggle for the southern lands, against the Trocs and Crimean Tatars, who constantly attacked Russian cities and villages in the south of the country, subjecting them to plunder and taking the population into captivity.

In 1695, the first Azov campaign began, the purpose of which was to capture the Turkish fortress of Azov, which blocked the access to the Sea of ​​Azov. However, after two unsuccessful assaults, they decided to stop the siege of the fortress. The bulk of the Russian troops retreated deeper into Russia.

The main reasons for the failure of the 1695 campaign were the following: the lack of a fleet in Russia, as a result of which it was impossible to blockade Azov from the sea, from where the Turks received reinforcements and supplies; lack of unity of command in the army and mutual support in the assault units; lack of artillery, poor training of troops, especially riflemen; the small number of cavalry to fight the steppe Tatars.

At the end of 1695, preparations began for the second campaign near Azov. The mistakes of the first campaign were eliminated: the construction of the fleet began; To ensure unity of command, a commander-in-chief of the ground forces was appointed. In the spring of 1696, the army and navy set out on a campaign, and in July Azov was taken.

This event became Russia's largest foreign policy and military success, the first step towards the seas. The experience of joint actions of ground forces and navy during the capture of Azov was then successfully developed during the Northern War. At the same time, the Azov campaigns showed the urgent need to organize a Russian regular army.

"Great Embassy" At the beginning of 1697, Russia managed to conclude offensive treaties for a period of three years with Austria and Venice against the Crimean Tatars and Turks. In the same year, with the participation of Peter himself, the “Great Embassy” went to Western Europe with the aim of further expanding and strengthening the alliance against Turkey. However, the “Great Embassy” was unable to complete this task. The fact is that due to internal contradictions, Europe at that time was divided into two camps. In addition, Holland and England were interested in trade with Turkey. Under these conditions, it became impossible to attract new participants to the anti-Turkish alliance. Moreover, even the former members of this union, fearing the strengthening of Russia, rushed to make peace with Turkey.

In addition to performing diplomatic tasks, the embassy had to hire sailors, artisans, artillerymen and other specialists for the Russian service. The embassy was accompanied by representatives of noble youth sent abroad to study naval affairs and shipbuilding.

The beginning of the Northern War. The failure of the “Great Embassy” convinced Peter I that in a broken situation it was impossible to gain access to the Black Sea. Based on the situation, Peter defines a new main direction of foreign policy - to return the ancient Russian lands along the Neva River, captured by the Swedes at the beginning of the 17th century, and thus achieve access to the Baltic Sea.

The war with the Swedes was preceded by some successful diplomatic steps by Russia. Thus, in 1699, treaties were signed with Denmark and the Elector of Saxony, Augustus II, who then occupied the Polish throne, on an alliance against Sweden (Northern Alliance). These treaties became the first Russian diplomatic acts to bear the personal signature of the Tsar. Before this, agreements were sealed with the signatures of Russian ambassadors and the state seal. At the beginning of 1699, an agreement was reached on a two-year Russian-Turkish truce, and in 1700 the truce was concluded for 30 years.

The war with Sweden, which went down in history under the name “Northern”, began in the summer of 1700. However, its beginning was unsuccessful for the participants of the Northern Alliance. Denmark, after the Swedish landing near its capital, left the war. The actions of the Polish king were also unsuccessful. Russian military participation began with the siege of the Swedish fortress of Narva, which ended in the defeat of Russian troops, who lost almost all of their artillery.

The Swedish king, believing that the Russians were defeated and would never recover, sent the main forces of his army against Augustus II. However, Russia managed to quickly eliminate the grave consequences of the defeat at Narva. The formation of a regular army was accelerated, and the production of metal, weapons and uniforms increased. As a result, already in December 1701, the first significant victory over the Swedes was won. Subsequently, Russian troops began to win one victory after another: several fortresses on the Neva were taken, and in 1704, after a second siege, Narva fell.

Creation of a regular army and navy. Peter I carried out a radical reorganization of the armed forces. A newly organized regular army and navy were created. Transformations in the army began with the development of military regulations (1698), the creation of the guard and regular regiments. By 1705, a new system of army recruitment had finally taken shape. From this time on, forced conscription, first introduced in 1699, became the main source of army replenishment. Every 20 peasant households had to provide one recruit. Soldier's service became lifelong. The local noble militia and the Streltsy army were liquidated. Special schools were opened to train artillery and engineering personnel.

At the beginning of the 18th century. For the first time in Russian history, a navy was created. Moreover, the construction of the fleet proceeded at an unprecedentedly fast pace and at the level of the best examples of shipbuilding of that time.

Founding of St. Petersburg. In May 1703, construction began on the Peter and Paul Fortress, which laid the foundation for the city of St. Petersburg, in which Peter I saw his new capital almost from the moment of its founding. Unlike other cities in Russia, the development of which was carried out spontaneously, the construction of St. Petersburg was carried out according to a pre-developed plan. Special decrees established types of buildings, the size of which depended on the wealth of the owner. Rich landowners and merchants were required to build two-story stone buildings with high rooms and large windows.

Battle of Poltava. In the fall of 1707, Swedish troops began a campaign to the east, the ultimate goal of which was the capture of Moscow. However, fierce resistance from the Russian army forced the Swedish king Charles III to change the invasion plan. Instead of going to Moscow through Smolensk, he was forced to go to Ukraine, whose hetman, Mazepa, promised him support. But this plan also failed. In September 1708, the Swedish corps, accompanying a huge convoy with food and weapons for Charles, was defeated near the village of Lesnoy.

In April 1709, the Swedes approached the Poltava fortress and besieged it. For three months the garrison and townspeople staunchly defended the city. Finally, Russian troops arrived, and on June 27, 1709, a battle began in which the Swedes were defeated. Near Poltava, for the first time in military history, the Russian army used a system of field fortifications - redoubts, which brilliantly justified themselves during the battle. The remnants of the defeated Swedish army led by Charles III fled in panic to the Dnieper, where they were overtaken and captured by Menshikov. Only the king himself with Mazepa and a small detachment managed to take refuge in Turkish possessions.

The Battle of Poltava was the decisive battle of the Northern War, its turning point. Sweden's military power on land was completely broken and it could no longer recover from the defeat it had suffered. The foreign policy situation also changed: the Northern Alliance was restored and expanded, to which Prussia joined.

Victories of the Russian fleet. After the defeat of the Swedes on land, the fight at sea, where Sweden had a strong navy, significantly superior to the young Russian one, acquired paramount importance. By the spring of 1714, Russia already had a fairly large fleet in the Baltic. Sweden also energetically prepared for active combat operations at sea.

Russian ships left St. Petersburg in May 1714 and in July attacked the Swedish fleet off the Gangut Peninsula. The fierce battle ended in complete victory for the Russians. The Battle of Gangut went down in the history of the Russian navy as one of its most brilliant pages. It became the first major victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish, which had not had defeats until that time. The Battle of Gangut marked the beginning of Russian power in the Baltic Sea. The Swedish fleet, which previously dominated the Baltic, was forced to go on the defensive.

In July 1720, the Russian fleet won a brilliant victory over the Swedes near the island of Grengam. Russia was especially proud of this victory, since the British ships, which were in the Baltic with the aim of destroying the Russian fleet, could not prevent the defeat of the Swedes.

The growth of Russia's international influence. Russia's successes in the Northern War forced Charles XII to enter into peace negotiations, which were long and difficult. Finally, in August 1721, in the city of Nystadt, a peace treaty (Nystadt Peace) was concluded between Russia and Sweden, which introduced important changes to the balance of power in Europe: Sweden lost its status as a great power; Significant territories that make up modern Estonia, Latvia, part of the Leningrad region and Karelia were transferred to Russia. Thus, having received access to the Baltic Sea, Russia moved its northwestern borders far to the west, which from land became sea.

In 1724, Sweden renounced its alliance with England and entered into an alliance treaty with Russia on mutual assistance. Russia entered the wide international arena and not a single issue of international life could be resolved without its participation.

The entire foreign policy of Russia at the end of the 17th and first quarter of the 18th centuries. can be divided into two large periods: before the Battle of Poltava and after it. These periods, in turn, are divided into the following stages: the time of the Azov campaigns, the “Great Embassy” to Western Europe and preparations for the Northern War (1695-1699); the first years of the Northern War - the occupation by Russian troops of the Neva River and the cities of Narva and Dorpat, the founding of St. Petersburg, the victory at Lesnaya and, finally, the Battle of Poltava, which was the turning point of the entire Northern War; the next 1709-1715, when the capture of the Baltic was completed, a naval victory was won at Gangut; the final stage of the Northern War (1716-1721): amphibious landings on the Swedish shores, a naval victory at Grenham, diplomatic negotiations that ended with the Peace of Nystadt; 1722-1724: conclusion of an alliance treaty with Sweden.

Economic development of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. The main feature of the Russian economy during this period was the active intervention of the state in the development of the country's productive forces. First of all, this affected industry and trade, although changes also occurred in agriculture.

Industrial development. Beginning of the 18th century - a significant period in the development of Russian industry. At this time, large-scale manufacturing-type production became widespread, which was dictated primarily by the needs of the army and navy. Merchants who founded private manufactories received benefits. Instead of 15-20 manufactories of pre-Petrine times in the first quarter of the 18th century. About 200 enterprises were created (according to other sources - about 100). The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which was the Urals. From 1700 to 1725 Iron smelting in the country increased more than fivefold.

Cloth, sail-linen, rope, and leather manufactories appeared and quickly developed, supplying the army with uniforms and the navy with canvas and ropes.

The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation and the widespread use of forced labor in enterprises. Decrees of 1721 and 1723 Private manufactories were cut off from purchasing peasants for entire families.

The reforms also covered the sphere of small-scale production. By decree of 1722, a guild structure was introduced in cities. All artisans, led by an elected headman, were distributed among workshops depending on their specialty. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts.

Changes in agriculture. There were also attempts at reform in agriculture. Thus, by decree of 1721, peasants were ordered to harvest grain with scythes instead of sickles. The decree of 1715 contributed to a significant expansion of the plantings of industrial crops (flax and hemp), traditional in Rus'. New crops were introduced: tobacco, grapes, fruit trees. In some areas, gardening acquired commercial importance. In 1720, construction of the first silk-spinning factory began. All mulberry trees were registered and cutting them down was punishable by death.

Much attention was paid to livestock farming. In accordance with government decrees, the development of horse breeding and fine-wool sheep breeding began.

Trade. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a state monopoly was introduced on the procurement and sale of a number of goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, wine, wax, bristles), which significantly replenished the treasury. The development of trade relations with foreign countries was encouraged in every possible way. By the end of Peter's reign, the export of Russian goods was twice as high as the import. At the same time, high customs tariffs (up to 40%) reliably protected the domestic market from competition. Thus, the state policy of mercantilism was clearly manifested in trade, i.e. the desire to accumulate wealth by exceeding the export of goods over the import, encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry.

Financial sphere. The state's financial policy was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. A radical reform of the entire tax system was carried out - a poll tax was introduced, which by the end of the reign of Peter I accounted for more than half of state revenues.

The era of palace coups and the expansion of noble privileges in the 18th century. The crisis of power after the death of Peter I. The struggle of noble groups for power. In January 1725, Peter I died without having time to appoint a successor for himself before his death. The nobles who came to the fore under Peter wanted to see the wife of the deceased emperor, Catherine, on the throne. The old, well-born nobility had its own candidate - the grandson of Peter I, the young Peter - the son of the deceased Tsarevich Alexei. The dispute over a successor was resolved by the guards regiments, which from that time became the main weapon in the struggle for power. With their support, Catherine was elevated to the throne (1725-1727). Under the empress, the Supreme Privy Council was created, which became the highest institution in the state, pushing the Senate to a secondary position.

After the death of Catherine I, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, became emperor. Under the young tsar, Menshikov enjoyed significant influence. As a result of the palace coup, Menshikov was exiled and the old aristocracy came to power, removing the promoters of Peter I from governing the country.

After the death of Peter II in 1730, the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland, took the throne. Anna Ivanovna. The Supreme Council, which offered her the crown, tried to significantly limit the power of the new empress, but the speech of the nobility thwarted these plans. The Supreme Council was abolished, and its members were subjected to repression.

During the reign of Anna Ivanovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions, who enjoyed advantages in appointment to profitable positions and promotion.

Shortly before her death (1740), Anna Ivanovna appointed herself a successor - the three-month-old grandson of her niece. But in 1741 another palace coup took place, which was openly directed against the dominance of foreigners. With the weakness of the guard, the protege of the Russian nobility, the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth (1741-1761), came to power. The Germans lost high positions in the state. Institutions created during the period of Peter the Great's reforms were restored.

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew, the Duke of Holstein, ascended the throne under the name of Peter III, who was killed as a result of the last palace coup carried out by the guard in the 18th century. The reign of Peter III's wife, Catherine II (1762-1796), began.

Social policy and serfdom legislation of Catherine II. History of Russian absolutism of the second half of the 18th century. can be divided into two periods: the first - before the peasant war of 1773-1775. (this time is usually called the period of “enlightened absolutism”); the second is a period of open noble reaction, which especially intensified from 1789-1790. in connection with the revolution in France. “Enlightened absolutism” in Russia was a special form of autocratic policy, a characteristic feature of which was some adaptation of the noble state to the requirements of emerging capitalism.

“Enlightened absolutism” was also generated by the aggravation of social contradictions and the class struggle of the peasants. The essence of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was not only the suppression of peasant movements, but also the desire to prevent them.

The government proceeded from the fact that violent forms of suppressing the protest of the masses are not always effective, so it considered it possible to make some concessions to the peasants. For example, the assignment of state peasants to factories, where labor was much harder than in agriculture, ceased. However, such events did not affect the essence of the feudal-serf system. While publicly presenting herself as an opponent of serfdom, Catherine at the same time issued decrees aimed at further spreading serfdom. Under her, the activities of political investigation were resumed, inflicting brutal reprisals on all who spoke out in defense of the oppressed.

At the same time, decisions were made aimed at preserving and significantly expanding the rights and privileges of the nobles. In 1765, the nobles were granted a monopoly right to distill alcohol. This decree made it possible to turn grain into vodka on the spot and deliver it to state taverns, which significantly increased the income of landowners. In the same year, a law was issued assigning to the nobles all the lands they seized from the peasants. As a result, the economic basis of serfdom—feudal land tenure—expanded significantly.

A whole series of decrees of Catherine II established extremely preferential conditions for the promotion of nobles to officer ranks and sharply increased funds for the maintenance of class noble educational institutions.

Legal acts of the 60s. prohibited the employment of peasants in the government service, and almost doubled the per capita tax. In 1765, a decree was issued giving landowners the right to exile their peasants to hard labor without trial. The exile was counted as a recruit to the landowner. Finally, in 1767, one of the most cruel decrees in the entire history of serfdom was issued, according to which any complaint by peasants against the landowner was declared a grave state crime. Those who filed such a complaint were subject to punishment by whipping and exile to hard labor. This regulatory act completed the formalization of the unlimited power of landowners over peasants.

Secularization of church land ownership, its goals and significance. In 1764, secularization (seizure) of church land ownership was carried out. About two million peasants were taken away from the monasteries and became state peasants. For them, corvée was replaced by monetary rent. Most of the lands on which they carried out corvée in favor of the monasteries passed to the peasants. The decree significantly reduced the number of monasteries. Of the 957, about 200 remained, which were received by the state. This event significantly strengthened the economic base of the autocracy, ended the independence of the church and turned it into part of the bureaucratic apparatus.

"Stacked Commission". One of the most striking manifestations of “enlightened absolutism” was the convening of the Commission to draft a new code (code of laws), since the existing “Conciliar Code” of 1649 was completely outdated by that time.

Elections of deputies to the Commission were class-based. The nobles elected a deputy from each district, the townspeople - from each city. The clergy, as well as landowner peasants, did not receive the right to participate in elections.

One of the central tasks in the activities of the Commission, which opened in the summer of 1767, was the peasant question. Landowners complained about the mass exodus of serfs and demanded that drastic measures be taken.

The merchants insisted not only on consolidating their old rights, but also on expanding them; on creating conditions for the growth of industry and trade; demanded to protect them from the competition of trading nobles and the right to own serfs. Deputies from state peasants asked to ease taxes and put an end to the arbitrariness of the authorities.

Under the pretext of the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war, Catherine dissolved the Commission in 1769.

The period of Russian history after the death of Peter I (1725-1762) is designated as the era of “palace coups”, the essence of which is that the change of power occurred mainly with the assistance of the guard. The essence of Russian autocracy of the second half of the 18th century. (mainly before 1773) is characterized as “enlightened absolutism” - a special form of autocracy characteristic of countries with a relatively slow pace of development of capitalist relations. “Enlightened absolutism” is characterized by liberal phraseology and social demagoguery; the use of the ideas of the Enlightenment, from which their anti-feudal essence was thrown out; subordination of the church to the state. The main objective of the policy of “enlightened absolutism” is the implementation of reforms conditioned by the development of bourgeois relations and the strengthening of class contradictions. The meaning of the ongoing reforms was to reduce the level of social-class conflicts and strengthen the positions of the nobility. In essence, “enlightened absolutism” is a balancing of autocracy, firstly, between the nobility and the emerging bourgeoisie; secondly, between different factions of the nobility.

The beginning of the decomposition of the feudal-serf economy in the second half of the 18th century. New phenomena in the economic life of the country. The beginning of the decomposition of feudal relations and the formation of a capitalist structure. In the second half of the 18th century. The feudal-serf system in Russia began to weaken under the influence of the growth of capitalist relations. Traditional methods of organizing the economy and exploiting labor required significant changes. Commodity production began to penetrate into agriculture, which accelerated the property stratification of the peasantry. Hundreds of thousands of ruined peasants broke ties with the land and sought income in non-agricultural trades. Consequently, the process of formation of a labor market for large-scale industry was underway.

Signs of the beginning of the disintegration of the feudal system, the serfdom system were: the beginning of the liquidation of the monopoly of the nobles on land property; concentration of large land holdings in the hands of rich peasants and merchants; attempts by some landowners to introduce agricultural improvements and engage in commercial and industrial activities.

Agricultural and industrial development of new regions of the country. Most nobles still sought to increase their incomes without changing the basics of the economy, by spreading serfdom to new territories. The movement of landowners began to the south, to the black earth regions, and the formation of farms on unplowed fertile lands.

At the same time, the nobles continued to seize lands in the Volga region and resettle serfs there from the interior regions of Russia. The local non-Russian population went to the Volga and Urals regions. Agriculture began to penetrate even into remote areas of Siberia. The economic development of the Don was especially successful. Agriculture, previously prohibited here, became the main occupation of the Cossacks. Tsarism encouraged noble colonization of Ukraine, the Lower Volga region, and the North Caucasus, where huge landowner farms were created.

The economic development of the Northern Black Sea region was unique. In the interests of rapid development of this region, the government gave up the main privilege of the nobility - the right to monopoly ownership of land. Everyone could get small plots here, with the exception of serfs. The once deserted lands began to produce surplus grain, which was exported abroad through the Black Sea ports.

The presence of non-noble land ownership in the newly developed areas and a small percentage of the enslaved population created more favorable conditions for the development of bourgeois relations than in Central Russia.

The industrial development of new territories proceeded quite quickly. The Urals becomes the main center of Russian metallurgy. Silver and lead began to be mined in the Altai foothills, and the geography of the location of cloth production changed. The centers of this industry moved to sheep breeding areas (Voronezh province, Ukraine).

Development of industry, crafts and trade. Second half of the 17th century. was a time of further rapid development of industry in Russia. According to some quantitative indicators of large-scale industrial production, Russia was ahead of all continental Europe and was a supplier of iron to European countries.

Organizational forms and types of manufactories changed. An increasing number of state-owned enterprises are transferred into the hands of merchants and nobles. Along with industry based on various types of forced labor, production using hired workers developed. The number of merchant and peasant manufactories, which were the immediate predecessors of the capitalist factory, grew. Manufactories in light industry were large in size. Among them stood out those that employed up to two or more thousand people. The number of hired workers employed in factories, industries and transport has increased significantly.

However, serfdom hampered technological progress. While England entered the era of the industrial revolution, Russian technology remained old. Some improvements and even major inventions did not find wide application and were quickly forgotten.

The development of cities, handicraft and manufacturing production, the separation of a large number of peasants from agriculture caused a growing demand for agricultural products, favored the expansion of the capacity of the domestic market, and an increase in the number of fairs. The development of the all-Russian market was facilitated by the abolition of internal customs duties in 1753. However, the growth of domestic trade was seriously hampered by the unsatisfactory state of communications.

Positive trends have emerged in foreign trade. The export of goods began to exceed their import. The share of finished products in the structure of exports grew, although raw materials and semi-finished products still occupied the first place. Among the goods imported to Russia, items of noble consumption continued to prevail: sugar, wines, spices, perfumes.

In order to develop domestic industry, the government continued to pursue a protectionist policy. Thus, in 1766, a new customs tariff was adopted, preventing the import of goods that were produced in Russia. At the same time, products that were not manufactured in Russia were completely exempt from duties.

For the economy of the second half of the 18th century. characterized by the dominance of feudal forms of management. At the same time, signs characteristic of capitalist-type production appear. Traditional methods and forms of organizing economic activities were changing. The economic development of new regions proceeded at a rapid pace, where conditions for the development of bourgeois relations in the economy were more favorable than in central Russia. The domestic market was developing more dynamically. Quantitative and qualitative changes in the structure of exports of Russian goods are characterized positively.

Social class struggle in the second half of the 18th century. Deterioration of the situation of peasants, Cossacks, peoples of national regions. The spread of serfdom to new areas and new categories of the population was accompanied by an increase in corvée, quitrent and other duties in favor of the landowners and the state. The unlimited arbitrariness of the landowners was legalized. The retail sale of peasants took on massive proportions.

The situation of the non-Russian peoples inhabiting the Volga and Urals regions worsened significantly. The construction of fortresses and factories in Bashkiria was accompanied by the seizure or purchase of land and forests for next to nothing. The clergy forced the Bashkirs and the peoples of the Volga region to accept Christianity.

The bulk of the Yaik Cossacks were in a difficult situation, whose autonomy was limited from year to year. Discontent grew among ordinary Cossacks, who were oppressed by the wealthy elite and tsarist officials.

Peasant warrior under the leadership of Pugachev. The strengthening of serfdom led to the aggravation of class contradictions, which resulted in a peasant wave under the leadership of the Don Cossack E. Pugachev.

Arrested by the authorities for attempting to act as a petitioner on behalf of ordinary Cossacks, Pugachev fled and hid on the Yaik River. Here he declared himself Emperor Peter III and in 1773 decided to lead the uprising of the Yaik Cossacks, who were severely punished by the tsarist government for the unrest of 1772.

At the first stage of the war (autumn 1773 - spring 1774), mainly Cossacks and Tatars were drawn into the movement. The second stage (from March to July 1774) is characterized by the involvement of working people of the Ural factories in the struggle, who played a major role in the movement.

At the third stage (from July 1774 until the end of the uprising), the entire mass of serf peasants of the Volga region rose up. Despite the diverse social composition of the rebels, the uprising in its demands and methods of struggle had a pronounced peasant character.

On September 17, 1773, a detachment of 80 Cossacks led by Pugachev moved to the Yaitsky town, which they failed to take and the detachment headed towards Orenburg. Pugachev did it without meeting resistance. Cossacks and soldiers went over to the side of the rebels, garrisons and city residents greeted them with bread and salt and the ringing of bells. At the beginning of October 1773, after an unsuccessful assault, they began the siege of Orenburg. The rebel army included detachments of Cossacks, bankers, Tatars, Kalmyks, and fugitive peasants.

Near Orenburg, the organization of the Pugachev army into regiments began, which were divided into hundreds and dozens. Cossack, Bashkir, peasant and mining regiments were created.

Pugachev's army had artillery, which was a serious force. The situation with handguns was bad. Most of the rebels were armed with axes, scythes, bows, and spears.

During the peasant war, a central body of the rebels arose - the State Military Collegium, which performed the functions of the main headquarters, the supreme court and the supply body for troops. The activities of the military college introduced elements of organization and order into the uprising, which were absent, for example, in the uprising led by Razin.

During the siege of Orenburg, the slogans of the uprising were more clearly defined. If in his first manifesto (October 17, 1773), addressed to the Yaik Cossacks, there is not a word about serfdom, landowners and peasants (since the detachment consisted of Cossacks), then the decree of December 1, 1773 directly calls the landowners criminals, villains and calls for taking their lives, and taking all their property for themselves, since it was acquired by robbing peasants.

The tsarist government, alarmed by the news of the uprising, sent several detachments of regular troops to help besieged Orenburg, which were defeated by the Pugachevites in early November 1773. Moreover, many soldiers went over to the side of the rebels.

The uprising continued to expand, with dozens of detachments operating over a vast territory. The movement spread to Siberia, and even Moscow itself became restless. The growing scale of the uprising forced the government to send large military units to suppress it. Having pulled significant forces towards Orenburg, the tsarist troops in March 1774 defeated Pugachev and forced him to retreat.

The uprising has entered a new stage. Now the factories of the Southern Urals and Bashkiria have become its strongholds. However, in this region, ravaged and devastated, Pugachev failed to gain a foothold. The bulk of the Cossacks remained on Yaik and the majority of the rebel army was now made up of the peoples of the Urals and assigned peasants.

After a series of battles in the Middle Urals, the main forces of the rebels moved to Kazan, to the main areas of landownership and serfdom. This threw the landowners into panic, forced the government to rush to end the Russian-Turkish war, and to mobilize all forces to fight the rebels.

At the beginning of July 1774, Pugachev’s army captured Kazan. Only the Kazan Kremlin remained unoccupied. The rebels were preparing to storm it, but at that moment government troops approached and, as a result of a fierce battle, the rebels suffered a crushing defeat. With a small detachment, Pugachev, pursued by the tsarist troops, retreated to the south. It was during this period that the peasant war reached its greatest extent and acquired a pronounced anti-serfdom character. Pugachev's transition to the right bank of the Volga was a signal for a grandiose peasant uprising.

At the end of July 1774, Pugachev published a manifesto, which most fully reflected the ideology of the peasantry. In this document, Pugachev guaranteed liberation from serfdom, the abolition of duties, free Cossack self-government, and the transfer of all lands to the peasants.

In August 1774, Pugachev approached Tsaritsyn, but could not take it, and a few days later he was defeated and went beyond the Volga.

Seeing that the uprising was failing, the wealthy Yaik Cossacks captured Pugachev in September 1774 and handed him over to the authorities. He was soon taken to Moscow and executed in January 1775.

After the execution of Pugachev, the struggle of the popular masses continued in the Volga region, the Kama region and the Urals until August 1775, but fierce repressions extinguished these last centers of uprising. The reprisal of the punitive forces took the form of real terror. The landowners and tsarist authorities took cruel revenge on the participants in the uprising. This revenge assumed such proportions that the government was forced to moderate the ardor of the punitive forces, fearing that the terror would lead to a resumption of the uprising. Thus ended the last peasant war in the history of Russia, in which the Russian peasant, the mining worker and the Cossack, the peoples of the Volga region, the Udmurts and the Bashkirs opposed the serfdom system.

The wider spread of serfdom caused a significant deterioration in the situation of the peoples of the Volga region, the Urals, and part of the Cossacks; exacerbated class contradictions and began to cause the largest popular uprising in Russian history.

Peasant War 1773-1775 had a number of features compared to the uprisings led by Bolotnikov and Razin. If there were many nobles in Bolotnikov’s army, which indicated the absence of a clear social demarcation, then Pugachev ordered to “execute by death” all the gentlemen, and to “take all their property as a reward.” For Razin, in the sphere of management, things did not go further than the Cossack circle, but for Pugachev, along with the Cossack circle, a Military Collegium was created, which represented the first attempt to lead the uprising from a single center. What gave the Pugachev uprising its originality was its participation in the movement of working people in the mining and processing Urals.

Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. Main directions and tasks of foreign policy. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century was aimed at solving traditional problems inherited from previous times: the reunification of all Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia; establishment on the Black Sea coast and elimination of the danger from Turkey and its vassal - the Crimean Khan; consolidation of positions in the Baltic Sea.

A new characteristic feature of Russian foreign policy, compared to the previous period, was the sharply increased activity and significant increase in the influence of the Russian state on international affairs. The desire of the ruling circles to use foreign policy successes to weaken the beginning of the disintegration of the feudal system was increasingly noticeable; by acquiring new lands, soften internal contradictions and suppress the struggle of the serf peasantry.

Balance of power in Europe. Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War. An indicator of Russia's increased influence on international life was its active participation in the largest international conflict of the mid-18th century. – the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), which was waged by two opposing coalitions of European states: Austria, France, Spain, Sweden, Russia and Saxony - on the one hand; England, Portugal and Prussia - on the other. Thus, almost all European states took part in this war. The goals of the fighting factions diverged sharply. England and France fought for colonies and dominance on sea routes. Prussia fought a war to expand its territories in Germany at the expense of Austria and Saxony. Russia did not want the further strengthening of Prussia, since this posed a threat to Russian possessions in the Baltic states.

In 1756, Prussia attacked Saxony, captured its capital and defeated the Austrian army coming to the aid of Saxony. This forced the Austrian government to ask Russia for help. In the summer of 1757, Russian troops fought in East Prussia and inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian army near Gross-Jägersdorf. All of East Prussia was occupied by the Russians. In August 1758, at the Battle of Zorndorf, the Prussians suffered another defeat. The decisive battle took place in August 1759 at Kunersdorf, where the army of the Prussian king Frederick II was completely defeated. In October 1760, Russian troops entered Berlin.

Russian-Turkish wars in the second half of the 18th century. If Peter I achieved a lot in resolving the Baltic problem, then during the reign of Catherine II it was possible to achieve major successes in advancing to the Black Sea. By this time, the conditions for the aggressive plans of tsarism had developed very favorable. The Seven Years' War split all of Europe into two camps. England broke the power of the French at sea. After the defeat in the Northern War, Sweden could not seriously threaten Russia from the north. In the south, the Turks and their tributaries, the Crimean Tatars, were only fragments of their former greatness. Poland was in a state of complete collapse.

The Black Sea problem had become particularly acute for Russia by this time. The growth in the marketability of Russian agriculture increased the interest of landowners in the fertile lands of southern Russia. To develop these lands, it was necessary to make the southern border of the state more durable. The expansion of foreign trade required the possession of the mouths of the Dnieper and Don, cut off from Russia. Thus, the economic interests of the nobility and merchants were closely intertwined with the tasks of strengthening the southern borders of the country.

At this time, the Turkish fleet reigned supreme in the Black Sea, and the Crimean Peninsula was a convenient springboard for Turkey’s attack on Russia. In 1768, Türkiye issued an ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Russian troops from Poland. Having been refused, she declared war on Russia. In the winter of 1768-1769. Crimean Tatars, on the orders of the Turkish Sultan, attacked the southern outskirts of Russia. This last Tatar invasion in Russian history was successfully repelled by Russian troops.

Military operations against Turkey were carried out simultaneously on three fronts: in the southwest (Danube), in the south (Crimea), and in Transcaucasia. Attempts by the Turkish army to break into Russia failed. The Turks were stopped by troops under the command of the talented commander Rumyantsev. Thus, the fighting of 1768-1769 ended in failure for the Turks, and the Russian army did not achieve much success either. But already in 1770, Russia won major victories in the famous battles of Larga and Kagul, where, under the leadership of Rumyantsev, Turkish troops were defeated, although their numbers significantly outnumbered the Russian army.

The Russian fleet performed brilliantly. The squadron under the command of G.A. Spiridova made the transition from the Baltic Sea around Europe to the Mediterranean Sea. In June 1770, the Turkish fleet, twice the size of the Russian squadron, was attacked and burned in Chesme Bay.

In 1771, the Russian army occupied Crimea. In 1773-1774 A.V. won a number of victories. Suvorov, inflicting huge losses on the Turks. The advanced detachments of the Russians advanced beyond the Balkans.

In July 1774, as a result of the complete defeat of Turkey, a peace treaty was signed in the village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi, according to which the Crimean Khanate was declared independent from Turkey. Kerch, Yenikale, Azov, and Kinburn went to Russia. The Black Sea and the straits were open to Russian merchant shipping. Russia received the right to unlimited construction of a fleet in the Black Sea. Türkiye recognized Russia's patronage over Moldavia and Wallachia. As a result, the southern border of Russia became incomparably stronger both from the Crimea and the Caucasus, where Kabarda came into Russian possession.

However, Türkiye did not want to come to terms with the further strengthening of Russia in the south. The aggravation of relations between them led to the second Russian-Turkish war (1787-1791). The first period of the war ended in 1788 with the capture of the strong Turkish fortress of Ochakov. In 1789, Russian troops under the command of Suvorov won brilliant victories at Focsani and Rymnik; at the end of the same year, the Turkish fort Gadzhibey was occupied, on the site of which the most important city of Odessa later arose. The largest battle in which Suvorov showed his outstanding leadership talent, and the Russian troops showed heroism, was the capture of the powerful Turkish fortress of Izmail in 1790. The fall of Ishmael had a significant impact on the entire course of the war.

Türkiye also suffered setbacks at sea, where the outstanding Russian naval commander F.F. won a number of victories. Ushakov. Using new tactics, the Russian fleet, numerically inferior to the Turks, inflicted crushing defeats on the island of Tendre (1790) and at Cape Kaliakria (1791), as a result of which the Turkish fleet capitulated.

According to the Treaty of Yassy (1791), the Black Sea coast from the Southern Bug to the Dniester was transferred to Russia, and the act of 1783 on the annexation of Crimea and Kuban to Russia was confirmed.

Russian participation in the partitions of Poland. In the second half of the 18th century. Poland was experiencing a deep crisis. While its neighboring countries became strong, centralized states, feudal anarchy reigned in Poland.

Prussia and Austria had long come up with plans to divide Poland, but the Russian government did not go through with it, hoping to extend its influence throughout Poland. However, the threat that Austria and Prussia would implement the set of plans without Russia's participation forced Catherine II to accept the plan of the Prussian king Frederick II to divide Poland.

As a pretext for interference in the internal affairs of this country, the issue of granting equal rights to Catholics to the population of the Orthodox and Lutheran faiths was used. According to the treaty signed in 1772, the first partition of Poland was carried out by Austria, Prussia and Russia. Austria received Western Ukraine, and Prussia received the Polish coast of the Baltic measles. Eastern Belarus went to Russia.

In 1793, the second partition of Poland took place, as a result of which the central part of Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine went to Russia. Prussia captured the entire western part of Poland.

The third partition of Poland was carried out in 1795 after the suppression of the uprising of Polish patriots under the leadership of Kosciuszko by Prussian and Russian troops. Lithuania, Western Belarus, Western Volyn and Courland went to Russia. Austria captured the southern part of Poland, and Prussia captured its central part with Warsaw. Poland as a state ceased to exist.

Russia's participation in coalitions against bourgeois France. The turning point in the foreign policy of tsarism was the bourgeois revolution in France, towards which the overwhelming majority of the Russian nobility took a hostile position. The execution of King Louis XVI in January 1793 led to the final break with France and the beginning of the intervention. In 1793, Russia entered into an agreement with England, Prussia and Austria, pledging to help in their fight against revolutionary France, participating in its economic blockade. At the end of 1795, the Triple Alliance was concluded between Russia, England and Austria, and Russia was already preparing a 60,000-strong corps under the command of Suvorov for the war with France. Catherine's death in 1796 marked the beginning of the intervention.

Paul I, who ascended the throne, continued the fight against France. In 1798, a new anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Austria, Turkey and Russia; the center of military operations of the coalition was Italy and the Mediterranean Sea, where the fleets of England and Russia were moved. The Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakova entered the Adriatic Sea in the summer of 1798, captured the Ionian Islands, and then, after a brilliantly carried out siege and assault, forced the surrender of the strongest French fortress on the island of Corfu.

In the summer of 1799, Russian troops landed in Italy and fought through the entire Apennine Peninsula and expelled the French from Naples and Rome. At the same time, ground forces under the command of Suvorov began their famous Italian campaign in April 1799. A.V. Suvorov, with an army that was many times outnumbered by the enemy, won one victory after another. All of Northern Italy was liberated from the French.

Fearing the strengthening of Russia's position in Italy, Austria achieved the transfer of Russian troops to Switzerland. In August 1799, the heroic transition of A.V. began. Suvorov through the Alps. Having captured the St. Gotthard Pass, Russian troops inflicted another defeat on the French at the Devil's Bridge. Intensified contradictions between the allies led in 1800 to Russia's withdrawal from the anti-French coalition.

By the end of the 18th century, Russia had solved its main foreign policy problems: access to the Azov and Black Seas was obtained, the constant aggression of Crimea and Turkey was ended, the fertile lands of the South became part of Russia; The absolute majority of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands were united in a single state.

The reforms of Peter I have always caused heated debate in Russian society and in domestic historical science. Assessments of the reforms differed even during the life of the emperor. There is no clear position today. The closest associates of Peter I adhered to the opinion that, in the formulation of M.V. Lomonosov sounded like this: “He is your God, your God was Russia!” At the same time, there was an opinion among the people (especially among the Old Believers) that Peter I was the Antichrist.

Already in pre-revolutionary historiography, two extreme points of view emerged in assessing the consequences of Peter’s reforms. Some believed that Peter I disrupted the “natural” course of the country’s development. Others believed that Russia was prepared for transformation by the previous period of historical development (S.M. Solovyov). There were also less radical approaches. For example, N.Ya. Danilevsky proposed a differentiated understanding of the transformations of Peter I, highlighting two sides of his activity: state and reformative (changes in life, morals, customs). “The first activity,” said N.Ya. Danilevsky, deserves the eternal grateful, reverent memory of posterity.” “Reformative” changes were brought, according to N.Ya. Danilevsky, “the greatest harm to the future of Russia,” since “life was forcibly turned upside down in a foreign way.”

Diverging in their assessment of the actions of Peter I, everyone agreed that their result was a radical revolution in Russia, which was considered useful by some, and harmful to Russian interests by others. What some considered a great service to the Fatherland, others considered a criminal deviation from tradition. In particular, historian and writer N.M. Karamzin accused Peter I of betraying the “true Russian” principles of life, and called his reforms a “brilliant mistake.” Some are convinced that the transformations were “the struggle of despotism against the inertia of the people” (V.O. Klyuchevsky), others believe that the result of the activities of Peter I was the conservation of feudalism in Russia, the inhibition of the processes of emancipation of private property, especially at the most massive, peasant level.

In general, the majority of domestic historians fully appreciate the state activities of Peter I, who “dramatically intensified the processes taking place in the country and forced it to take a giant leap.”

The transformations of Peter I caused changes in the systemic qualities of political life and the functions of the institutions of the Russian political system; meant the beginning of the modernization of society according to the secondary (lagging) model.

Questions for self-control:

1. Give a description of the main foreign policy tasks of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

2. Name the features of the implementation of foreign policy objectives of that period.

3. What was the change in the main direction of Peter I’s foreign policy after his visit to Western Europe?

4. What do you know about the victories of the Russian fleet over the Swedes?

5. Describe the results of the Northern War.

6. Give a periodization of Russian foreign policy at the end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th century.

7. Name the features of economic development under Peter I.

8. What was the essence of reforms in industry in the first quarter of the 18th century?

9. List the main changes in agriculture.

10. Define the essence of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia .

11. Describe the policy of Catherine II towards the peasantry.

12. Determine the essence of qualitative changes in the feudal-serf system of Russia.

13. Name new features in the development of agriculture.

14. What were the changes in the organization of industry and trade?

15. What changes have occurred in the situation of the masses.

16. Determine the main stages, features and reasons for the defeat of the peasant war under the leadership of Pugachev.

17. Describe the main directions of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century.

18. How did the first Russian-Turkish war end?

19. Name the reasons for Russia’s participation in the partitions of Poland.

20. What are the main results of Russia’s foreign policy activities in the second half of the 18th century?

1. Akimov V.V. Course of lectures on the history of the Fatherland. M., 1997.

2. Aniskin B.A. 100 great people of Russia of all times and peoples. M., 1997.

3. Beskrovny L.G. Russian army and navy in the 18th century. M., 1958.

4. Vernadsky G.V. Russian history. M., 2001.

5. Dvornichenko A.D. Russian history: A guide for applicants to universities. St. Petersburg, 1997.

6. Dragan G.N. Russian history. M., 1997.

7. Zolotarev V.A. and others. For the glory of the Russian Fatherland: the development of military thought and military art in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. M., 1984.

8. “The Golden Age” of Catherine the Great: Memoirs. M., 1996.

9. History of the Fatherland. M., 2002.

10. History of Russia. M., 2003.

11. History of the Russian state. M., 2001.

12. Kostin V.I. National history. Nizhny Novgorod, 2002.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

XVIII century in the history of Russia

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century of the reign of Peter I, who decided to change Russia in a short time, a time of Streltsy riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period of Russian history is characterized by the development of education, the opening of new educational institutions, including Moscow University and the Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital of the Russian Empire.

The end of the 18th century was the heyday of the creativity of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, Vladimir Lukich Borovikovsky, and sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, Alexei Mikhailovich died, and his son Fyodor Alekseevich ascended the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became Emperor Peter I, will become king in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the encouragement of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, married Evdokia Lopukhina, which means he reached adulthood, as was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised the archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in a monastery, and the throne passed to Peter, although until 1696 Peter’s formal co-ruler was his brother Ivan Alekseevich. Peter I had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2 m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his entourage had to not just follow him, but run. From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky who played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar’s favorite pastime was shooting boyars with steamed turnips. Gradually, the king also had “favorite” close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov or simply Aleksashka, the son of the palace groom, who from the position of the tsar's orderly became the most serene prince, the richest man, the "German" (Dutch) Franz Lefort, who became the tsar's main adviser after his accession to the throne. It was Lefort who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem lay in one of the two well-known Russian problems - roads; Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes two campaigns against Azov, the second of which was successful and ended with the founding of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Tagany Rog). The war with Turkey, which began in 1697, showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this purpose, the Grand Embassy was sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Pyotr Alekseevich. He was the first Russian Tsar to visit Europe. Returning from the trip and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely remake it and, as you know, he succeeds. The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

He disbanded the Streltsy army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in almost European uniforms and puts at the head of foreign officers;

He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old one was carried out from the creation of the world. On January 1, 1700, Russia began to celebrate the New Year;

He carried out urban reform - self-government was introduced in cities, and mayors were placed at the head of cities. Although this was the end of the “Europeanization” of cities;

He obliged every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result Russia received a large fleet.

In 1700, Peter I decided to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. The Northern War began unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army.

Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, guns were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are cast on them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, there were 75 metallurgical enterprises operating in the country, which fully met the country's needs for cast iron, almost half of the production was exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so weapons factories were built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing.

The shipyards build galleys, which played a decisive role in the defeat of the Swedes at Gangut.

Peter introduces military service - conscription - from 20 households, 1 person went to serve for 25 years, and he also introduced compulsory service to the nobility for 25 years. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscal officers were assigned to monitor them, and he created a number of technical universities (the Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers. In order to encourage not only nobles, but also ordinary people to study, Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from high school and knows foreign languages ​​will receive nobility.

To boost the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a capitation tax (a male soul).

The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people of the Russian Empire. This provoked an increase in arrears.

To stop the thefts, since everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders not only the suspect, but also his entire family to be hanged on the rack.

A number of additional fees were introduced - a beard fee, a fee for wearing Russian dress, and those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduced serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, and artisans to cities. By decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and received the name “eternally given.”

This form of labor hampered the development of Russia; they got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I strives to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods that are much higher than on exported ones. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf economy. The reign of Peter was a time of transformation in Russia, a time of reform. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

Rice. 1. - Peter I:

Administrative reforms of Peter I:

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was a governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty;

2. Peter in 1711-1721. abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the board was appointed by the tsar “based on intelligence, and not on the nobility of the family,” that is, a good education was needed for service;

3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the Tsar, performed his functions;

4. At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

Social policy of Peter I.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank being ensign. Anyone who reached the 8th rank received nobility. The judicial system was changed - “they were judged not by word, but by pen,” that is, all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.

In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettles about 1000 nobles to St. Petersburg.

In 1725, with the death of Peter I, the era of palace coups began. During the reigns of Catherine I, from 1725 to 1727, and Peter II, from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of emperor. During the reign of Anna Ioanovna, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

Under Elizaveta Petrovna, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Shuvalovs and Razumovskys, the empress's favorites, played a prominent role. Elizabeth's heir was Peter III Fedorovich. He pursued a policy that the Russian nobility did not accept.

As a result, in 1762, after another coup, the wife of Peter III, Catherine II, ascended the throne at 33 years old. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "by accident."

Rice. 2. - Catherine II:

The 34 years of Catherine II's reign went down in history as the “golden age of the nobility,” because she pursued a pro-nobility policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, and carried out a General Land Survey in 1765, i.e., divided the land between the nobles. The opportunity arose to buy and sell collateral, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on Catherine’s side. In addition, she gave the nobles 600 thousand serfs for their service, for example, Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov received several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under pain of hard labor it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to sell serfs “at retail”, i.e., families were mercilessly split up. Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of her favorites, raised a galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was inspired by the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own, original way. She believed that enlightenment should only affect the upper strata of society; she did not give freedom to the peasants, because this would lead to rebellion. Catherine II was especially frightened by the Pugachev rebellion (1773-75), in which serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, and Kalmyks took part. The Peasants' War was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from it - the peasants should not be given freedom, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great:

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development;

2. Created a number of educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. Thus, in the Free Economic Society, agriculture and technical innovations were studied and introduced (prizes were given for each invention); through the efforts of this society, potatoes were introduced (initiated by Andrei Bolotov);

3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories increased by 2 times, while they were not only serfs, but also hired ones, i.e., the first workers from the peasants appeared (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investment;

4. Development of new lands. In order to develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, Southern Ukraine), she donates them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites “foreigners” - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians founded the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians brought viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who escape and settle in new lands will be free;

5. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but leased it for 100 years so that the Americans could develop it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son Paul I (1796-1801) became emperor. Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serfdom. thinking psychological personality

Serfdom is becoming increasingly widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul banned noble meetings in the provinces; at his whim, he could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the severance of relations with England hit the incomes of landowners, since agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy; Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne.

This is how the 18th century ended in Russia. Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state;

2. Modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up option, and we take from the West what we like;

3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of its own people, i.e., Russia is a self-colony;

4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Prerequisites and features of the development of absolutism in Russia. Reforms of Peter I in the development of absolutism in Russia. Socio-economic development of Russia since the second quarter of the 18th century. "Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II. "Laid Commission" 1767.

thesis, added 02/26/2008


Circumstances and main factors that influenced Catherine II’s accession to the throne, an assessment of her significance in Russian history. Socio-economic transformations of the second half of the 18th century: the essence of economic reforms, education, medicine, science.

test, added 05/16/2013


Stages of creation and main periods of existence of Kievan Rus, reasons for its collapse, socio-political system. Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, Peter's reforms and place in the history of the state. The First World War and its impact on the situation in Russia.

course of lectures, added 04/26/2010


Prerequisites for reforms, their goals. The degree of implementation of the reformers' plans as a result of transformations of the judicial system and legal proceedings in Russia carried out during the reign of Peter I and Catherine II. Consequences of the judicial reform of 1864

course work, added 03/15/2012


Catherine II is an outstanding figure in Russian history. The essence of the historical works of Solovyov, Klyuchevsky on the history of Russia. Anisimov as a researcher of Catherine's reign. Essay on the socio-political history of Russia in the second half of the 18th century. in the works of Kamensky.

abstract, added 12/14/2009


The originality of the 18th century in world history. The state of Russian society at the beginning of the 18th century (territory, economy, political and class organization). Scientific discussions on the problems of Peter's reforms: causes, methods of reform, consequences.

abstract, added 07/24/2015


The beginning of a new era in the development of Russia. Domestic and foreign policy of Peter I. The era of palace coups in the second quarter of the 18th century. "Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II, and changes in politics after her death. Russia at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.

abstract, added 06/07/2008


Characteristics of Catherine's reign. The need of an absolutist state for secular culture. The state of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II. The place of the 18th century in the history of Russian culture. A manifestation of the empress's enlightened absolutism.

course work, added 06/26/2013


Judicial reforms carried out in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. Regional reform of Peter the Great. The Secret Chancellery and its history. Early History of the College of Justice. Judicial reform of Peter I. Military judicial bodies of the first quarter of the 18th century.

abstract, added 08/05/2009


Reforms in the field of education carried out in the first quarter of the 18th century. during the reign of Peter I. History of Russia before Peter the Great, characteristics of his personality. The main differences between Peter's reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times.

The 18th century brought our country both a large number of bright victories and achievements in various spheres of life, as well as difficult trials. Peter the Great carried out grandiose reforms. For the first time in history, Russia has a regular army, and most importantly, a powerful navy. Russia becomes an empire, expanding its borders, capturing strategically important territories, gaining access to the seas. Industry and agriculture, culture and art are developing. At the same time, the country is shaken by palace coups, bloody riots, wars, and numerous problems remain unresolved. However, Russia is seriously and for a long time declaring itself as a great power.

• - Empress Anna Ioannovna, whom many call illiterate, during her reign was active in lawmaking and approved changes in some spheres of life of the Russian state.
• - The war between the Russians and the Turks (1878 – 1791) showed the military power of the Russian Empire at sea and on land, as well as Suvorov’s tactical competence, which led to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian capture of Crimea.
• - The Supreme Privy Council (SPC) went down in history by attempting to limit the power of the monarch in the Russian Empire. We can say that it served as a prerequisite for the emergence of the opposition.
• - Bironovshchina is a cruel and short-lived phenomenon in Russian history, associated with the name of Empress Anna Ioanovna and her favorite Biron, who reigned on her behalf for a whole decade.
• - Menshikov is one of Peter’s “chicks” who, together with the sovereign, strengthened the state, its strength and power. The main direction in the domestic policy pursued by Menshikov was public administration.
• - The Russian-French conflict leads Suvorov to Switzerland, where it turns out that the Austrians turned out to be traitors and want to destroy the “allies”, then the commander decides to go through a mountain pass, which led to success.
• - The Cossacks were represented as a special class, which was endowed with separate rights and responsibilities. For Cossacks there was a special procedure for enlisting in the army and performing military service.
• - Emperor John Antonovich, two months old, became a hostage to the politics of selfish adventurers. Domestic and foreign policy during his reign was an aimless and often useless collection of random steps.
• - The lazy and quarrelsome queen, who by chance took the throne, brought to power foreigners who despise Russia and its people. Therefore, domestic and foreign policy in many areas contradicted the fundamental interests of Russia.
• - Historical figures entering the Twenty Years' War satisfied their political and military ambitions. In the battles of the Northern War, the political balance of power on the Baltic Sea coast completely changed.
• - The role of Prince Menshikov in the politics of Catherine I and Peter II. Plans for power. Peasant and noble manifestos. Engagement of Peter II to Maria Menshikova. Link of the Grand Duke. The international position of Russia under Peter II, the illness of the Tsar. New palace conspiracy.
• - The war between Russia and Sweden 1700-1721. The main goal of the Russian state. Stages of the war, description of key events, results of battles, territorial conquests, reasons for victories and defeats. The results of the Northern War and their historical significance for Russia.
• - Catherine II did not want to give the throne to Paul I, but circumstances turned out differently. Having received the throne and reveling in the power he has received, Paul begins by harming the empire. Subsequently, Alexander I overthrew the ambitious sovereign at the request of the conspirators.
• - Russian diplomacy of the second half of the 18th century. Concluded alliances, peace treaties and agreements. Dates of signing the documents, their historical names, countries participating in the treaties. Conditions and results of international agreements concluded by Russia.
• - Results of Peter’s reforms for the Russian state. Comparison of the political system, principles of office, position of the church, cultural and military development in Russia before and after the reforms. Advantages and disadvantages of the policies of Peter I.
• - The palace coups of the 18th century marked a large scar on the resilient body of Russia. This is due to the constantly changing rulers. Due to the frequent changes in political course, Russia required considerable efforts to resist.
• - Key names in Russia in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Enumeration of prominent figures, dates of their lives, positions held under the king. Involvement in the most important historical events. Results of life and career. Characteristics and significance of their activities for the history of Russia.
• - Of the modern sovereigns who stood at the helm of state power, Peter I and Catherine II left the most lasting memories of themselves, because it was their reforms that played a huge role in the development of Russia.
• - Russian Empire during the period of palace coups. The names of the supreme legislative organizations, the time of their existence, the monarchs who formed them. Intraclass and social prerequisites and causes of palace coups in Russia.
• - Reformation of Russia by Peter I. List of key domestic and foreign policy events. Unified State Exam test. Factors that caused the need for reforms. Directions and characteristics of the reforms of Peter I. Their socio-economic and historical consequences.
• - After the palace coup on the night of November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna became a full-fledged empress. She carried out many reforms in all spheres of life. Continuing her father's work, Elizabeth pursued an active foreign policy with other countries.
• - Historical background of palace coups in Russia in the 18th century. Inheritance of Peter I: decree on succession to the throne and manifesto on the coronation of Catherine. The role of the guard in the transfer of the throne. Results of the policy of Catherine I. Features and causes of palace coups.
• - Palace coup of 1741. From Anna Ioannovna to Anna Leopoldovna. Manifesto on the rightful heir to the throne. Biron's regency. The conspiracy of Anna Leopoldovna with Field Marshal Minikh. Its results: the murder of John VI, the exile of Anna Leopoldovna, the accession of Elizabeth.
• - Peter I reformed all spheres of government life, turning Russia into the strongest European power. In a short period of time, he developed the economy and instilled a new culture in society. But the brilliant results of Peter I’s policies also had a downside.
• - Revolution in France at the end of the 18th century. caused a wide resonance in Russia. Catherine II carried out reactionary measures through censorship and exile. The policy of her successor Paul I ran counter to the interests of the nobles who organized the assassination of the emperor.
- The policy of Peter I on the world stage. Events and wars within the framework of the Southern direction of foreign policy. Positive and negative consequences of Petrine modernization for the country. Contents of the Table of Ranks and its significance. Culture of Imperial Russia under Peter.

In Russian literature of the 18th century, the first independent direction began to take shape - classicism. Classicism developed on the basis of examples of ancient literature and art of the Renaissance. The development of Russian literature in the 18th century was greatly influenced by Peter's reforms, as well as the school of European enlightenment.

Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky made a significant contribution to the development of literature of the 18th century. He was a wonderful poet and philologist of his time. He formulated the basic principles of versification in the Russian language.

His principle of syllabic-tonic versification was the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. The syllabic-tonic principle of versification, formulated back in the 18th century, is still the main method of versification in the Russian language.

Trediakovsky was a great connoisseur of European poetry and translated foreign authors. Thanks to him, the first fictional novel with exclusively secular themes appeared in Russia. It was a translation of the work “Ride to the City of Love” by the French author Paul Talman.

A.P. Sumarokov was also a great man of the 18th century. The genres of tragedy and comedy developed in his work. Sumarokov’s dramaturgy contributed to the awakening of human dignity and highest moral ideals in people. Antioch Cantemir was noted in the satirical works of Russian literature of the 18th century. He was a wonderful satirist, making fun of nobles, drunkenness and self-interest. In the second half of the 18th century, the search for new forms began. Classicism ceased to meet the needs of society.

The largest poet in Russian literature of the 18th century was Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin. His work destroyed the framework of classicism and introduced lively colloquial speech into the literary style. Derzhavin was a wonderful poet, a thinking person, a poet-philosopher.

At the end of the 18th century, a literary movement called sentimentalism emerged. Sentimentalism is aimed at exploring the inner world of a person, personality psychology, experiences and emotions. The heyday of Russian sentimentalism in Russian literature of the 18th century was the works of Radishchev and Karamzin. Karamzin, in the story “Poor Liza,” expressed interesting things that became a bold revelation for Russian society of the 18th century.