Preservation conditions: inorganic and organic materials. organic material organic material

CHAPTER 2

ORGANIC BUILDING MATERIALS

Depending on the chemical composition, all building materials can be conditionally divided into organic and inorganic. Organic materials include: wood, organic binders, which can occur both in nature and be obtained by deep oxidation of oil, as well as synthesized polymers.

2.1. Wood

Wood has long been used in construction due to a number of its inherent positive properties: high strength with a low average density (KKK = 0.7 - 0.8), low thermal conductivity, ease of processing and decorative effect. In construction, both coniferous and deciduous species are used. The area of ​​their rational use is presented in Table. 2.1.

Table 2.1

The use of coniferous and hardwood in construction

Application in construction	tree species
			deciduous
	Pine,	larch			birch, aspen	beech, hornbeam
Plywood production
bridge building
Hydrotechnical
construction
Sleeper manufacturing
Parquet production
Wall finishing materials

A tree consists of a trunk, crown and roots. The trunk is the main and most valuable part; from 60 to 90% of industrial wood is obtained from it.

By its structure, wood is a fibrous porous material consisting of living and dead cells. According to the purpose, cells are divided into conductive nutrients, storage and mechanical. The macrostructure of wood is studied in transverse and two longitudinal sections: radial and tangential (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1. Tree trunk cuts:

a - end; b - tangential; c - radial;

Elements of wood: 1 - core; 2 - core; 3 - sapwood; 4 - bark

On the cross section, conifers have annual rings. Each ring consists in turn of a light ring of early wood and a darker ring of later wood. Early wood was formed in spring or early summer, it consists of large thin-walled cells, is prone to decay, has high porosity and low strength. Wood formed in summer and early autumn (late) has a dark color due to saturation with resinous substances, high density and strength. Consequently, the more latewood formed, the higher its overall strength and resistance to water.

Due to the fibrous structure, wood belongs to anisotropic materials, i.e. all its physical and mechanical properties are different in different directions.

2.1.1. General properties

Each type of wood has a characteristic color and texture (figure). Conifers generally have a simple and monotonous pattern, hardwoods have a complex pattern. Due to the richness and variety of texture, a number of species - oak, beech, walnut, chestnut - are highly valued in carpentry and finishing work.

The true density of wood, which consists mainly of cellulose, is 1540 kg / m3 and practically does not depend on the type of wood. The average density ranges from 450 kg/m3 (cedar, fir) to 900 kg/m3 or more (hornbeam, ironwood, boxwood, dogwood) and depends on the total porosity, which is 46–81% for conifers, 32–32 for hardwoods. 80%.

Due to the hydrophilic nature and fibrous porous structure, wood easily absorbs and releases moisture when the temperature and humidity conditions change. Depending on humidity (degree of saturation with water in%), wood is divided into wet - freshly cut (more than 35%), air-dry (15 - 20%) and room-dry (8 - 12%). The moisture content acquired by wood during prolonged exposure to constant temperature and humidity conditions is called equilibrium. Total humidity (when immersed in water) can reach up to 200%. Since humidity affects all the physical and mechanical properties of wood (dimensions increase, electrical and thermal conductivity increases, strength decreases), then in order to analyze the application area, standard humidity indicator - 12% and all properties are recalculated taking into account it using special formulas. Moisture in wood is found in three forms: chemical, which is part of the main substance of cellulose, hygroscopic adsorbed on cell walls, and free filling cells and intercellular spaces.

Humidity fluctuations entail changes in the size and shape of products. Due to the heterogeneity of the structure, wood dries differently in different directions. Shrinkage along the fibers is 1 cm per 1 m
(1%), in the radial direction 3 - 6 cm per 1 m (3 - 6%), in the tangential direction 6 - 12 cm per 1 m (6 - 12%). Uneven shrinkage and, as a result, warpage lead to the appearance of internal stresses and cracking of lumber and logs. To prevent warping and cracking of wooden products, they are made from wood that has been previously dried to the equilibrium moisture content that will be during operation. For joinery, operated indoors, the humidity is 8 - 10%, for outdoor structures 15 - 18%. To protect the wood from subsequent moisture, it is coated with waterproof paints, polymer films. In roundwood and lumber, shrinkage cracks form primarily at the ends. To reduce cracking, the ends of logs and beams are coated with a mixture of lime, salt and glue or other protective compounds.

Under wet operating conditions, the wood is exposed to the destructive action of microorganisms - it rots. They protect wood from destruction and extend the service life of structures and products in buildings and structures by providing ventilation, preliminary natural or artificial drying, painting with waterproof paint and paste compositions and antiseptics. Drying is carried out either in a well-ventilated warehouse under a canopy for 2-3 months to a year and a half, or using special equipment. For artificial drying, special continuous and intermittent drying chambers with natural and forced air circulation are used. The heat carrier is first water vapor with a temperature of 70 - 80 ° C, and then air heated to 50 - 60 ° C. Drying time - 3 - 6 days.

To speed up the drying process up to 8-12 hours, a package of wooden products is immersed in a bath with petrolatum heated to 130 ° C, which is a hydrophobic product of oil refining. Drying of especially valuable wood is carried out in the field of high-frequency currents. The method is based on the conversion of alternating electric current energy into thermal energy, which causes heating of wood and evaporation of water.

Antiseptic carried out using special substances - antiseptics, which are divided into water-soluble (sodium fluoride and silicofluoride, zinc chloride, copper sulfate), used for indoor conditions, and oily (anthracene, coal, shale oil), used for wood in the open air, in the ground or in water. Antiseptic pastes for coating based on bitumen and liquid glass have a similar purpose. The latter are not waterproof and therefore they are protected from above with such waterproofing roll materials as roofing felt, roofing material.

The following requirements are imposed on antiseptics: possibly greater toxicity in relation to wood-destroying microorganisms; long-term preservation of toxic properties; no harmful effect on the strength of wood and fastening metal (bolts, nails); the ability to penetrate as deep as possible into the thickness of the wood; harmlessness to people.

Impregnation of wood with antiseptics can be carried out by several methods: surface treatment with brushes to a depth of 1 - 2 mm; alternate immersion of products in hot-cold baths with a temperature of 90 - 20 ° C, respectively; under pressure of 0.6 - 0.8 MPa in autoclaves; saturation in a high-temperature bath at 160 - 170 °C.

Thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity wood depends on its porosity, humidity and the direction of the flow of heat or electric current. When dry, wood is a heat-insulating material and a good dielectric.

By fire resistance wood is a combustible material, its ignition occurs at a temperature of 250 - 300 ° C. The norms allow the use of wood for the manufacture of beams, columns, arches, trusses, frames, provided that the material is impregnated with special fire retardant substances - flame retardants. The most effective method of processing under pressure. Traditional means of fire protection of wooden structures are coatings based on cement-sand, clay and other plasters. A variety of paints are also widely used for fire protection of wood - non-intumescent and intumescent, inorganic and organic. Coatings and paints protect the material from ignition by releasing gases when heated, which prevent the combustion process and absorb the released heat, or water, which maintains the temperature at 100 ° C. Plate and sheet materials are also used for fire protection of wooden structures. The most widely used are plasterboard and asbestos-cement sheets. Their use allows increasing the fire resistance of wooden structures by 20-30 minutes with a thickness of 10 mm.

Chemical resistance wood depends on the concentration and duration of exposure to solutions of acids and alkalis. Organic acids (acetic, lactic, etc.) do not destroy this material, as well as weakly alkaline solutions. Inorganic acids (sulphuric, phosphoric) dehydrate the wood, causing it to char.

Mechanical properties wood depend on the direction of the applied load in relation to wood fibers, average density and moisture content.

The compressive strength is determined along and across the fibers on samples in the form of a rectangular prism 20x20x30 mm in size. The strength of wood in compression along the fibers is 4-6 times greater than across. For example, for pine along the fibers - 100 MPa, across - 20 - 25 MPa. Wood, due to its organic origin and fibrous structure, has great resistance to bending, so it is used in the manufacture of beams, rafters, trusses. The strength, which ranges from 50 to 100 MPa, is determined on beam specimens 20x20x300 mm. The tests are carried out according to the scheme of a beam lying freely on two supports with a span of 240 mm and loaded with two concentrated loads at a distance of 80 mm.

On the chipping timber works in truss trusses. This strength is 6 - 13 MPa when shearing along the fibers and 24 -
40 MPa across the fibers.

Static hardness is numerically equal to the load that is necessary to indent half of a metal ball of a certain mass and diameter into the surface of the sample. Depending on this indicator, all tree species are divided into soft(pine, spruce, alder) –
35 - 50 MPa, solid(oak, hornbeam, birch) - 50 - 100 MPa, very hard(dogwood, boxwood) - more than 100 MPa. The hardness of wood decreases with increasing moisture content.

Along with static hardness determine dynamic hardness by the diameter of the imprint obtained as a result of a metal ball of a certain mass and diameter falling from a given height. This indicator is important for assessing the quality of materials used for flooring.

When working beams, arches, trusses, such a property as dynamic modulus of elasticity material, which is calculated from the deflection of the sample beam. For example, for pine and spruce, the dynamic modulus of elasticity is 1000 - 15000 MPa. This indicator increases with increasing density and decreases with moisture.

One of the promising ways to significantly improve the properties of wood is to modify it with synthetic polymers. The essence of the modification is that natural wood is impregnated with liquid monomer, which is then cured under the action of heat, chemicals or ionizing radiation. The peculiarity of the modification is that the synthetic polymer does not just fill the free space between the fibers, but interacts with the components of the wood. As a result, such shortcomings as swelling and shrinkage, warping and cracking, decay and fire are excluded. At the same time, wood retains its positive qualities: low density, high strength, heat and sound insulating ability, and chemical resistance. The greatest effect from the modification is obtained if wood with low physical and mechanical properties is used as the starting material, i.e. wood of low-value species that does not yet have a sufficiently wide technical application, for example, aspen.

2.1.2. Wood materials and products

Wood materials are used in construction as structural, finishing, heat-insulating, acoustic and joinery products.

to construction materials include round timber, lumber, plywood, wood laminates, fiberboard, wood concrete, cement particle boards.

Round timber obtained by peeling and sawing tree trunks. Depending on the diameter of the upper end, they are divided into logs (not less than 14 cm), undercarriage (8 - 13 cm) and poles
(3 cm). Thick short timber with a diameter of more than 200 mm is called ridges, they are used for the manufacture of wood veneer, plywood; logs - for the production of lumber, the construction of log houses, the manufacture of piles, hydraulic structures, bridge elements, communication line supports, radio and power transmission; podtovarnik and poles - for auxiliary and temporary structures.

When cutting logs get lumber various types and sizes (beams, sleepers, boards) (Fig. 2.2). Glued structures are made from logs, boards and beams: frames, arches, trusses, beams, piles, the strength, rigidity and bearing capacity of which are increased by reinforcing with steel rods, wire, mesh or fiberglass reinforcement.

Plywood is a sheet material glued from three or more layers of peeled veneer in such a way that the direction of the fibers in adjacent layers is mutually perpendicular. Such a structure increases the uniformity of the product in terms of properties, eliminates shrinkage deformations and warpage.

Veneer- thin sheet material obtained by peeling or planing steamed logs on special machines.

Rice. 2.2. Lumber:

a - plates; b - quarters; c - croaker; d, f - edged board; d - board

semi-edged; g - four-rolled timber; h - clean-cut timber

In construction, plywood is used for sheathing internal partitions on a wooden frame, spatial structures in the form of vaults and domes, as well as glued beams, arches and trusses. In order to increase strength, hardness and rigidity in the manufacture of plywood, a metal mesh is laid between its layers. In this case, plywood is called reinforced and can be used in especially critical structures. Pipes occupy an important place in the production of plywood products. Depending on the technology, plywood pipes can be pressed or obtained by the method of roll winding - twisted. These products have increased anti-corrosion resistance and are designed for the transportation of waste water, oil, oils, as well as slightly aggressive industrial solutions. As a structural material, plywood pipes are used for columns, masts, supports, trusses.

Wood laminates are sheet material obtained by pressing several layers of veneer impregnated at high temperature with high-molecular resins. Plastic production technology includes preparation of wood veneer, its impregnation with polymers, drying of the impregnated veneer, assembling into bags, pressing, cutting to specified dimensions. Plastics are used for sheathing cooling towers, constructions of rigid spatial shells for covering large-span premises (indoor stadiums, circuses, markets), exterior and interior decoration of industrial premises.

fibrolite called slab material from thin long wood shavings and mineral binder (usually Portland cement). The production technology includes chemical processing of wood waste, mixing them with water and cement until a homogeneous mass is obtained, filling the mold and hardening the products. Fiberboard boards can be sawn and drilled with conventional woodworking tools, it is easy to drive nails and screws into them; they are well plastered and painted; adhere strongly to uncured concrete and securely fasten to the surface of concrete and masonry structures. Fibrolit is frost-resistant, does not rot, is not affected by rodents. In terms of fire resistance, the material is classified as slow-burning. The physical and mechanical properties of the material depend on its density, which is controlled by the amount of mineral binder and the degree of compaction. Depending on the density, structural, heat-insulating and acoustic fiberboard is produced. Structural fibrolite slabs are used as floors, partitions and coatings of agricultural and warehouse buildings, as well as walls of wooden standard houses, heat-insulating and acoustic - to ensure comfortable living and working conditions in residential and public buildings.

Arbolit is a lightweight wood concrete on a mineral binder. For the manufacture of wood concrete, crushed waste from sawmilling and processing of wood of various species, as well as crushed branches, branches, tops, slabs, and slats are used. Portland cement is more often used as a mineral binder, less often - lime with hydraulic additives, in some cases - magnesia binders and gypsum. Manufacturing technology is similar to fiberboard. From wood concrete, hinged and self-supporting panels of external and internal walls, coating slabs are made. The surface of the panels is protected with asbestos-cement sheets on screws, cement mortar, and ceramic tiles. It is not allowed to use wood concrete products for plinths, basement walls.

A promising material for wooden housing construction are cement particle boards. Unlike fibrolite and wood concrete, these plates are pressed at elevated pressure, so they have a greater density and strength. Cement particle boards are used for exterior cladding of wall panels of residential buildings, the manufacture of sanitary cabins.

The choice of materials for interior decoration depends on the purpose of the premises, operating conditions and building capital. At the same time, not only the decorative effect, the durability of the material itself are taken into account, but also the convenience of its operation, the conditions of sanitary and hygienic maintenance. Yes, for wall decoration lining is used in living rooms, in public buildings - cement-bonded, chipboard, hardboard with a front surface finish with decorative paint and varnish compositions, polymer films, plastic or veneer of valuable wood species.

Wood chip(chipboard) and wood fiber(Fibreboard) plates obtained by flat pressing of waste wood (shavings, sawdust) mixed with hot synthetic resins or adhesive binder. Waste board materials similar in properties are produced on the basis of flax processing (fires) or fires in combination with wood fibers.

For cladding the internal walls of public administrative and industrial buildings, decorative plywood is used with the front surface finished with special paper that imitates the texture of precious wood or fabric, film coating, and sliced ​​veneer. If the project provides for an improved or high-quality finish, wood-based laminates are used. In the production of finishing works, wallpapers are widely used, which are used for pasting walls and ceilings. This is a paper-based roll material with a printed or embossed pattern. When protecting the paper surface with transparent film compositions (washable, moisture resistant), they can be used in rooms that require wet cleaning (kitchens, toilets, bathrooms).

For floor coverings in residential and public buildings, floorboards, parquet, parquet boards, chipboards and hardboards are used. These materials cannot be used in rooms with a damp operating mode (humidity over 60%) and high pedestrian loads (floors in lobbies, trading floors, canteens).

Materials such as heat-insulating fiberboard, wood concrete, soft fiber boards with an average density of 175 - 500 kg / m3 are used for warming thin brick and concrete walls in agricultural buildings, enclosing wall structures of residential, public and industrial buildings with a dry operating mode.

Acoustic fiberboard and soft fiber boards are used in the construction of airport buildings, foyers of theaters, cafes, restaurants, using them to make sound-absorbing suspended ceilings. To improve the acoustic properties, special volumetric plasters are applied to their surface or perforation is performed.

For carpentry include window and door blocks, window sills, wooden gates. The nomenclature of molded products is shown in fig. 2.3. Materials and products used in construction are presented in Table. 2.2.

Table 2.2

Application of materials and wood products

Materials and products	Application area
1
Round timber: long (logs)	Obtaining lumber, erecting log houses, manufacturing piles, bridge elements, communication line supports, radio and power transmission
short with a diameter of more than 200 mm (ridges)	Obtaining thin-sheet wood veneer for the manufacture of plastic plywood and decorative finishes for chipboard and fiberboard

The end of the table. 2.2
Long lumber (beams, sleepers, boards)	Production of glued structures (frames, arches, beams, trusses). Wall cladding during the construction of prefabricated frame individual houses, roofing sheathing, flooring (boards)
	Interior and exterior decoration
Sheet large-sized products:	Execution of frame internal partitions; erection of rigid shells of vaults; production of glued structures; pipe manufacturing
wood plastic	Frame internal partitions, rigid shells, internal and external wall decoration
Slab large-sized materials: fibrolite, arbolite	Execution of enclosing structures of walls and internal partitions. Low-density slabs are used as heat-insulating and acoustic materials
cement-bonded (DSP)	External facing of wall panels; production of sanitary cabins; interior wall decoration subject to the additional use of a decorative coating: film, paint and varnish
chipboard (chipboard), wood fiber (hardboard)	Floor covering, wall finishing when using decorative coatings; execution of frame partitions (fiberboard-solid). Soft wood fiber boards are used as heat-insulating and acoustic panels when making suspended ceilings.
Small pieces (parquet)	Floor covering in rooms with humidity not more than 60%
Joinery	Window and door blocks, window sills, gates

Rice. 2.3. Molded products:

a - grooved boards; b - seam boards; in - plinth;

g - platband; d - handrail

2.2. Polymer materials and products

Even in ancient times, such natural polymeric materials as bitumen (asphalt) were known. For 700 years BC. e. in Babylon, natural polymer-bitumen was used as a cementing and water-resistant material in the construction of a canal under the Euphrates River. Subsequently, these materials were further developed only from the second half of the 19th century. It was during this period that work was carried out on the chemical processing of such natural materials as cellulose, rubber and protein. At the beginning of the 20th century, new macromolecular substances were artificially synthesized, no longer on the basis of existing natural polymers, but on the basis of substances that were simple in chemical composition. The works of the Russian chemist Butlerov, the founder of the theory of the structure of organic substances, in particular, the synthesis of isobutylene and studies of the process of its polymerization, were of great importance.

Since the 30s of the last century, polymerization plastics (polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polymethylmethacrylate) have acquired great importance. New types of polycondensation polymers have appeared: polyamide, polyurethane, organosilicon.

2.2.1. Preparation and properties of polymeric materials

Currently, high-molecular resins, the basis of all polymeric materials, are obtained chemically as a result of the polymerization of simple molecules or the polycondensation of various organic compounds.

Process polymerization carried out without isolating by-products by breaking double, triple chemical bonds and connecting molecules into long linear or branched structures. For example, ethylene (CH2=CH2)n during polymerization forms linear polyethylene (-CH2-CH2-)n. To increase the reaction rate, heating or pressure is used, as well as ultraviolet rays, catalysts, initiators. Polymerization polymers, which are widely used in construction, include: polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyisobutylene, high and low pressure polyethylene. As a result of the polycondensation reaction, in which several substances participate, polymers of complex composition are formed with a linear (polyamides, polycarbonates) or spatial structure (phenol-formaldehyde, epoxy). At polycondensation along with the resulting polymer, by-products such as gas or water are released. Depending on the feedstock used, polymeric materials are divided into artificial and synthetic. Artificial ones are obtained by chemical modification of natural macromolecular compounds (cellulose), synthetic ones - from various monomers. The raw materials for the production of building materials are complex plastics, which consist of a mixture of several components: binder polymer, designed to ensure the plasticity of the mixture in the heated state and hardness in the cooled state (synthetic resins, rubbers, cellulose); filler(finely ground asbestos, sand, rubber waste) to reduce the cost, increase crack resistance, heat resistance, hardness; plasticizer- to increase the elasticity of the finished product; hardener- to accelerate the set of strength; pigment- to add color.

The properties of polymeric materials and products, like any other, depend on their composition and structure. The microstructure is determined to a greater extent by the substance itself, and the macrostructure is determined by the method of preparation.

Products from plastics receive several methods: direct pressing base impregnated with hot resins (fabric, wood veneer, paper) in several layers (sheet plastics) or polymer press powder (tiles for flooring); injection molding viscous molten mixture (tile and sheet material with a three-dimensional pattern for wall and ceiling decoration); extrusion or forcing a plastic mass through a nozzle of a certain size and shape (skirting boards, handrails for stairs, slats, sealing and sealing gaskets for windows and doors, rolled fabric for finishing floors and walls); smudges the upper surface of the base web (paper, fabric, fiberglass) with a paste-like polymer mass, followed by deep application of a relief pattern; roller-calender method , which consists of thorough mixing of the components on rollers, subsequent rolling of the plastic mass between two rollers rotating in opposite directions with a gap that determines the thickness of the future rolled product, and applying a three-dimensional or flat pattern to the surface. The last two methods are used to obtain rolled materials for finishing vertical and horizontal surfaces in rooms for various purposes.

Thermal insulation polymer materials receive in several ways. The first is through preliminary foaming plastic polymer mass due to intensive mechanical mixing in combination with the action of superheated steam (110 ° C) or introduction of foam additives, then pouring the mixture into a mold, quickly cooling it to fix the porous structure and cutting to size ( foam plastics).

The second - involves the use as part of the polymer mass gas-forming components, mold filling, heating to improve gas formation, rapid cooling to fix the structure and, if necessary, cutting to size ( foam plastics).

The third is due gluing by contacts corrugated sheets paper, fabric or wood veneer impregnated with hot resin ( honeycombs).

Fourth - a decrease in average density due to introductions into polymer mass highly porous aggregates(perlite) or fibrous components.

The widespread use of polymeric materials (plastics) in construction is based on their positive properties: low true density, high water resistance, hydrophobicity. These are materials that successfully work under the action of abrasive loads. Mechanical strength is well combined in them with plasticity and elasticity. High corrosion resistance ensured their use as anticorrosive materials for the protection of concrete and metal structures. With an inexhaustible color palette, plastics can successfully imitate materials such as wood, natural stone, ferrous and non-ferrous metals. An important positive property of plastics is good technological machinability. They can be easily cut, welded, ground and polished. The ability of plastics to combine with other organic and inorganic materials makes it possible to create on their basis new advanced composite materials and structures for various purposes.

Plastics also have a number of shortcomings. Most of them have a high coefficient of thermal expansion, increased creep, and non-fire resistance. Under the influence of atmospheric factors and especially sunlight, polymers age. This process is accompanied by a decrease in strength and elasticity. The materials have relatively low hardness and heat resistance. In relation to heating, polymers are divided into thermoplastic(polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride) and thermoset(based on epoxy and polyester resins). For thermoplastics, the transition from a plastic state (when heated) to a solid state (when cooled) is not accompanied by a change in the composition and structure of the product and, as a result, physical and mechanical properties. Heating of thermosetting polymers leads to structural changes at the microlevel, which has a significant impact on their properties, they become rigid and brittle.

2.2.2. Application of polymeric materials and products

An analysis of all the properties of polymeric materials showed that it is economically feasible to use them in construction in the manufacture of load-bearing structures of high corrosion resistance, flooring, wall decoration, thermal insulation of enclosing structures and process equipment, sealing joints and seams in large-panel buildings, waterproofing roofs and foundations, manufacturing sanitary - technical equipment and pipes, as well as for anti-corrosion works.

TO load-bearing structures include walls, shells and slabs of coatings, columns, beams, road slabs, floor coverings of industrial buildings. An example is multilayer panels, which are used as enclosing structures for walls and coatings. They are a wooden or aluminum frame, sheathed on both sides with hard fibreboard and chipboard with a waterproof polymer coating or sheet plastic, the gap between the sheathing is filled with foam or foam plastic heat-insulating boards. Such designs are widely used in industrial construction.

Of great interest are pneumatic structures (soft shells), which perform the enclosing functions of the vault. The predetermined shape of the dome and its bearing capacity are provided by forced air at a pressure of 0.1 - 1.0 kPa. The material for pneumatic structures are non-reinforced and reinforced mesh (nylon, lavsan, metal) polymer films, fabrics coated or impregnated with polymers, high-strength steel ropes. Soft shells are used to cover markets, gyms. When filled with water or water combined with air, these structures are used as dams.

The advantages of rigid shells are that they can have both positive and negative surface curvature. The spans covered by the shells can reach 90–110 m, the weight of 1 m2 of the coating is 7–20 kg. The material for rigid shells is fiberglass sheets, aluminum and steel profiles, glued wooden beams and foam plastic to provide thermal insulation.

During the construction of shops for the chemical, food, pulp and paper industries, the question arises of ensuring the corrosion resistance of load-bearing and self-supporting structures. The only material that meets the set of specified properties is polymer concrete. It is obtained by intensive mixing of heated aggregates (sand, crushed stone), polymer resin and additives in a concrete mixer. The resulting mass is placed in a mold, compacted and kept at temperatures up to 100 °C. Polymer concretes have high mechanical strength (Rco = 90 - 110 MPa, Rras = 9 - 11 MPa), chemical resistance, dustlessness, hygiene, water resistance. All these properties predetermine the use of these materials for the manufacture of columns, floor slabs, piece materials for flooring. In the production of polymer solutions, there is no large aggregate (crushed stone) in the composition.

Depending on the type of polymer binder, polymer concrete can be furan, polyester, epoxy; containing reinforcement are called armopolymer concretes. Depending on the material of the reinforcement, steel-polymer concrete (steel reinforcement) and glass-polymer concrete (fiberglass reinforcement) are distinguished. Reinforcement can be in the form of rods, wire or individual fibers, evenly distributed throughout the volume - dispersed reinforcement. Short thin threads and fibers (fibers) made of metal, glass, rocks and polymers are used as dispersed reinforcement. If dispersed reinforcement is used in polymer concrete, then concrete is called fiber polymer concrete.

fiberglass rebar obtained by twisting glass fibers impregnated with resins into a bundle and applying a special protective polymer film coating to the surface of the resulting rods. Fiberglass reinforcement has high strength, chemical resistance, so it is used in reinforced concrete structures operated under the action of acid and salt solutions.

It is possible to increase the resistance of finished reinforced concrete structures by impregnating them with a monomer, which, polymerizing in the pores of concrete, provides high density and corrosion resistance of structures. Impregnation is carried out in special sealed chambers under pressure to a depth of 3 cm. Such material is called concrete polymer, and structures and products - concrete-polymer.

Structures subjected to load during operation also include formwork. Formwork is used to obtain concrete and reinforced concrete elements and structures at the construction site. For her manufactures use chipboard, waterproof plywood, plastics. Due to its hydrophobicity, the surface of the plastic formwork has little adhesion to concrete and does not require special lubrication. Forms for the production of precast concrete at the plant can be all-polymer or combined. The latter are obtained by lining wooden surfaces with sheets of plastics. In addition to the above, there is another option for manufacturing fiberglass formwork (molds) - by spraying a mixture of fiberglass with resin on the enclosing surface made of fiberboard, chipboard or plywood. In addition to fiberglass, sheet rigid polyvinyl chloride, paper-laminated plastics, polyethylene, and rubber are used for formwork.

For floor coverings in construction, polymer solutions, rolled (linoleum), tile materials and pile carpet products are used, which are used as a secondary coating. Seamless monolithic coatings from polymer mastics, mortars and concretes are used in industrial buildings where corrosion resistance is required or there are increased requirements for floors in terms of hygiene and dust-free coatings. The coating is performed in two layers: the lower one is made of polymer concrete, the upper one is made of polymer solution. Leveling and compaction is carried out with special vibrators or rollers.

The most common flooring material is rolled linoleum. Linoleum floors are comfortable, as they are resilient, muffle the noise of steps, have low thermal conductivity, are decorative, easy to clean, resist wear well, and are durable. The quality of linoleum is evaluated by three main indicators: elasticity, hardness and abrasion. According to the type of basic raw material used, linoleums can be divided into polyvinyl chloride, rubber and alkyd. The main volume is PVC(PVC) linoleums, which are produced baseless (by extrusion, roller-calendering) and basic (floating method) with a smooth or embossed texture of the front surface. As a basis, jute fabrics, fiberglass and fiberglass mesh are used, as well as non-woven needle-punched material, which gives linoleum heat and sound insulating properties. Similar products are obtained by applying the foamed polymer mass to the substrate. These materials are used for flooring in residential, public and industrial buildings with medium traffic.

Rubber linoleums(relins) are made on the basis of synthetic rubbers, fillers (finely ground rubber waste, rocks) and additives. By design, they can be single-layer or multi-layer on a heat and sound insulating subbase. This type of material has proven itself well for covering the floors of animal husbandry, medical facilities, and is used to a limited extent in mass housing construction. Exposure to acids, alkalis, fats, solvents and petroleum products is not recommended.

Alkyd linoleums apply in premises, public, treatment-and-prophylactic and industrial buildings.

Linoleum sheets are welded in workshops with high frequency currents, hot air or infrared rays to obtain a room-sized carpet, which reduces the labor intensity of finishing work on the construction site. Linoleum is laid on a carefully made even, dry and clean base and glued with special polymer compounds.

Roll materials also include carpet pile heat and sound insulating coatings, which are used in residential and public buildings. They are made from synthetic pile material on a substrate. Pile-stitched (tufted), needle-punched felt carpets and pile linoleums - pile is used for flooring in hotels, theaters, libraries, etc.

The second place in terms of production volume for flooring is occupied by tiled polymeric materials. Depending on the binder used, they can be divided into coumaronic, PVC, rubber. Tiles are obtained by pressing or cutting to size from a baseless linoleum sheet. The main purpose is to cover the floors of kitchens, corridors, landings.

Advantages tile coatings: increased production efficiency by reducing the consumption of a polymer binder, high durability of products and repairability of the coating. disadvantages: low decorative effect, a large number of seams that reduce the solidity of the coating, increased labor intensity when laying floors. Compared to tiles advantages of linoleums- in their industrial, manufacturability and greater solidity, as well as in low labor intensity during installation.

For wall decoration apply film baseless and basic materials, as well as large-sized sheets and small-piece tiles. They can be painted in different colors with a smooth, embossed or embossed surface. Finishing of kitchens, hallways, trading floors, cafes is carried out using PVC film on a paper base with various printed and embossed color patterns (polyplene, isoplene). Devilon imitating leather, texoplen - a fabric with a printed pattern, impregnated with a special organosilicon composition, has a high decorative effect.

In the decoration of residential (corridors, hallways) and public spaces, rolled foam on a paper base is increasingly being used. This material is forbidden to be used in children's institutions, hospitals, as it belongs to the group of combustible materials. The possibility of using polymer roll materials is evaluated by their surface water absorption, flexibility and tensile strength.

Tiling sanitary facilities, halls, trading floors are performed using special adhesive polymer compounds (mastic). Tiles are made of polystyrene decorative and PVC embossed, imitating the texture of precious woods, stucco patterns. Due to the low fire resistance of these materials, it is forbidden to use them in rooms with open fire heaters, in children's institutions and in stairwells. The quality of products is assessed by compliance with GOST of appearance and heat resistance.

Found widespread for wall decoration sheet paper-layered plastic, which is produced in one-color and multi-color with imitation of precious wood, stone. Facing relief polyvinyl chloride panels polydecor are used for finishing walls and ceilings of public and industrial buildings. Sheets are made with a relief pattern, one-color and multi-color, with a printed pattern, a smooth or embossed front surface.

TO special purpose materials include acoustic, heat-insulating, roofing, waterproofing, sealing and anti-corrosion.

Acoustic soundproof materials are used in structures between ceilings and walls in the form of flexible, resilient polyurethane foam or sponge rubber gaskets. For the same purpose, elastic mineral wool mats and slabs are used, which are large-sized products, which include stone, slag or glass fibers bonded with polymer resins, as well as polyurethane foam and foam vinyl chloride slabs located under the floor covering.

sound-absorbing materials are needed to reduce noise in industrial workshops, auditoriums, classrooms, television and radio studios. The effect of sound absorption is ensured by the high through porosity of the material (mineral wool, glass wool boards on a phenol-formaldehyde, bitumen or starch binder) or artificial perforation. Laminate plastic can be used as the perforated cover. The basis of polymer products (plates) are foamed or gas-filled plastics with open porosity.

Thermal insulation plastic-based materials are made from various polymers: polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, etc. Porous plastics are characterized by high thermal insulation properties combined with good strength properties. One of the highly effective heat-insulating materials is mipora obtained by foaming urea-formaldehyde resin. It is used in the form of blocks with a density of 10 - 20 kg / m3 for thermal insulation of brick walls and three-layer frame panels.

By structure, heat-insulating foam plastics have predominantly closed pores. The properties of materials, depending on the type of polymer and the method of production, vary widely: density 10 - 150 kg/m3; thermal conductivity at a temperature of 20 ± 5 °С - 0.023 -
0.052 W / (m K), strength 0.05 - 4 MPa, volumetric water absorption - 2 - 70%. In terms of fire resistance, the products are classified as slow-burning and combustible materials.

Foam plastics are widely used for thermal insulation of pipelines and equipment, for insulation of building enclosing structures and protection of refrigeration units. The temperature of application of foam plastics, depending on the type of resin, ranges from -180 to +100 °C.

The problem of improving the thermal properties of enclosing structures is solved through the use of multilayer wall and roof panels, the middle layer of which is made of an effective slab insulation or the method of foaming the polymer directly into the cavity of the building structures is used. According to this technology, polymer granules are heated with steam or high-frequency currents, poured between the layers of the panel and cooled to a certain temperature.

Due to high water resistance, water resistance, often combined with hydrophobic properties, polymers have found wide application in roofing and waterproofing building structures. Sheet and roll products, mastic compositions are used as roofing.

Most common among leafy roofing materials received flat and corrugated polyester fiberglass. These materials have high strength, weather resistance, high light transmission (up to 85%). The main purpose of roofing fiberglass is the installation of roofs for unheated buildings - pavilions, verandas, warehouses, as well as greenhouses and greenhouses.

Roll materials simultaneously perform the role of roofing and waterproofing. These include fiberglass-reinforced and non-reinforced polymer films, baseless materials, which include rubber compounds in combination with fillers and special additives (hydrobutyl, butizol, buterol) or obtained on the basis of fiberglass mesh and fiberglass with impregnation and coating on both sides with polymeric mastic. compounds (armobitep, elastoglass, etc.).

It is interesting to use a new polymer material krovelit, which is a mastic composition based on chlorosulfonated polyethylene. To obtain a durable waterproof top coating, the composition is applied with rollers to the surface of a reinforced concrete or asbestos-cement slab in several layers, where it dries up and turns into an elastic elastic rubber carpet that successfully operates at temperatures from -45 to +120 ° C.

For the production of new rolled waterproofing materials, synthetic polyamide, polyethylene fibers are used, connected with synthetic resins, latexes. Sometimes fusible fibers are added to the mass, which, when melted and rolled, form a continuous web. Synthetic fibers with the addition of mineral fibers (glass, slag) and a binder for the production of non-woven synthetic fabrics are widely used. There are various combinations of organic fibers with inorganic (metal, slag, glass, basalt) fibers that increase the strength and durability of rolled materials. Vinyl acetate, phenolic resins, polyacrylic acid esters, organosilicates and latexes are used as a binder.

An important task in construction joint sealing between building blocks and panels, since joints are the most vulnerable point in buildings. Sealing materials for durable and reliable ensuring the solidity of the structure must be weather and moisture resistant, resistant to multiple seasonal and daily temperature changes, have good heat and sound insulation properties. The materials used are mastic compositions, elastic gaskets in the form of porous or dense rubber-like polymer bundles (poroizol, gernit, etc.).

Mastic compositions are obtained by mixing organic binders with finely ground fillers and special additives that increase the material's resistance to ultraviolet rays, slow down the aging process, etc. Powdered or finely ground fibrous inorganic materials (sand, slag, asbestos) are used as fillers that reduce binder consumption and increase operational properties. With their introduction, shrinkage deformations are reduced during the curing of the compositions, heat resistance and mechanical strength are increased. Finely dispersed rubber waste is used to increase elasticity and elasticity. According to the type of binder used, mastics are classified into polymer, bitumen-polymer and bituminous. According to the technology of application - hot, requiring heating before applying to the surface, and cold, the plasticity of which is provided by water (emulsion) or a solvent. In addition to the sealing purpose, mastics are used for gluing rolled materials for roofing, vapor and waterproofing of pipelines and building structures, and also to protect them from corrosion.

Anti-corrosion polymeric materials are produced in the form of paints and varnishes, putties, mastics, mortars and concretes, as well as products such as tiles and sheets. Their main purpose is to protect building structures and process equipment from destruction.

Polymer solutions and polymer concretes based on furan resins are used for flooring under the action of acids, alkalis and organic solvents. On the basis of thermoplastic resins (polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, polyisobutene) for gluing anticorrosion protection of building structures, products and materials are produced in the form of sheets, tiles and films. As fixing compositions, special adhesives, putties, mastics based on chemically resistant high-molecular resins are used.

colorful compositions used to protect the surface of building structures from corrosion, decay, moisture absorption, as well as to make them decorative. Depending on the purpose in the coating, the following types of paint compositions are distinguished: primers, providing adhesion of the coating to the surface; putties, designed to fill pores, sinks and level the surface to be painted; color compositions, giving decorativeness and performing protective functions in relation to the surface of the product and structure.

The choice of paints and varnishes used to protect concrete, reinforced concrete and metal structures is carried out taking into account the operating conditions, the type and degree of aggressiveness of the environment, the required durability of the coating. To the mark varnishes, enamels, paints numbers, denoting conditionally their purpose, letters- type of polymer binder. For example, EP-225 enamel is limited weather-resistant, based on epoxy resin.

Painting compositions are viscous compositions that form, when applied to the surface of products and curing, film dense elastic protective coatings.

The main components of these materials are binders(film-forming substances), providing the plasticity of the mixture, strength and durability of the coating. In polymer paint compositions, high molecular weight resins are used as a binder, in oil - drying oils. Drying oils can be obtained by processing vegetable oils (linseed, hemp, etc.) - natural and based on polymer resins.

Depending on plasticity, oil paints are divided into thickly grated And ready to eat(with an increase in drying oil consumption). To speed up the curing of the film, oil paints are injected with driers.

Binder quality evaluated by viscosity, color And speed drying out. When the polymer binder is dissolved with an organic solvent (gasoline, white spirit, toluene, turpentine), varnish, forming a transparent protective coating when applied to the surface, by introducing a pigment into the varnish - enamel.

Pigment is a finely ground colored powder, insoluble in water, binder and solvent. By origin, pigments can be organic with high color intensity but reduced durability, and mineral- weather resistant. The quality of pigments is evaluated by the degree of their grinding - the fineness of grinding (dispersion), hiding power(staining intensity) and oil capacity(the minimum consumption of a binder required to obtain a homogeneous plastic mass of a certain molar consistency).

The paint composition includes a binder, a pigment, a solvent (or diluent) and a filler.

Filler used in the form of slightly colored finely ground mineral material (quartz sand, chalk, talc, dolomite, kaolin). The main purpose of this component is to increase the viscosity of the composition, strength, density, temperature stability and reduce the deformability of the protective film coating, as well as reduce the consumption of expensive pigment.

Thinners used to reduce the viscosity of the paint composition, in contrast to solvent they do not dissolve the binder. The thinner can be water in water-based paints, drying oil - in oil paints.

When tested colorful compositions define them viscosity, film hardness, strength at impact and bend.

The materials used in construction are presented in Table. 2.3.

Table 2.3

Application of polymeric materials

Materials and products	Application area
polymer concrete, concrete polymers	Columns, beams, floor slabs, floors in chemical plants with aggressive environments
Sheet plastics	Sheathing hinged panels; arrangement of translucent roofs (fiberglass), rigid shells; finishing of facades and internal walls; implementation of suspended ceilings; making molds in the production of reinforced concrete products and structures
Large slabs highly porous:	Sound insulation of floors

The end of the table. 2.3

	Thermal insulation of enclosing structures (wall panels, floor slabs). In the presence of perforation - sound-absorbing materials for suspended ceilings
Fiberglass rods	As a reinforcement in the production of concrete structures operated under the action of acid and salt-containing environments
Tiled - small pieces (cut down and pressed) (PVC, coumarone, rubber polystyrene, etc.)	Covering floors, walls in rooms with a wet operating mode
Roll basic and baseless:	Execution of soft roofs
linoleums (PVC, alkyd, rubber, etc.)	flooring in residential and public buildings
films smooth and embossed	Production of soft shells, protection of roofing and waterproofing roll materials, interior wall decoration
Long harnesses, cords, gaskets made of polyurethane, rubbers and soft foams	Sealing joints, sound insulation of building structures
Viscoplastic mastic compositions on bitumen-polymer and polymer binders	Making mastic roofs, sealing seams, anti-corrosion protection of building structures, gluing rolled, tiled and large-sized materials to the base
viscous colorful	Adding decorative effect and protecting the surface from destruction

2.3. Bitumen and tar binders, materials based on them

Bitumen and tar are organic materials of amorphous structure, which include high-molecular hydrocarbons and their derivatives. Bitumen materials include natural bitumen, a product of natural oil oxidation, and artificial bitumen, obtained by factory oil refining. Tars are obtained as a result of dry distillation of solid fuels: coal, peat or oil shale.

The use of bitumen has been known for a long time, but for a long time there was little mention of bitumen or asphalt in the literature. In 1300, the Italian traveler Marco Polo for the first time pointed out the deposits of "liquid asphalt" in Baku. In 1601, an attempt was made to classify bituminous materials, and only in 1777 did Le Sazet give a more or less complete classification of asphalts (bitumen), including oil. In Russia, asphalts began to be used in the forties of the XIX century, first in road construction, then in the production of varnishes, paints and waterproofing materials. Bitumen and tar are united by the proximity of the composition and structure and, as a result, the similarity of the main properties.

2.3.1. Properties of organic binders

All organic binders are black or dark brown in color and are therefore also called black binders.

Having an amorphous structure, bitumens, unlike crystalline materials, do not have a specific melting point. The gradual transition from a solid to a viscous state is reversible and occurs without changing the basic properties, therefore, bitumens are classified as thermoplastic organic materials. Tar- a dark-colored liquid product with low weather resistance. To increase the viscosity, weather and temperature resistance, fillers (limestone, sand) are introduced into the tar composition. Since organic binders are absolutely dense, their average and true density are numerically equal and vary depending on the composition from 800 to 1300 kg/m3.

In construction practice, the most widely used bitumen. They are hydrophobic (not wetted by water), waterproof, their porosity is almost zero, so they are waterproof and frost-resistant. These properties make it possible to widely use bitumen in the production of waterproofing and roofing materials. The service life of bitumen products in air is short, since under the action of sunlight and air oxygen, bitumen ages, accompanied by an increase in hardness and brittleness. In this regard, petroleum bitumen is transported in closed containers or paper bags and stored in special closed warehouses protected from sunlight and precipitation.

Due to the fact that the technology for producing materials and products using bitumen is based on its property of transition when heated from a solid to a plastic state, and also taking into account the operating conditions of roofing materials, for bitumen, according to GOST, the following definitions are provided thermal performance: softening temperature on the "ring-ball" device, which characterizes the heat resistance and the degree of softening of bitumen when heated; flash point of gaseous products released from bitumen when heated. The latter indicator is necessary to develop a safe technology for obtaining materials and products using bitumen.

The quality of bitumen is also evaluated by viscosity and extensibility. Viscosity determined by the depth of penetration into the bitumen of the needle for a certain time under the action of a fixed load at a test temperature of 25 ° C (penetration). Viscosity is expressed in degrees, with 1° corresponding to a needle penetration depth of 0.1 mm. Extensibility(ductility) - the ability of bitumen to stretch into thin threads that break under the action of an applied tensile load. Stretch is measured in centimeters. These three main properties of bitumen are interrelated. Hard bitumens have a high softening point, but low extensibility, i.e. relatively fragile. Soft bitumen softens at a low temperature, can be strongly stretched - they have great plasticity. According to the above properties for bitumen, a brand is determined, the symbol of which includes letters that determine the use of bitumen, and numbers that characterize its main properties. For example, grades BN-90/10, BNK-90/40 are building and roofing oil bitumen, the softening point of which is 90 ° C, viscosity 10 and 40 °, respectively, BND-130/220 is oil road bitumen with a viscosity of 131 - 220 °.

bitumen corrosion resistant in relation to aqueous solutions of many acids, alkalis, salts and most aggressive gases, but dissolve partially or completely in various organic solvents (alcohol, acetone, turpentine). This property allows them to be used for the preparation of anti-corrosion mastics, varnishes and paints.

Mechanical properties bitumens depend on the ambient temperature. At normal (20 °C) temperatures, these are, as a rule, solid, relatively ductile materials; when the temperature drops to negative, they are brittle. In order to increase elasticity, heat resistance, mechanical strength, polymeric and mineral additives are introduced into organic binders. Bitumen-based materials cannot be used under the action of hot water and liquid organic media (oils, solvents, petroleum products).

2.3.2. Materials and products based on organic binders

Given the specific properties of organic binders, bitumen and tar are used to produce materials and products for special purposes: waterproofing, sealing, anticorrosion and road.

Depending on the working conditions of the building structure, various kinds waterproofing, and, consequently, the materials used for its implementation.

So, to protect against destruction of the roof, underground structures, foundations for equipment, reinforced concrete piers and piles, paint waterproofing. It is performed in several layers using bitumen, tar and bitumen-polymer mastics.

Mastics are plastic or viscous compositions, which include the organic binder itself: roofing, road bitumen or mixtures thereof, high molecular weight resins to increase plasticity and finely ground mineral filler (sand, limestone, asbestos, talc) to increase durability, strength, and temperature resistance of the coating and bitumen savings. In order to facilitate the application of the composition to the surface to be protected, the mastic is either heated ( hot mastic), or an organic solvent is introduced ( cold mastic).

The disadvantages of hot mastics include instability of properties, high energy consumption for production, the possibility of burns during their use, difficult working conditions, and relatively low performance properties under atmospheric influences. When working with cold mastics, a solvent harmful to human health evaporates.

In recent years, there has been an increasing use bituminous emulsion mastics, which are small particles of bitumen evenly distributed in water, covered with a layer of solid (cement, clay, lime) or liquid (soap, sulphite-alcohol stillage) emulsifier and filler. The emulsifier ensures the homogeneity and stability of the emulsion, the shelf life of which does not exceed several months. These mastics do not contain toxic solvents, are hygienic, explosion- and fire-proof, and can be easily applied to the protected surface, including wet ones, by spraying with compressed air. The protective coating is formed by the evaporation of water. Bitumen-emulsion mastics are intended for installation and repair of roofs, external waterproofing of underground parts of buildings and structures, walls, floors at a temperature of at least 5 °C. The quality of mastics is evaluated by the same indicators as bitumen.

The following mastic compositions have found the greatest use in construction for roofing and waterproofing of building structures: MBK-G-55 (65, 75, 85, 100) - bitumen mastic, hot roofing with heat resistance of 55 - 100 ° C; MBR-G-55 (65, 75, 85, 100) - bituminous with rubber crumb filler; MBBG-90(80) - hot bitumen-butyl-rubber; VK-X-60 - bitumen-cookersalt cold. For the same purpose, rubber-bitumen mastic isol is used, which can be both hot and cold (MRB-X).

Pasting waterproofing used to protect roofs, pipelines, prefabricated and monolithic reinforced concrete foundations. To perform this type of waterproofing, use roll basic(roofing material, glass roofing material, foil roofing material, hydroisol) and baseless(izol) bitumen and bitumen polymer materials.

According to STB 1107-98, the main roll roofing (K) and waterproofing (D) materials are obtained on fiberglass (CX), fiberglass (ST), polyester canvas (PX), polyester fabric (PT) and foil (foilruberoid, foilizol). Bitumen (B) and bitumen-polymer compositions: elastomeric (BE) or plastomeric (BP) are used as a binder for impregnating the base and obtaining a mastic coating composition applied to surfaces on both sides, having increased elasticity, chemical resistance and weather resistance. To prevent sticking of the material in rolls, as well as to strengthen and protect its surface from the effects of temperature, ultraviolet rays and mechanical damage, sprinkles are used: coarse-grained (colored) - K (C), fine-grained - M, dust-like - P, metal foil - MF and polymer film - PP. The grade of the material is designated as follows: K-ST-B-K / PP-3.0 STB 1107-98 - roofing material on fiberglass using bituminous binder and coarse-grained dressing (or film coating) with a mass of coating composition of 3001-3500 g / m2 . Depending on the technology of laying roll materials, they can be glued to the base using special mastics and built-up. The latter have a thickened layer of the coating composition on the underside of the roll, which is heated for gluing, giving adhesive ability, with a gas-flame burner. When using bitumen-impregnated cardboard and bituminous mastic coating composition as the basis, the material is called roofing material, if the basis was fiberglass - glass roofing material. Quality of roll materials evaluated by flexibility on a beam of a certain radius at zero or negative temperatures, heat resistance, tensile strength and water absorption. Soft roll roofing is a multi-layer coating, therefore, as a sublayer, cover materials protected by a polymer film or dust-like dressing are used, as well as non-covered ones, which are a cardboard base impregnated with bitumen - glassine. In addition to roll materials, sheet materials are used to protect the roof and the entire building as a whole - Ondulin and Shingles tiles (bituminous tiles). The first is wavy elastic sheets molded from cellulose fibers impregnated with bitumen. On the front side, the sheets are covered with a protective and decorative paint layer based on a thermosetting polymer and light-resistant pigments. The second material is obtained on the basis of fiberglass or asbestos cardboard impregnated with bitumen. A self-adhesive layer of rubber-bitumen composition is applied on the lower surface, which ensures absolute tightness of the roof due to its heating and partial melting by solar energy. The top mastic coating is protected by stone carvings of a certain size and color.

Coating waterproofing made of asphalt plasters. It is recommended for rigid, non-deformable horizontal and vertical concrete surfaces. The composition of asphalt plasters, which can be cold and hot, includes, respectively: bituminous emulsion paste or heated bitumen, filler and quartz sand. Bituminous paste is a thick creamy mass obtained by intensive mechanical grinding of bitumen in water in the presence of an inorganic emulsifier (lime), which increases its uniformity and stability.

To fill the seams of various designs and purposes in order to impart solidity to the structure, protect against wetting and freezing, elastic sealing bitumen and bitumen-polymer mastics(sealants) with the addition of crumb rubber. An example of sealing mastics is bitumen-rubber - resoplast (marks RK and RG), consisting of rubber crumb, bitumen, polymer component, plasticizer, and bitumen-butyl rubber, including bitumen in combination with butyl rubber, talc and plasticizer - MBBP-65. Sealing bituminous materials must meet the following requirements: be flexible and resilient; moisture and gas-tight; have weather resistance and anti-corrosion properties; maintain physico-chemical and physico-mechanical properties during operation; have a strong adhesion to the material of construction; do not emit toxic substances.

Corrosion resistance metal, concrete, reinforced concrete structures are provided with means primary and secondary protection. Primary measures include all those technological measures that ensure the stability of the material itself (composition selection). Secondary protection is used if the required durability of the structure is not achieved when using primary protection.

Secondary protection measures include: paint and varnish coatings, gluing and plaster (coating) coatings based on bitumen. In addition to bitumen, paint compositions contain modifying polymeric additives and organic solvents, the evaporation of which forms a stable coating. The disadvantages of coatings include their porosity, slow curing, low heat, frost and radiation resistance. However, the availability and relatively low cost of bitumen ensured their widespread use in construction.

Asphalt concretes and mortars are the most important materials for the construction of road and airfield pavements, floors in industrial enterprises, irrigation canals, flat roofs.

asphalt concrete- an artificial building material obtained as a result of hardening of a compacted asphalt concrete mass, consisting of carefully mixed components: crushed stone (gravel), sand, mineral filler powder and bitumen. Asphalt concrete without coarse aggregate is called asphalt mortar.

According to the type of coarse aggregate, asphalt concrete is divided into crushed stone and gravel. Depending on the grade of bitumen used and the laying temperature, hot(120°) warm(70°) and cold prepared on liquid bitumen or bitumen emulsions, which are used at an ambient temperature of at least 5 °C.

According to the largest grain size of crushed stone or gravel hot and warm asphalt concrete is divided into coarse-grained– the largest grain size is up to 40 mm; fine-grained– up to 20 mm, sandy– with the largest grain size up to 5 mm. Cold asphalt concrete can only be fine-grained or sandy. In addition, hot and warm asphalt concrete, depending on their use in road construction, is divided into dense– for the upper layers of the road surface with residual porosity from 2 to 7% by weight, porous(7 - 12%) - for the top layer and bases of road surfaces, highly porous(12 - 18%). The technology for the preparation of an asphalt concrete mixture provides for the heating of aggregates and bitumen to a predetermined temperature, their thorough mixing in a mixer. Technological features, the asphalt concrete mass is divided into tough, plastic And cast. Heavy and medium rollers are used to compact rigid and plastic masses. The cast asphalt concrete mass is compacted with special rollers, a light roller, or not compacted at all.

Quality asphalt concrete coatings evaluated by strength, wear resistance and water resistance. The technical properties of asphalt concrete change significantly depending on temperature. At ordinary temperatures (20 .. - 25 ° C) it has elastic-plastic properties, at elevated temperatures it is viscoplastic, and at low temperatures it becomes brittle. In this regard, mechanical strength tests are carried out at temperatures of 0, 20, 50 °С at a constant load rate. Depending on the temperature, the bending strength is respectively 1.0 - 1.2; 2.5 - 3 and 10 - 15 MPa.

A distinctive feature of asphalt concrete is its ability to viscous resistance to impact and wear. It has been established that in the conditions of urban transport, wear is from 0.2 to 1.5 mm per year. Since asphalt concrete is sensitive to fluctuations in the ambient temperature, structural changes constantly occur in it, leading to the destruction of the coating. Particularly intensive destructive processes occur with a sharp change in temperature. This process is accelerated by the action of water and the aging of the organic binder itself. The use of materials based on bitumen is presented in table. 2.4.

Table 2.4

Application of bitumen-based materials

Application area	Used materials and products
Waterproofing of building structures: painting	Mastics (hot, cold) bitumen, bitumen-polymer, bitumen-emulsion
pasting	Rolled basic (on cardboard, fiberglass and fabric) and baseless welded and glued
coating	Asphalt plasters cold and hot
Roof coverings	Sheet - "Ondulin", tile - shingles ("Shingles"), roll and mastic materials
Seam sealing	Bitumen-rubber mastics, bitumen-rubber
Anticorrosive protection of building structures	Colorful and mastic bitumen and bitumen-polymer compounds, roll products
Road surfaces, floors, flat roofs	Asphalt concrete and asphalt solutions

REGULATORY USED

1. GOST 11047-90. Wooden products.

2. STB 4.208-95. System of indicators of product quality. Construction. Constructions and details are wooden glued. Nomenclature of indicators.

3. STB 4.223-96. System of indicators of product quality. Construction. Parquet products. Nomenclature of indicators.

4. STB 1074-97. Details profile from wooden and wood materials for construction. Specifications.

5. STB 1105-98. Wall blocks from wood concrete for low-rise construction. Specifications.

6. STB 1116-98. Campfire and wood-bonfire plates. Specifications.

7. SNB 5.05.01-2000. Wooden structures.

8. CH 549-82. Manufacture and application of structures and products from wood concrete.

9. GOST 4598-86. Wood fiber boards.

10. GOST 19222-84. Fiberboard.

11. CH 525-80. Instructions for the technology of manufacturing polymer concrete and products from it.

12. STB 4.230-98. Polymeric finishing materials and products. Nomenclature of indicators.

13. STB 1064-97. Thermoplastic composite floor tiles. Specifications.

14. STB 1092-97. Mastic sealing bituminous-elastomer. Specifications.

15. STB 1103-98. Reinforcement fiberglass. Specifications.

16. STB 1161-99. Plates heat-insulating from synthetic fibers. Specifications.

17. STB 1240-2000. Fiberglass roll. Specifications.

18. STB 1246-2000. Heat-insulating polystyrene based on urea-formaldehyde resin. Specifications.

19. GOST 7251-77. Linoleum polyvinylchloride on a fabric basis. Specifications.

20. GOST 11529-86. Materials polyvinylchloride for floors. Control methods.

21. GOST 18108-80. Polyvinyl chloride linoleum on a heat and sound insulating subbase. Specifications.

22. GOST 26149-84. Rolled floor covering based on chemical fibers. Specifications.

23. GOST 30307-95. Mastics construction polymeric gluing latex. Specifications.

24. GOST 22950-95. Mineral wool boards of increased rigidity on a synthetic binder. Specifications.

25. STB 4.224-95. Polymer building sealing and sealing materials and products. Nomenclature of indicators.

26. STB 1033-96. Mixes asphalt concrete road, airfield and asphalt concrete. Specifications.

27. STB 1062-97. Oil bitumen for the top layer of the road surface.

28. STB 1093-97. Roofing glassine. Specifications.

29. STB 1107-98. Roll roofing and waterproofing materials based on bitumen and bitumen-polymer binder. Specifications.

30. STB 1220-2000. Modified road bitumen. Specifications.

31. STB 1245-2000. Emulsions are bituminous cationic. Specifications.

32. GOST 7415-86. Hydroisol. Specifications.

33. GOST 10296-79. Isol. Specifications.

34. GOST 10923-93. Ruberoid. Specifications.

35. GOST 15879-70. Glass roofing material. Specifications.

36. GOST 20429-84. Folgoizol. Specifications.

37. GOST 30547-97. Materials are rolled roofing and waterproofing. General specifications.

Each science is saturated with concepts, if not mastered, topics based on these concepts or indirect topics can be given very difficult. One of the concepts that should be well understood by every person who considers himself more or less educated is the division of materials into organic and inorganic. It does not matter how old a person is, these concepts are on the list of those with which they determine the general level of development at any stage of human life. In order to understand the differences between these two terms, you first need to find out what each of them is.

Organic compounds - what is it

Organic substances are a group of chemical compounds with a heterogeneous structure, which include carbon elements covalently bonded to each other. The exceptions are carbides, carbonic, carboxylic acids. Also, one of the constituent substances, in addition to carbon, is the elements of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, halogen.

Such compounds are formed due to the ability of carbon atoms to stay in single, double and triple bonds.

The habitat of organic compounds are living beings. They can be both in the composition of living beings, and appear as a result of their vital activity (milk, sugar).

The products of the synthesis of organic substances are food, medicines, clothing items, building materials, various equipment, explosives, various types of mineral fertilizers, polymers, food additives, cosmetics and more.

Inorganic substances - what is it

Inorganic substances are a group of chemical compounds that do not contain the elements carbon, hydrogen or chemical compounds, the constituent element of which is carbon. Both organic and inorganic are the constituents of cells. The first in the form of life-giving elements, others in the composition of water, minerals and acids, as well as gases.

What do organic and inorganic substances have in common?

What can be common between two seemingly antonymous concepts? It turns out that they also have something in common, namely:

1. Substances of both organic and inorganic origin are composed of molecules.
2. Organic and inorganic substances can be obtained as a result of a certain chemical reaction.

Organic and Inorganic Substances - What's the Difference?

1. Organic are more known and researched in science.
2. There are many more organic substances in the world. The number of organic ones known to science is about a million, inorganic - hundreds of thousands.
3. Most organic compounds are linked to each other using the covalent nature of the compound; inorganic compounds can be bonded to each other using an ionic compound.
4. There is a difference in the composition of the incoming elements. Organic substances are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, less often - nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and halogen elements. Inorganic - consist of all the elements of the periodic table, except for carbon and hydrogen.
5. Organic substances are much more susceptible to the influence of hot temperatures, they can be destroyed even at low temperatures. Most inorganics are less prone to being exposed to intense heat due to the nature of the type of molecular compound.
6. Organic substances are the constituent elements of the living part of the world (biosphere), inorganic - inanimate (hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere).
7. The composition of organic substances is more complex in structure than the composition of inorganic substances.
8. Organic substances are distinguished by a wide variety of possibilities for chemical transformations and reactions.
9. Due to the covalent type of bond between organic compounds, chemical reactions last somewhat longer in time than chemical reactions in inorganic compounds.
10. Inorganic substances cannot be the food of living beings, even more so - some of this type of combination can be deadly for a living organism. Organic matter is a product produced by wildlife, as well as an element in the structure of living organisms.

Organic thermal insulation materials and products are made from various vegetable raw materials: waste wood (shavings, sawdust, slabs, etc.), reeds, peat, flax tow, hemp, animal wool, and also based on polymers.

Many organic heat-insulating materials are subject to rapid decay, damage by various insects and are capable of igniting, so they are pre-treated. Since the use of organic materials as backfills is ineffective due to the inevitable settling and the ability to rot, the latter are used as raw materials for the manufacture of slabs. In the plates, the base material is almost completely protected from moisture, and, consequently, from decay, in addition, during the production of plates, it is treated with antiseptics and fire retardants, which increase its durability.

Heat-insulating materials and products from organic raw materials. Among the wide variety of heat-insulating products made from organic raw materials, wood-fibre, reed, fibrolite, peat boards, natural cork heat insulation, as well as heat-insulating foam plastics are of the greatest interest.

fibreboard used for heat and sound insulation of building envelopes. They are made from loose wood or other plant fibers - non-commercial wood, waste from the timber industry, fires, straw, reeds, cotton. The most widespread are fibreboards obtained from wood waste, which are produced by hot pressing of a fibrous mass consisting of wood fibers, water, fillers, polymer and additives (antiseptics, flame retardants, water-repellent substances). For the manufacture of insulating plates, a casting machine is used, equipped with an endless metal mesh and a vacuum installation, where the mass is dehydrated, compacted and cut into plates of the required dimensions.

A photo. 11.6. fibreboard

fibreboard produce five types: superhard, hard, semi-hard, insulating finishing and insulating. Insulating fiberboards have a length of 1200...3600 mm, a width of 1000...2800 mm and a thickness of 8...25 mm, a density of 250 kg/m3, a bending strength of 1.2 MPa, and a thermal conductivity of not more than 0.07 W/(m °C).

Along with insulating boards, insulating and finishing boards with a front surface painted or prepared for painting are used.

Reed slabs , or simply reeds, is used for thermal insulation of building envelopes of low-rise residential buildings, small industrial premises, and in agricultural construction.

A photo. 11.7. reed slab

This is a heat-insulating material in the form of plates pressed from reed stalks, which are then fastened with galvanized steel wire. For the manufacture of reed slabs, mature annual stems with a diameter of 7 ... 15 mm are used. Harvesting stems should be done in the autumn-winter period. Pressing of plates is carried out on special presses. Depending on the location of the bulrush stalks, slabs are distinguished with transverse (along the short side of the slab) and longitudinal stalks. Plates are produced with a length of 2400x2800 mm, a width of 550 ... 1500 mm and a thickness of 30 ... 100 mm, grades in density D175, 200 and 250, with a flexural strength of at least 0.18 ... 0.5 MPa, thermal conductivity 0.06 ... 0.09 W / (m ° C), humidity not more than 18% by weight.

Peat thermal insulation products are made in the form of slabs, shells and segments and are used for thermal insulation of enclosing structures of class III buildings and surfaces of industrial equipment and pipelines at temperatures from -60 to -100°C.

A photo. 11.8. peat slab

The raw material for their production is slightly decomposed high-moor peat, which has a fibrous structure, which favors the production of high-quality products from it by pressing. Plates are made with a size of 1000x500x30 mm by pressing in metal molds, followed by drying at a temperature of 120...150°C. Depending on the initial moisture content of the peat mass, there are two methods for making plates: wet (moisture content 90 ... 95%) and dry (moisture content about 35%). In the wet method, excess moisture during the pressing period is squeezed out of the peat mass through fine metal meshes. With the dry method, such grids are not laid in the forms. Peat insulating boards are divided by density into grades D 170 and 220 with a flexural strength of 0.3 MPa, thermal conductivity in a dry state of 0.6 W / (m ° C), humidity of not more than 15%.

Cement fiberboard are a heat-insulating material obtained from a hardened mixture of Portland cement, water and wood wool.

Wood wool acts as a reinforcing frame in fiberboard. In appearance, thin wood chips up to 500 mm long, 4 ... 7 mm wide, 0.25 ... 0.5 mm thick are prepared from non-commercial coniferous wood on special wood-wool machines.

A photo. 11. 9. Cement fiberboard

Wool is pre-dried, impregnated with mineralizers (calcium chloride, liquid glass) and mixed with cement dough in a wet way or with cement in a dry way (wood wool is sprinkled or pollinated with cement) in various types of mixing machines. At the same time, make sure that the wood wool is evenly covered with cement. Slabs are formed in two ways: by pressing and on conveyors, where fiberboard is formed in the form of a continuously moving tape, which is then cut into individual slabs (similar to vibro-rolled reinforced concrete products). When pressing plates, the specific pressure for heat-insulating fibrolite is taken up to 0.1 MPa, and for constructive - up to 0.4 MPa. After molding, the plates are steamed for 24 hours at a temperature of 30...35°C. Cement-fibreboard plates are produced with a length of 2400 ... 3000 mm, a width of 600 ... 1200 mm, a thickness of 30, 50, 75, 100 and 150 mm. Cement fiberboard is produced in three grades by density: F300, 400 and 500, thermal conductivity 0.09 ... 0.15 W / (m ° C), water absorption no more than 20%. Fiberboard grades F300 are used as a heat-insulating material, grades F400 and 500 - structural and heat-insulating material for walls, partitions, ceilings and coatings of buildings.

Arbolite slabs also obtained by molding and heat treatment (or without it) of organic short-waved raw materials (crushed machine chips or flail, chopped straw or reeds, sawdust, fires, etc.) treated with a mineralizer solution.

F
oto. 11.10. Arbolite slabs

Chemical additives are calcium chloride, soluble glass, alumina sulfate. The second component in the manufacture of wood concrete slabs is Portland cement. Plates are molded in length and width 500, 600 and 700 mm, thickness 50, 60 and 70 mm. Dry density is 500 kg/m3, compressive strength is 0.3...3.5 MPa, flexural strength is not less than 0.4 MPa, thermal conductivity in dry state is not more than 0.12 W/(m ° C), humidity not more than 20% by weight.

Cement particle boards domestic industry produces two grades: TsSP-1 and TsSP-2. Boards are made by pressing wood particles with a cement binder and chemical additives.

DSPs belong to the group of slow-burning materials with increased biostability. They are produced with a length of 3200 ... 3600 mm, a width of 1200, 1250 and a thickness of 8 ... 10, 12 ... 16, 18 ... 28 and 30 ... 40 mm with a polished and unpolished surface. DSP is produced with a density of 1100...1400 kg/m 3 , humidity up to 9%, water absorption for 24 hours no more than 16% and swelling in thickness no more than 2%.

A photo. 11.11. Cement particle boards

The plates have a sufficiently high bending strength, for plates with a thickness of 8 ... 16 mm it is 9 ... 12 MPa, and for plates with a thickness of 26 ... 40 mm - 7 ... 9 MPa, thermal conductivity - 0.26 W /(m °C). DSP is used in wall panels, "covering slabs, in suspended ceiling elements, ventilation ducts, in flooring, as window sills, sheathing, facing and other building products.

Cork thermal insulation materials and products (plates, shells and segments) are used for thermal insulation of enclosing structures of buildings, refrigerators and surfaces of refrigeration equipment, pipelines at a temperature of insulated surfaces from -150 to +70 ° C, for insulating ship hulls. They are made by pressing crushed cork chips, which are obtained as waste in the production of cork stoppers from the bark of a cork oak or the so-called velvet tree.

Due to its high porosity and the presence of resinous substances, cork is one of the best heat-insulating materials and is used for the production of plates, shells and segments.

A photo. 11.12. Cork slabs

Thermal insulation foams in the form of gas-filled plastics , as well as mineral wool and glass wool products are manufactured using a polymer binder.

According to the physical structure, gas-filled plastics can be divided into three groups: cellular or foamy (foam plastics), porous (foam plastics) and honeycomb (honeycomb plastics). Foam plastics and honeycomb plastics based on polymers are not only heat-insulating, but also structural materials. Thermal insulation materials made of plastics are divided according to the type of polymers used for their manufacture: into polystyrene - porous plastics based on suspension (beaded) or emulsion polystyrene; polyvinyl chloride - porous plastics based on polyvinyl chloride; phenolic - porous plastics based on formaldehyde.

The porization of polymers is based on the use of special substances that intensively release gases and swell the polymer crushed when heated. Such intumescent substances can be solid, liquid and gaseous.

A photo. 11.13. foam boards

Solid blowing agents of greatest practical importance include carbonates, sodium and ammonium bicarbonates, which release CO 2 during decomposition. Liquid blowing agents include benzene, light fractions of benzene, alcohol, etc. Gaseous blowing agents include air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, ammonia. To give elasticity to porous plastics, plasticizers are introduced into polymers - phosphates, phthalates, etc.

Porous and cellular plastics can be obtained in two ways: press and non-press. In the manufacture of porous plastics by pressing, a finely divided polymer powder with a blowing agent and other additives is compressed under a pressure of 15 ... 16 MPa, after which the sample taken (usually 2 ... 2.5 kg) is foamed, resulting in a material with a cellular structure.

In the manufacture of porous plastics by a non-pressing method, a polymer with the addition of a blowing agent, hardener, and; other components are heated in molds to the appropriate temperature. From heating, the polymer melts, the blowing agent decomposes, and the released gas foams the polymer. A material of a cellular structure is formed with small pores evenly distributed in it.

Plates, shells and segments made of porous plastics are used for thermal insulation of building envelopes and surfaces of industrial equipment and pipelines at temperatures up to 70°C.

Porous plastic products on suspension polystyrene according to the density in the dry state, they are divided into grades D 25 and 35 with a flexural strength of at least 0.1 ... 0.2 MPa, thermal conductivity of 0.04 W / (m ° C), humidity of not more than 2% by weight.

The same products on emulsion polystyrene have grades D 50 ... 200 in density, ultimate strength in bending is not less than 1.0 ... 7.5 MPa, thermal conductivity is not more than 0.04 ... 0.05 W / (m °C), humidity not more than 1% by weight. Plates made of porous plastics; are made with a length of 500 ... 1000 mm, a width of 400 ... 700 mm, a thickness of 25 ... 80 mm.

A photo. 11.14. Cellular plastic

The most common heat-insulating materials made of plastics are polystyrene foam, mipora, etc.

Polystyrene foam - excellent insulation in laminated panels, well combined with aluminum, asbestos cement and fiberglass. It is widely used as an insulating material in the refrigeration industry, shipbuilding and car building for insulating walls, ceilings and roofs in construction. Polystyrene foam, made from beaded (suspension) polystyrene, is a material consisting of fine-mesh spherical particles sintered together. Between the particles there are voids of various sizes. The most valuable properties of polystyrene foam are its low density and low thermal conductivity. Polystyrene foam is produced in the form of plates or various shaped products, it is produced with a density of up to 60 kg / m 3, strength at 10% compression up to 0.25 MPa and thermal conductivity of 0.03 ... 0.04 W / (m ° C ). The most common plate size is 1200x1000x100(50) mm.

Polyurethane foam used for thermal insulation of enclosing structures of buildings and surfaces of industrial equipment and pipelines at temperatures up to 100 ° C.

It is obtained from polyester polymers by introducing pore-forming and other additives. Polyester polymers- this is a large group of artificial polymers obtained by condensation of polyhydric alcohols (glycol, glycerol, pentaerythritol, etc.) and mainly dibasic acids - phthalic, maleic, etc.

According to the density in the dry state, porous polyurethane mats are divided into grades D 35 and 50, their thermal conductivity in the dry state is 0.04 W / (m ° C), humidity is not more than 1% by weight. On the basis of porous polyurethane, hard and soft plates with a density of 30 ... 150 kg / m 3 and a thermal conductivity of 0.022 ... 0.03 W / (m ° C) are also produced. Porous polyurethane mats are made in the form of plates 2000 mm long, 1000 mm wide, 30...60 mm thick.

Photo.11.15. Polyurethane foam

M ipora is a porous material obtained on the basis of urea-formaldehyde polymer. The raw material for the production of mipora is a urea-formaldehyde polymer and a 10% solution of sulfanaphthenic acids (Petrov's contact), as well as flame retardant additives (a solution of ammonium phosphate 20% concentration).

Photo.11.16. Mypora

Myporu used for thermal insulation of building structures, industrial equipment and pipelines at temperatures up to 70°C.

To obtain mipora, an aqueous solution of a urea-formaldehyde polymer and a foaming agent are loaded into an apparatus with a stirrer, which are vigorously mixed. The resulting foam is lowered into metal molds, which are sent to the chambers, where the mass at a temperature of 18 ... 22 ° C hardens in 3 ... 4 hours.

The obtained blocks are sent for 60...80 h to the dryer with a temperature of 30...50°C. Mipora is produced in the form of blocks with a volume of at least 0.005 m 3, compressive strength of 0.5 ... 0.7 MPa, specific impact strength of 400 MPa, water absorption of 0.11% in 24 hours, thermal conductivity of 0.03 W / (m °C).

Sovelite thermal insulation materials.

P litas are made from dolomitic lime and chrysolite asbestos. They withstand aging well and retain their thermal insulation properties for many years. They belong to the group of non-combustible substances, do not ignite and do not rot. Products do not contain corrosive agents.

Products are environmentally friendly.

Photo.11.17. Sovelite slabs

Sovelite heat-insulating boards are intended for thermal insulation of industrial equipment and pipelines, lining of steam boilers, thermal power plants, state district power plants, nuclear power plants, enterprises of the metallurgical and coke oven and gas industries, as well as pipes of large diameters at a temperature of insulated surfaces up to +600 ° C. This plate is a universal material. They can also be used for domestic purposes (protection of heating elements, grills, ten), etc.

Vermiculite (from lat. vermiculus - worm) - a mineral from the group of hydromicas with a layered structure. It is a light, free-flowing, highly porous, odorless material. Large lamellar crystals (vermiculite plates) have a golden yellow or brown color. When heated to a temperature of 900–1,000°C, vermiculite expands, showing one of its most remarkable qualities: it expands by 4.5–12 times, turning into expanded vermiculite. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that when calcined, molecular water in flakes and packs of vermiculite turns into steam, under the pressure of which the mica leaves are always moved apart in one direction, perpendicular to the cleavage of the mica.

IN
vermiculite swelled in this way, when cooled, retains the volume acquired by it with the thinnest air gaskets instead of water vapor between the mica leaves, which gives the mineral many of its valuable properties, for example:

durability. The indisputable advantage of vermiculite is that its shelf life and action is not limited!

Photo.11.18. Vermiculite gravel

- lightness (0.065–0.130 g/cm 3 ), porosity and flowability . When backfilled during work on the insulation of the building, it fills all voids of small diameter and any irregular shape;

- heat resistance. Vermiculite melting point: 1350°C, operating temperature range: -260°C to +1200°C. The material is resistant to high temperatures and open fire. When exposed to high temperatures, it does not emit gases, which is an undoubted advantage compared to other heaters;

- biological and chemical resistance . The material is odorless. It is not subject to decomposition and decay under the action of microorganisms, prevents the formation of mold, and the appearance of insects and rodents is also excluded. Vermiculite does not interact with active chemicals in the environment.

- radiation protection. Vermiculite has the ability to reflect gamma radiation, as well as absorb radioactive substances - strontium-90, cesium-137, cobalt-58;

- environmental friendliness. Expanded vermiculite is absolutely non-toxic, environmentally friendly and radiation-safe modern material, free from carcinogenic impurities;

- low hygroscopicity and high water absorption . Vermiculite has a high moisture absorption coefficient (a volume of material weighing 100 grams absorbs 400 ml of water) and when wet it slightly loses its mechanical strength. After drying, the expanded vermiculite restores its former heat and sound insulation and fire-fighting properties.

- high heat and sound insulation properties . Due to its porous structure, expanded vermiculite is an excellent heat and sound insulator (sound absorption coefficient at a frequency of 1000 Hz is within 0.7–0.8), which allows it to be successfully used as bulk insulation when processing floors and roofs.

- economy. Insulation using vermiculite provides significant cost savings, since expanded vermiculite is 7–10 times more energy-saving than traditional building materials such as concrete or brick.

All of these properties determine the unusually wide possibilities of its use as a multi-purpose raw material.

Expanded vermiculite has been successfully used in more than 200 industries worldwide. Due to the above qualities, expanded vermiculite is widely used in construction, nuclear, food and chemical industries, agriculture, metallurgy, shipbuilding.

The effect of using vermiculite as a fireproof bulk material with excellent heat and sound insulation qualities has already been evaluated in construction.

The use of vermiculite in construction has clear advantages over the use of traditional materials. Thanks to this material, it is possible not only to reduce the weight of individual structures and improve their quality, but also to reduce the consumption of valuable materials, reduce the cost of foundations and increase the usable area of ​​buildings due to thin walls and partitions.

expanded vermiculite has one of the lowest thermal conductivity among thermal insulation materials - 0.04–0.062 W / m o C. A layer of bulk vermiculite, having a thickness of only 12 cm, in brickwork provides thermal insulation that meets modern requirements.

Backfill insulation of attics and floors.

A 5 cm thick layer of vermiculite covering attic floors reduces heat loss by 75%, and a 7.5 cm thick layer reduces heat loss by 85%. A 10 cm thick layer of vermiculite will increase thermal protection by 92%! Often in attics, vermiculite is placed in bags, which makes it easy to dismantle the insulation if necessary.

Expanded vermiculite-based materials are effective in solving fire and fire protection problems. The high melting point (1350°C), significant reflectivity and high heat resistance of vermiculite have become decisive factors in the creation of fire-retardant vermiculite boards and blocks. This is an environmentally friendly material, which, in addition to high fire resistance, has excellent sound absorption and thermal insulation performance.

The use of vermiculite at different stages of construction and in various qualities allows you to solve several problems at once. Protection of structures from fire, heat preservation, sound insulation both outside the building and inside between rooms and their improvement - in a word, today the range of vermiculite use in construction is quite wide, and in the future, with the development of building technologies, it will increase significantly.

Expanded perlite.

Perlite (obsidian hydroxide) is a rock of volcanic origin (in fact, glass of volcanic origin). Chemical composition: SiO 2 -75.5; A1 2 O 3 -13.6; Fe 2 O 3 - 1.0; CaO-1.0; MgO - 0.3; Na 2 O - 3.8; K 2 O - 4.8. A distinctive feature of perlite from other volcanic glasses is that when heated to a certain temperature in its softening range, it expands from four to twenty times its original volume.

This swelling process occurs due to the presence of two to six percent of bound water in natural perlite. When this rock is rapidly heated above 870°C, it bursts like<поп корна>, since the bound water, evaporating, creates countless tiny bubbles in the softened vitrified particles. Because perlite is a form of natural glass, it is chemically inert and has a pH of approximately 7.

P Erlitovye slabs-PC products are used for thermal insulation of building structures of residential, public and industrial buildings and structures.

Perlite-cement boards are intended for thermal insulation of structures of public and industrial buildings and structures, as well as for thermal insulation of industrial equipment at an insulated surface temperature of up to 600 ° C (including DKVR and DE boilers).

Photo.11.19. perlite plate

Perlite cement boards are packed in 8 boards per package. There are 80 plates in 1 cubic meter = 10 packs.

Physical and mechanical characteristics of the plates: 1. Density, kg/m 3 320±25;

2. Bending strength, kgf/cm 2 2.5; 3. Thermal conductivity, W/m o C 0.070-0.120; 4. Temperature, °C up to 600; 5. Size, mm 500x500x50.

Expanded clay gravel. Expanded clay is a lightweight porous building material obtained by firing clay or shale. Expanded clay gravel has an oval shape. Expanded clay crushed stone differs only in that its grains are mostly cubic in shape with sharp edges and corners. It is also produced in the form of sand - expanded clay sand (see Ch. 3).

Shungizite gravel. shungizite obtained by swelling crushed shale-containing rocks containing 1, 2 - 5% of schungite substance. This is a special form of carbon, consisting of particles with a size of 0.2 microns, evenly distributed in the silicate mass.

In the past, scientists divided all substances in nature into conditionally inanimate and living ones, including the animal and plant kingdoms among the latter. Substances of the first group are called mineral. And those that entered the second, began to be called organic substances.

What is meant by this? The class of organic substances is the most extensive among all chemical compounds known to modern scientists. The question of which substances are organic can be answered as follows - these are chemical compounds that include carbon.

Please note that not all carbon-containing compounds are organic. For example, corbides and carbonates, carbonic acid and cyanides, carbon oxides are not among them.

Why are there so many organic substances?

The answer to this question lies in the properties of carbon. This element is curious in that it is able to form chains from its atoms. And at the same time, the carbon bond is very stable.

In addition, in organic compounds, it exhibits a high valence (IV), i.e. the ability to form chemical bonds with other substances. And not only single, but also double and even triple (otherwise - multiples). As the bond multiplicity increases, the chain of atoms becomes shorter, and the bond stability increases.

And carbon is endowed with the ability to form linear, flat and three-dimensional structures.

That is why organic substances in nature are so diverse. You can easily check it yourself: stand in front of a mirror and carefully look at your reflection. Each of us is a walking textbook on organic chemistry. Think about it: at least 30% of the mass of each of your cells is organic compounds. The proteins that built your body. Carbohydrates, which serve as "fuel" and a source of energy. Fats that store energy reserves. Hormones that control organ function and even your behavior. Enzymes that start chemical reactions within you. And even the "source code," the strands of DNA, are all carbon-based organic compounds.

Composition of organic substances

As we said at the very beginning, the main building material for organic matter is carbon. And practically any elements, combining with carbon, can form organic compounds.

In nature, most often in the composition of organic substances are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus.

The structure of organic substances

The diversity of organic substances on the planet and the diversity of their structure can be explained by the characteristic features of carbon atoms.

You remember that carbon atoms are able to form very strong bonds with each other, connecting in chains. The result is stable molecules. The way carbon atoms are connected in a chain (arranged in a zigzag pattern) is one of the key features of its structure. Carbon can combine both into open chains and into closed (cyclic) chains.

It is also important that the structure of chemicals directly affects their chemical properties. A significant role is also played by how atoms and groups of atoms in a molecule affect each other.

Due to the peculiarities of the structure, the number of carbon compounds of the same type goes to tens and hundreds. For example, we can consider hydrogen compounds of carbon: methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc.

For example, methane - CH 4. Such a combination of hydrogen with carbon under normal conditions is in a gaseous state of aggregation. When oxygen appears in the composition, a liquid is formed - methyl alcohol CH 3 OH.

Not only substances with different qualitative composition (as in the example above) exhibit different properties, but substances of the same qualitative composition are also capable of this. An example is the different ability of methane CH 4 and ethylene C 2 H 4 to react with bromine and chlorine. Methane is capable of such reactions only when heated or under ultraviolet light. And ethylene reacts even without lighting and heating.

Consider this option: the qualitative composition of chemical compounds is the same, the quantitative is different. Then the chemical properties of the compounds are different. As in the case of acetylene C 2 H 2 and benzene C 6 H 6.

Not the last role in this variety is played by such properties of organic substances, "tied" to their structure, as isomerism and homology.

Imagine that you have two seemingly identical substances - the same composition and the same molecular formula to describe them. But the structure of these substances is fundamentally different, hence the difference in chemical and physical properties. For example, the molecular formula C 4 H 10 can be written for two different substances: butane and isobutane.

We are talking about isomers- compounds that have the same composition and molecular weight. But the atoms in their molecules are located in a different order (branched and unbranched structure).

Concerning homology- this is a characteristic of such a carbon chain in which each next member can be obtained by adding one CH 2 group to the previous one. Each homologous series can be expressed by one general formula. And knowing the formula, it is easy to determine the composition of any of the members of the series. For example, methane homologues are described by the formula C n H 2n+2 .

As the “homologous difference” CH 2 is added, the bond between the atoms of the substance is strengthened. Let's take the homologous series of methane: its first four terms are gases (methane, ethane, propane, butane), the next six are liquids (pentane, hexane, heptane, octane, nonane, decane), and then substances in the solid state of aggregation follow (pentadecane, eicosan, etc.). And the stronger the bond between carbon atoms, the higher the molecular weight, boiling and melting points of substances.

What classes of organic substances exist?

Organic substances of biological origin include:

• proteins;
• carbohydrates;
• nucleic acids;
• lipids.

The first three points can also be called biological polymers.

A more detailed classification of organic chemicals covers substances not only of biological origin.

The hydrocarbons are:

• acyclic compounds:
  • saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes);
  • unsaturated hydrocarbons:
    • alkenes;
    • alkynes;
    • alkadienes.
• cyclic compounds:
  • carbocyclic compounds:
    • alicyclic;
    • aromatic.
  • heterocyclic compounds.

There are also other classes of organic compounds in which carbon combines with substances other than hydrogen:

• alcohols and phenols;
• aldehydes and ketones;
• carboxylic acids;
• esters;
• lipids;
• carbohydrates:
  • monosaccharides;
  • oligosaccharides;
  • polysaccharides.
  • mucopolysaccharides.
• amines;
• amino acids;
• proteins;
• nucleic acids.

Formulas of organic substances by classes

Examples of organic substances

As you remember, in the human body, various kinds of organic substances are the basis of the foundations. These are our tissues and fluids, hormones and pigments, enzymes and ATP, and much more.

In the bodies of humans and animals, proteins and fats are prioritized (half of the dry weight of an animal cell is protein). In plants (about 80% of the dry mass of the cell) - for carbohydrates, primarily complex - polysaccharides. Including for cellulose (without which there would be no paper), starch.

Let's talk about some of them in more detail.

For example, about carbohydrates. If it were possible to take and measure the masses of all organic substances on the planet, it would be carbohydrates that would win this competition.

They serve as a source of energy in the body, are building materials for cells, and also carry out the supply of substances. Plants use starch for this purpose, and glycogen for animals.

In addition, carbohydrates are very diverse. For example, simple carbohydrates. The most common monosaccharides in nature are pentoses (including deoxyribose, which is part of DNA) and hexoses (glucose, which is well known to you).

Like bricks, at a large construction site of nature, polysaccharides are built from thousands and thousands of monosaccharides. Without them, more precisely, without cellulose, starch, there would be no plants. Yes, and animals without glycogen, lactose and chitin would have a hard time.

Let's look carefully at squirrels. Nature is the greatest master of mosaics and puzzles: from just 20 amino acids, 5 million types of proteins are formed in the human body. Proteins also have many vital functions. For example, construction, regulation of processes in the body, blood clotting (there are separate proteins for this), movement, transport of certain substances in the body, they are also a source of energy, in the form of enzymes they act as a catalyst for reactions, provide protection. Antibodies play an important role in protecting the body from negative external influences. And if a discord occurs in the fine tuning of the body, antibodies, instead of destroying external enemies, can act as aggressors to their own organs and tissues of the body.

Proteins are also divided into simple (proteins) and complex (proteins). And they have properties inherent only to them: denaturation (destruction, which you have noticed more than once when you boiled a hard-boiled egg) and renaturation (this property is widely used in the manufacture of antibiotics, food concentrates, etc.).

Let's not ignore and lipids(fats). In our body, they serve as a reserve source of energy. As solvents, they help the course of biochemical reactions. Participate in the construction of the body - for example, in the formation of cell membranes.

And a few more words about such curious organic compounds as hormones. They are involved in biochemical reactions and metabolism. These small hormones make men men (testosterone) and women women (estrogen). They make us happy or sad (thyroid hormones play an important role in mood swings, and endorphins give a feeling of happiness). And they even determine whether we are “owls” or “larks”. Whether you're ready to study late or prefer to get up early and do your homework before school, it's not just your daily routine that decides, but some adrenal hormones as well.

Conclusion

The world of organic matter is truly amazing. It is enough to delve into its study just a little to take your breath away from the feeling of kinship with all life on Earth. Two legs, four or roots instead of legs - we are all united by the magic of mother nature's chemical laboratory. It causes carbon atoms to join in chains, react and create thousands of such diverse chemical compounds.

You now have a short guide to organic chemistry. Of course, not all possible information is presented here. Some points you may have to clarify on your own. But you can always use the route we have planned for your independent research.

You can also use the definition of organic matter, classification and general formulas of organic compounds and general information about them in the article to prepare for chemistry classes at school.

Tell us in the comments which section of chemistry (organic or inorganic) you like best and why. Don't forget to "share" the article on social networks so that your classmates can also use it.

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Organic matter is a chemical compound containing carbon. The only exceptions are carbonic acid, carbides, carbonates, cyanides and oxides of carbon.

History

The very term "organic substances" appeared in the everyday life of scientists at the stage of early development of chemistry. At that time, vitalistic worldviews dominated. It was a continuation of the traditions of Aristotle and Pliny. During this period, pundits were busy dividing the world into living and non-living. At the same time, all substances, without exception, were clearly divided into mineral and organic. It was believed that for the synthesis of compounds of "living" substances, a special "strength" was needed. It is inherent in all living beings, and organic elements cannot be formed without it.

This statement, ridiculous for modern science, dominated for a very long time, until in 1828 Friedrich Wöhler experimentally refuted it. He was able to obtain organic urea from inorganic ammonium cyanate. This pushed chemistry forward. However, the division of substances into organic and inorganic has been preserved in the present. It underlies the classification. Almost 27 million organic compounds are known.

Why are there so many organic compounds?

Organic matter is, with a few exceptions, a carbon compound. In fact, this is a very curious element. Carbon is able to form chains from its atoms. It is very important that the connection between them is stable.

In addition, carbon in organic substances exhibits a valency - IV. It follows from this that this element is able to form bonds with other substances not only single, but also double and triple. As their multiplicity increases, the chain of atoms will become shorter. At the same time, the stability of the connection only increases.

Also, carbon has the ability to form flat, linear and three-dimensional structures. That is why there are so many different organic substances in nature.

Composition

As mentioned above, organic matter is carbon compounds. And this is very important. arise when it is associated with almost any element of the periodic table. In nature, most often their composition (in addition to carbon) includes oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus. The rest of the elements are much rarer.

Properties

So, organic matter is a carbon compound. However, there are several important criteria that it must meet. All substances of organic origin have common properties:

1. The different typology of bonds existing between atoms inevitably leads to the appearance of isomers. First of all, they are formed by the combination of carbon molecules. Isomers are different substances that have the same molecular weight and composition, but different chemical and physical properties. This phenomenon is called isomerism.

2. Another criterion is the phenomenon of homology. These are series of organic compounds, in which the formula of neighboring substances differs from the previous ones by one CH 2 group. This important property is applied in materials science.

What are the classes of organic substances?

There are several classes of organic compounds. They are known to everyone. lipids and carbohydrates. These groups can be called biological polymers. They are involved in metabolism at the cellular level in any organism. Also included in this group are nucleic acids. So we can say that organic matter is what we eat every day, what we are made of.

Squirrels

Proteins are made up of structural components - amino acids. These are their monomers. Proteins are also called proteins. About 200 types of amino acids are known. All of them are found in living organisms. But only twenty of them are components of proteins. They are called basic. But less popular terms can also be found in the literature - proteinogenic and protein-forming amino acids. The formula of this class of organic matter contains amine (-NH 2) and carboxyl (-COOH) components. They are connected to each other by the same carbon bonds.

Functions of proteins

Proteins in the body of plants and animals perform many important functions. But the main one is structural. Proteins are the main components of the cell membrane and the matrix of organelles in cells. In our body, all the walls of arteries, veins and capillaries, tendons and cartilage, nails and hair consist mainly of different proteins.

The next function is enzymatic. Proteins act as enzymes. They catalyze chemical reactions in the body. They are responsible for the breakdown of nutrients in the digestive tract. In plants, enzymes fix the position of carbon during photosynthesis.

Some carry various substances in the body, such as oxygen. Organic matter is also able to join them. This is how the transport function works. Proteins carry metal ions, fatty acids, hormones and, of course, carbon dioxide and hemoglobin through the blood vessels. Transport also occurs at the intercellular level.

Protein compounds - immunoglobulins - are responsible for the protective function. These are blood antibodies. For example, thrombin and fibrinogen are actively involved in the process of coagulation. Thus, they prevent large blood loss.

Proteins are also responsible for the contraction function. Due to the fact that myosin and actin protofibrils constantly perform sliding movements relative to each other, muscle fibers contract. But similar processes occur in unicellular organisms. The movement of bacterial flagella is also directly related to the sliding of microtubules, which are of a protein nature.

Oxidation of organic substances releases a large amount of energy. But, as a rule, proteins are consumed for energy needs very rarely. This happens when all stocks are exhausted. Lipids and carbohydrates are best suited for this. Therefore, proteins can perform an energy function, but only under certain conditions.

Lipids

Organic matter is also a fat-like compound. Lipids belong to the simplest biological molecules. They are insoluble in water, but decompose in non-polar solutions such as gasoline, ether, and chloroform. They are part of all living cells. Chemically, lipids are alcohols and carboxylic acids. The most famous of them are fats. In the body of animals and plants, these substances perform many important functions. Many lipids are used in medicine and industry.

Functions of lipids

These organic chemicals, along with proteins in cells, form biological membranes. But their main function is energy. When fat molecules are oxidized, a huge amount of energy is released. It goes to the formation of ATP in the cells. In the form of lipids, a significant amount of energy reserves can accumulate in the body. Sometimes they are even more than necessary for the implementation of normal life. With pathological changes in the metabolism of "fat" cells, it becomes more. Although in fairness it should be noted that such excessive reserves are simply necessary for hibernating animals and plants. Many people believe that trees and shrubs feed on soil during the cold period. In reality, they use up the reserves of oils and fats that they made over the summer.

In humans and animals, fats can also perform a protective function. They are deposited in the subcutaneous tissue and around organs such as the kidneys and intestines. Thus, they serve as good protection against mechanical damage, that is, shock.

In addition, fats have a low level of thermal conductivity, which helps to keep warm. This is very important, especially in cold climates. In marine animals, the subcutaneous fat layer also contributes to good buoyancy. But in birds, lipids also perform water-repellent and lubricating functions. The wax coats their feathers and makes them more elastic. Some types of plants have the same plaque on the leaves.

Carbohydrates

The formula of organic matter C n (H 2 O) m indicates that the compound belongs to the class of carbohydrates. The name of these molecules refers to the fact that they contain oxygen and hydrogen in the same amount as water. In addition to these chemical elements, compounds may contain, for example, nitrogen.

Carbohydrates in the cell are the main group of organic compounds. These are primary products. They are also the initial products of the synthesis in plants of other substances, for example, alcohols, organic acids and amino acids. Carbohydrates are also part of the cells of animals and fungi. They are also found among the main components of bacteria and protozoa. So, in an animal cell they are from 1 to 2%, and in a plant cell their number can reach 90%.

To date, there are only three groups of carbohydrates:

Simple sugars (monosaccharides);

Oligosaccharides, consisting of several molecules of consecutively connected simple sugars;

Polysaccharides, they include more than 10 molecules of monosaccharides and their derivatives.

Functions of carbohydrates

All organic substances in the cell perform certain functions. So, for example, glucose is the main energy source. It is broken down in all cells during cellular respiration. Glycogen and starch constitute the main energy reserve, with the former in animals and the latter in plants.

Carbohydrates also perform a structural function. Cellulose is the main component of the plant cell wall. And in arthropods, chitin performs the same function. It is also found in the cells of higher fungi. If we take oligosaccharides as an example, then they are part of the cytoplasmic membrane - in the form of glycolipids and glycoproteins. Also, glycocalyx is often detected in cells. Pentoses are involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids. When is included in DNA, and ribose is included in RNA. Also, these components are found in coenzymes, for example, in FAD, NADP and NAD.

Carbohydrates are also able to perform a protective function in the body. In animals, the substance heparin actively prevents rapid blood clotting. It is formed during tissue damage and blocks the formation of blood clots in the vessels. Heparin is found in large quantities in mast cells in granules.

Nucleic acids

Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids are not all known classes of organic substances. Chemistry also includes nucleic acids. These are phosphorus-containing biopolymers. They, being in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm of all living beings, ensure the transmission and storage of genetic data. These substances were discovered thanks to the biochemist F. Miescher, who studied salmon spermatozoa. It was an "accidental" discovery. A little later, RNA and DNA were also found in all plant and animal organisms. Nucleic acids have also been isolated in the cells of fungi and bacteria, as well as viruses.

In total, two types of nucleic acids have been found in nature - ribonucleic (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic (DNA). The difference is clear from the name. deoxyribose is a five-carbon sugar. Ribose is found in the RNA molecule.

Organic chemistry is the study of nucleic acids. Topics for research are also dictated by medicine. There are many genetic diseases hidden in the DNA codes, which scientists have yet to discover.