When did World War 2 end 1941 1945. Beginning of World War II

	Europe, East and Southeast Asia, North, Northeast and West Africa, Middle East, Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Arctic oceans, Mediterranean.
	Politics of many states; consequences of the Versailles-Washington system; global economic crisis.
	Victory for Russia
Territorial changes:	Victory of the anti-Hitler coalition. Creation of the UN. Prohibition and condemnation of the ideologies of fascism and Nazism. The USSR and the USA become superpowers. Reducing the role of Great Britain and France in global politics. The world is split into two camps with different socio-political systems: socialist and capitalist. The Cold War begins. Decolonization of vast colonial empires.
Opponents
	Italian Republic (1943-1945)
France (1939-1940)
Belgium (1940)	Kingdom of Italy (1940-1943)
Netherlands (1940-1942)
Luxembourg (1940)
	Finland (1941-1944)
	Romania (Under Antonescu)
Denmark (1940)	French State (1940-1944)
Greece (1940-1941)	Bulgaria (1941-1944)
States that left the Nazi bloc:	States that supported the Axis:
Romania (Under Antonescu)
Bulgaria (1941-1944)
Finland (1941-1944)
Those who declared war on Germany, but did not participate in hostilities:
Russian empire
Commanders
Joseph Stalin	Adolf Gitler †
Winston Churchill	Empire of Japan Tojo Hideki
Franklin Roosevelt †	Benito Mussolini †
Maurice Gustave Gamelin	Henri Philippe Pétain
Maxime Weygand	Miklos Horthy
Leopold III	Risto Ryti
Chiang Kai-shek	Ion Victor Antonescu
John Curtin	Boris III †
William Lyon Mackenzie King	Josef Tiso
Michael Joseph Savage †	Ante Pavelic
Josip Broz Tito	Ananda Mahidol

(September 1, 1939 - September 2, 1945) - an armed conflict between two world military-political coalitions, which became the largest war in human history. 62 states out of 73 that existed at that time took part in the war. The fighting took place on the territory of three continents and in the waters of four oceans.

Participants

The number of countries involved varied throughout the war. Some of them were actively involved in military operations, others helped their allies with food supplies, and many participated in the war only nominally.

The anti-Hitler coalition included: Poland, Great Britain, France (since 1939), USSR (since 1941), USA (since 1941), China, Australia, Canada, Yugoslavia, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Greece, Ethiopia, Denmark, Brazil, Mexico, Mongolia, Luxembourg, Nepal, Panama, Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Peru, Guatemala, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Albania, Honduras, El Salvador, Haiti, Paraguay , Ecuador, San Marino, Turkey, Uruguay, Venezuela, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Nicaragua, Liberia, Bolivia. During the war, they were joined by some states that left the Nazi bloc: Iran (since 1941), Iraq (since 1943), Italy (since 1943), Romania (since 1944), Bulgaria (since 1944), Hungary (in 1945), Finland (in 1945).

On the other hand, the countries of the Nazi bloc participated in the war: Germany, Italy (until 1943), the Japanese Empire, Finland (until 1944), Bulgaria (until 1944), Romania (until 1944), Hungary (until 1945), Slovakia, Thailand (Siam ), Iraq (before 1941), Iran (before 1941), Manchukuo, Croatia. On the territory of the occupied countries, puppet states were created that were not essentially participants in the Second World War and joined the fascist coalition: Vichy France, the Italian Social Republic, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Inner Mongolia, Burma, the Philippines, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos. Many collaborationist troops, created from citizens of the opposing side, also fought on the side of Germany and Japan: ROA, RONA, foreign SS divisions (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Estonian, 2 Latvian, Norwegian-Danish, 2 Dutch, 2 Belgian, 2 Bosnian, French , Albanian), "Free India". Also, volunteer forces of states that formally remained neutral fought in the armed forces of the countries of the Nazi bloc: Spain (Blue Division), Sweden and Portugal.

Who declared war	To whom was war declared?
Great Britain	Third Reich
	Third Reich
	Third Reich
	Third Reich
	Third ray
	Third Reich
	Third Reich
	Great Britain
Third Reich

Territories

All military operations can be divided into 5 theaters of military operations:

• Western European: West Germany, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands, France, Great Britain (air bombing), Atlantic.
• Eastern European theater: USSR (western part), Poland, Finland, Northern Norway, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Austria (eastern part), East Germany, Barents Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea.
• Mediterranean theater: Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, Italy, Mediterranean islands (Malta, Cyprus, etc.), Egypt, Libya, French North Africa, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Mediterranean Sea.
• African theater: Ethiopia, Italian Somalia, British Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, French West Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Madagascar.
• Pacific theater: China (eastern and northeastern part), Japan (Korea, South Sakhalin, Kuril Islands), USSR (Far East), Aleutian Islands, Mongolia, Hong Kong, French Indochina, Burma, Andaman Islands, Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak , Dutch East Indies, Sabah, Brunei, New Guinea, Papua, Solomon Islands, Philippines, Hawaiian Islands, Guam, Wake, Midway, Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, Gilbert Islands, many small islands of the Pacific Ocean, large part of the Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean.

Prerequisites for the war

Prerequisites for the war in Europe

The Treaty of Versailles extremely limited Germany's military capabilities. In April-May 1922, the Genoa Conference was held in the northern Italian port city of Rappalo. Representatives of Soviet Russia were also invited: Georgy Chicherin (chairman), Leonid Krasin, Adolf Ioffe and others. Germany (Weimar Republic) was represented by Walter Rathenau. The main theme of the conference was the mutual refusal to advance claims for compensation for damage caused during the fighting in the First World War. The result of the conference was the conclusion of the Treaty of Rapallo on April 16, 1922 between the RSFSR and the Weimar Republic. The agreement provided for the immediate restoration in full of diplomatic relations between the RSFSR and Germany. For Soviet Russia, this was the first international treaty in its history. For Germany, which until now had been an outlaw in the field of international politics, this agreement was of fundamental importance, since it thereby began to return to the number of states recognized by the international community.

Of no less importance for Germany were the secret agreements signed on August 11, 1922, according to which Soviet Russia guaranteed the supply of strategic materials to Germany and, moreover, provided its territory for testing new types of military equipment, prohibited for development by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 year.

On July 27, 1928, the Briand-Kellogg Pact was signed in Paris - an agreement on the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy. The pact was to come into force on July 24, 1929. On February 9, 1929, even before the official entry into force of the pact, the so-called Litvinov Protocol was signed in Moscow - the Moscow Protocol on the early entry into force of the obligations of the Briand-Kellogg Pact between the USSR, Poland, Romania, Estonia and Latvia. On April 1, 1929, Türkiye joined it and on April 5, Lithuania.

On July 25, 1932, the Soviet Union and Poland conclude a non-aggression pact. Thus, Poland is to some extent freed from the threat from the East.

With the coming to power of the National Socialist Workers' Party led by Adolf Hitler in 1933, Germany begins to ignore all the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles - in particular, it restores conscription into the army and quickly increases the production of weapons and military equipment. On October 14, 1933, Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and refuses to participate in the Geneva Disarmament Conference. On January 26, 1934, the Non-Aggression Pact was concluded between Germany and Poland. On July 24, 1934, Germany attempted to carry out the Anschluss of Austria by inspiring an anti-government putsch in Vienna, but was forced to abandon its plans due to the sharply negative position of the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, who advanced four divisions to the Austrian border.

In the 1930s, Italy pursued an equally aggressive foreign policy. On October 3, 1935, it invades Ethiopia and captures it by May 1936 (see: Italo-Ethiopian War). In 1936, the Italian Empire was proclaimed. The Mediterranean Sea is declared “Our Sea” (lat. Mare Nostrum). The act of unjustified aggression displeases the Western powers and the League of Nations. The deterioration of relations with Western powers is pushing Italy towards rapprochement with Germany. In January 1936, Mussolini gave his consent in principle to the annexation of Austria by the Germans, subject to their refusal to expand in the Adriatic. On March 7, 1936, German troops occupy the Rhineland demilitarized zone. Great Britain and France do not offer effective resistance to this, limiting themselves to formal protest. November 25, 1936 Germany and Japan conclude the Anti-Comintern Pact to jointly fight communism. On November 6, 1937, Italy joined the pact.

On September 30, 1938, British Prime Minister Chamberlain and Hitler signed a declaration of non-aggression and peaceful settlement of disputes between Great Britain and Germany. In 1938, Chamberlain met with Hitler three times, and after a meeting in Munich he returned home with his famous statement “I have brought you peace!”

In March 1938, Germany freely annexed Austria (see: Anschluss).

Georges Bonnet, Foreign Minister of the French Republic, and Joachim Ribbentrop, Foreign Minister of the German Reich, sign the Franco-German Declaration on December 6, 1938.

In October 1938, as a result of the Munich Agreement, Germany annexed the Sudetenland that belonged to Czechoslovakia. England and France give consent to this act, and the opinion of Czechoslovakia itself is not taken into account. On March 15, 1939, Germany, in violation of the agreement, occupied the Czech Republic (see German occupation of the Czech Republic). The German protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia is created on Czech territory. Hungary and Poland participate in the division of Czechoslovakia. Slovakia was declared an independent pro-Nazi state. On February 24, 1939, Hungary joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, and on March 27, Spain, where Francisco Franco came to power after the end of the civil war.

Until now, Germany’s aggressive actions have not met serious resistance from Great Britain and France, who do not dare to start a war and are trying to save the system of the Versailles Treaty with reasonable, from their point of view, concessions (the so-called “policy of appeasement”). However, after Hitler’s violation of the Munich Treaty, both countries are increasingly realizing the need for a tougher policy, and in the event of further German aggression, Great Britain and France give military guarantees to Poland. After Italy captured Albania on April 7-12, 1939, Romania and Greece received the same guarantees.

As M.I. Meltyukhov believes, objective conditions also made the Soviet Union an opponent of the Versailles system. Due to the internal crisis caused by the events of the First World War, the October Revolution and the Civil War, the level of the country's influence on European and world politics decreased significantly. At the same time, the strengthening of the Soviet state and the results of industrialization stimulated the leadership of the USSR to take measures to return the status of a world power. The Soviet government skillfully used official diplomatic channels, the illegal possibilities of the Comintern, social propaganda, pacifist ideas, anti-fascism, and assistance to some victims of aggressors to create the image of the main fighter for peace and social progress. The struggle for “collective security” became Moscow’s foreign policy tactic, aimed at strengthening the weight of the USSR in international affairs and preventing the consolidation of other great powers without its participation. However, the Munich Agreement clearly showed that the USSR is still far from becoming an equal subject of European politics.

After the military alarm of 1927, the USSR began to actively prepare for war. The possibility of an attack by a coalition of capitalist countries was propagated by official propaganda. In order to have a trained mobilization reserve, the military began to actively and universally train the urban population in military specialties, and began mass training in parachuting, aircraft modeling, etc. (see OSOAVIAKHIM). It was honorable and prestigious to pass the GTO standards (ready for work and defense), to earn the title and badge of “Voroshilov Shooter” for accurate shooting, and, along with the new title “Order Bearer,” the prestigious title “Badge Artist” also appeared.

As a consequence of the Rapallo agreements and subsequent secret agreements, an aviation training center was created in Lipetsk in 1925, in which German instructors trained German and Soviet cadets. Near Kazan in 1929, a center for training commanders of tank formations was created (the secret training center “Kama”), in which German instructors also trained German and Soviet cadets. Many graduates of the Kama tank school became outstanding Soviet commanders, including Hero of the Soviet Union, Lieutenant General of Tank Forces S. M. Krivoshein. During the operation of the school, 30 Reichswehr officers were trained for the German side. In 1926-1933, German tanks were also tested in Kazan (the Germans called them “tractors” for secrecy). A center for training in the handling of chemical weapons was created in Volsk (the Tomka facility). In 1933, after Hitler came to power, all these schools were closed.

On January 11, 1939, the People's Commissariat of Ammunition and the People's Commissariat of Weapons were created. Trucks were painted exclusively in green protective color.

In 1940, the USSR began to tighten the labor regime and increase the length of the working day for workers and employees. All state, cooperative and public enterprises and institutions were transferred from a six-day week to a seven-day week, considering the seventh day of the week - Sunday - as a day of rest. Responsibility for absenteeism has been tightened. Under penalty of imprisonment, dismissal and transfer to another organization without the permission of the director were prohibited (see “Decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces of June 26, 1940”).

The army hastily adopted and began mass production of the new Yak fighter, without even completing state tests. 1940 is the year of mastering the production of the latest T-34 and KV, finalizing the SVT and adopting submachine guns.

During the political crisis of 1939, two military-political blocs emerged in Europe: Anglo-French and German-Italian, each of which was interested in an agreement with the USSR.

Poland, having concluded alliance treaties with Great Britain and France, which are obliged to help it in the event of German aggression, refuses to make concessions in negotiations with Germany (in particular, on the issue of the Polish Corridor).

On August 19, 1939, Molotov agreed to host Ribbentrop in Moscow to sign the Non-Aggression Pact with Germany. On the same day, an order was sent to the Red Army to increase the number of rifle divisions from 96 to 186.

Under these conditions, on August 23, 1939, in Moscow, the USSR signed a Non-Aggression Treaty with Germany. The secret protocol provided for the division of spheres of interest in Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states and Poland.

The USSR, Germany, France, Great Britain and other countries begin preparations for war.

Prerequisites for the war in Asia

The Japanese occupation of Manchuria and Northern China began in 1931. On July 7, 1937, Japan begins an offensive deep into China (see Sino-Japanese War).

Japan's expansion met with active opposition from the great powers. The UK, USA and the Netherlands imposed economic sanctions against Japan. The USSR also did not remain indifferent to the events in the Far East, especially since the Soviet-Japanese border conflicts of 1938–1939 (of which the most famous were the battles at Lake Khasan and the undeclared war at Khalkhin Gol) threatened to escalate into a full-scale war.

In the end, Japan faced a serious choice in which direction to continue its further expansion: to the north against the USSR or to the south. The choice was made in favor of the “southern option”. On April 13, 1941, an agreement on neutrality for a period of 5 years was signed in Moscow between Japan and the USSR. Japan began preparing for war against the United States and its allies in the Pacific region (Great Britain, the Netherlands).

On December 7, 1941, Japan attacks the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. Since December 1941, the Sino-Japanese War has been considered part of World War II.

First period of the war (September 1939 - June 1941)

Invasion of Poland

On May 23, 1939, a meeting was held in Hitler's office in the presence of a number of senior officers. It was noted that “the Polish problem is closely connected with the inevitable conflict with England and France, a quick victory over which is problematic. At the same time, Poland is unlikely to be able to act as a barrier against Bolshevism. Currently, the task of German foreign policy is to expand living space to the East, ensure a guaranteed food supply and eliminate the threat from the East. Poland must be captured at the first opportunity."

On August 31, the German press reported: “...on Thursday at approximately 20 o’clock the premises of the radio station in Gleiwitz were captured by the Poles.”

On September 1, at 4:45 a.m., a German training ship, the obsolete battleship Schleswig-Holstein, which arrived in Danzig on a friendly visit and was enthusiastically greeted by the local population, opens fire on the Polish fortifications on Westerplatte. German armed forces invade Poland. Slovak troops are taking part in the fighting on the side of Germany.

On September 1, Hitler speaks in the Reichstag in military uniform. To justify the attack on Poland, Hitler refers to the incident in Gleiwitz. At the same time, he carefully avoids the term “war”, fearing the entry into the conflict of England and France, which gave Poland the appropriate guarantees. The order he issued spoke only of “active defense” against Polish aggression.

On the same day, England and France, under the threat of declaring war, demanded the immediate withdrawal of German troops from Polish territory. Mussolini proposed convening a conference for a peaceful solution to the Polish question, which was supported by the Western powers, but Hitler refused, saying that it was inappropriate to represent what had been won by arms as gained by diplomacy.

On September 1, universal conscription was introduced in the Soviet Union. At the same time, the conscription age has been reduced from 21 to 19 years, and for some categories - to 18 years. The law immediately came into force and in a short time the size of the army reached 5 million people, which amounted to about 3% of the population.

On September 3 at 9 o'clock England, at 12:20 France, as well as Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany. Within a few days they will be joined by Canada, Newfoundland, the Union of South Africa and Nepal. The Second World War has begun.

On September 3, in Bromberg, a city in eastern Prussia, which was transferred to Poland under the Treaty of Versailles, the first massacre on ethnic grounds occurred in the outbreak of the war. In a city whose population was 3/4 German, at least 1,100 of them were killed by the Poles, which was the last of the pogroms that had been going on for a month.

The offensive of the German troops developed according to plan. Polish troops turned out to be a weak military force compared to the coordinated tank formations and the Luftwaffe. However, on the Western Front, the allied Anglo-French troops do not take any active action (see Strange War). Only at sea did the war begin immediately: on September 3, the German submarine U-30 attacked the English passenger liner Athenia without warning.

In Poland, during the first week of fighting, German troops cut through the Polish front in several places and occupied part of Mazovia, western Prussia, the Upper Silesian industrial region and western Galicia. By September 9, the Germans managed to break down Polish resistance along the entire front line and approach Warsaw.

On September 10, the Polish commander-in-chief Edward Rydz-Smigly gives the order for a general retreat to southeastern Poland, but the bulk of his troops, unable to retreat beyond the Vistula, find themselves surrounded. By mid-September, having never received support from the West, the Polish armed forces ceased to exist as a single whole; only local centers of resistance are preserved.

On September 14, Guderian's 19th Panzer Corps captured Brest from East Prussia. Polish troops under the command of General Plisovsky defend the Brest Fortress for several more days. On the night of September 17, its defenders left the forts in an organized manner and retreated beyond the Bug.

On September 16, the Polish Ambassador to the USSR was told that since the Polish state and its government had ceased to exist, the Soviet Union was taking under its protection the lives and property of the population of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.

On September 17 at 6 a.m., Soviet troops crossed the state border in two military groups. On the same day, Molotov sent congratulations to the German Ambassador to the USSR Schulenburg on the “brilliant success of the German Wehrmacht.” That evening, the Polish government and high command fled to Romania.

On September 28, the Germans occupy Warsaw. On the same day, the Treaty of Friendship and Border between the USSR and Germany was signed in Moscow, establishing the demarcation line between German and Soviet troops in the territory of the former Poland approximately along the “Curzon Line”.

Part of the western Polish lands becomes part of the Third Reich. These lands are subject to so-called “Germanization”. The Polish and Jewish population is deported from here to the central regions of Poland, where a General Government is created. Massive repressions are being carried out against the Polish people. The situation of the Jews driven into the ghetto became the most difficult.

The territories that became part of the zone of influence of the USSR were included in the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR and the then independent Lithuania. In the territories included in the USSR, Soviet power is established, socialist transformations are carried out (nationalization of industry, collectivization of the peasantry), which is accompanied by deportation and repression of the former ruling classes - representatives of the bourgeoisie, landowners, rich peasants, and part of the intelligentsia.

On October 6, 1939, after the end of all hostilities, Hitler made a proposal to convene a peace conference with the participation of all major powers to resolve existing contradictions. France and Great Britain say they will agree to the conference only if the Germans immediately withdraw their troops from Poland and the Czech Republic and return these countries to independence. Germany rejected these terms, and as a result the peace conference never took place.

Battle of the Atlantic

Despite the refusal of the peace conference, Great Britain and France continued to wage a passive war from September 1939 to April 1940 and made no attempts at an offensive. Active combat operations are carried out only on sea lanes. Even before the war, the German command sent 2 battleships and 18 submarines to the Atlantic Ocean, which, with the opening of hostilities, began attacks on merchant ships of Great Britain and its allied countries. From September to December 1939, Great Britain loses 114 ships from attacks by German submarines, and in 1940 - 471 ships, while the Germans lost only 9 submarines in 1939. Attacks on Great Britain's maritime communications led to the loss of 1/3 of the tonnage of the British merchant fleet by the summer of 1941 and created a serious threat to the country's economy.

During the Soviet-Finnish negotiations of 1938–1939, the USSR tries to get Finland to cede part of the Karelian Isthmus. The transfer of these territories broke the “Mannerheim Line” in the most important, Vyborg direction, as well as the lease of several islands and part of the Hanko (Gangut) Peninsula for military use bases. Finland, not wanting to cede territory and accept military obligations, insists on concluding a trade agreement and consent to the remilitarization of the Åland Islands. On November 30, 1939, the USSR invades Finland. On December 14, the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations for starting a war. When the USSR began to be expelled from the League of Nations, out of the 52 states that were members of the League, 12 did not send their representatives to the conference at all, and 11 did not vote for expulsion. And among these 11 are Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

From December to February, Soviet troops, consisting of 15 Soviet rifle divisions, make many attempts to break through the Mannerheim Line, defended by 15 Finnish infantry divisions, but do not achieve much success. Subsequently, there was a continuous build-up of the Red Army's forces in all directions (in particular, at least 13 additional divisions were transferred to Ladoga and North Karelia). The average monthly strength of the entire group of troops reached 849 thousand.

Great Britain and France decide to prepare a landing force on the Scandinavian Peninsula in order to prevent Germany from seizing the Swedish iron ore deposits and at the same time provide routes for the future transfer of their troops to help Finland; the transfer of long-range bomber aircraft to the Middle East also begins to bomb and capture the oil fields of Baku, in the event of England entering the war on the side of Finland. However, Sweden and Norway, trying to maintain neutrality, categorically refuse to accept Anglo-French troops on their territory. On February 16, 1940, British destroyers attack the German ship Altmark in Norwegian territorial waters. 1 March Hitler, previously interested in preserving the neutrality of the Scandinavian countries, signs a directive to seize Denmark and Norway (Operation Weserubung) to prevent a possible Allied landing.

At the beginning of March 1940, Soviet troops break through the Mannerheim Line and capture Vyborg. On March 13, 1940, a peace treaty was signed in Moscow between Finland and the USSR, according to which Soviet demands were satisfied: the border on the Karelian Isthmus in the Leningrad area was moved to the northwest from 32 to 150 km, and a number of islands in the Gulf of Finland were transferred to the USSR.

Despite the end of the war, the Anglo-French command continues to develop a plan for a military operation in Norway, but the Germans manage to get ahead of them.

During the Soviet-Finnish War, the Finns invented the Molotov Cocktail and the Belka mines.

European blitzkrieg

In Denmark, the Germans, using sea and airborne landings, freely occupy all the most important cities and destroy Danish aircraft in a few hours. Under the threat of bombing of the civilian population, the Danish King Christian X is forced to sign a surrender and orders the army to lay down their arms.

In Norway, on April 9-10, the Germans captured the main Norwegian ports of Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen, and Narvik. On April 14, the Anglo-French landing force landed near Narvik, on April 16 - in Namsos, on April 17 - in Åndalsnes. On April 19, the Allies launched an attack on Trondheim, but failed and were forced to withdraw their forces from central Norway in early May. After a series of battles for Narvik, the Allies also evacuated the northern part of the country in early June. On June 10, 1940, the last units of the Norwegian army surrendered. Norway finds itself under the control of the German occupation administration (Reichskommissariat); Denmark, declared a German protectorate, was able to maintain partial independence in internal affairs.

At the same time as Germany, British and American troops hit Denmark in the back and occupied its overseas territories - the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland.

On May 10, 1940, Germany invades Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg with 135 divisions. The 1st Allied Army Group advances into Belgium, but does not have time to help the Dutch, since the German Army Group B makes a rapid push into southern Holland and captures Rotterdam on May 12. On May 15, the Netherlands capitulates. It was believed that in retaliation for the stubborn resistance of the Dutch, which was unexpected for the Germans, Hitler, after signing the act of surrender, ordered massive bombing of Rotterdam. BombingofRotterdam), which was not caused by military necessity and led to enormous destruction and casualties among the civilian population. At the Nuremberg trials, it turned out that the bombing of Rotterdam took place on May 14, and the Dutch government capitulated only after the bombing of Rotterdam and the threat of bombing of Amsterdam and The Hague.

In Belgium, on May 10, German paratroopers captured bridges over the Albert Canal, which made it possible for large German tank forces to force it before the Allies arrived and reach the Belgian Plain. Brussels fell on May 17.

But the main blow is delivered by Army Group A. Having occupied Luxembourg on 10 May, Guderian's three panzer divisions crossed the southern Ardennes and crossed the Meuse River west of Sedan on 14 May. At the same time, Hoth's tank corps breaks through the northern Ardennes, difficult for heavy equipment, and on May 13 crosses the Meuse River north of Dinant. The German tank armada rushes to the west. The belated attacks of the French, for whom the German attack through the Ardennes turns out to be a complete surprise, are unable to contain it. On May 16, Guderian's units reach the Oise; On May 20, they reach the coast of Pas-de-Calais near Abbeville and turn north to the rear of the allied armies. 28 Anglo-Franco-Belgian divisions are surrounded.

The attempt of the French command to organize a counterattack at Arras on May 21-23 could have been successful, but Guderian stopped it at the cost of an almost completely destroyed tank battalion. On May 22, Guderian cuts off the Allies’ retreat to Boulogne, on May 23 to Calais and goes to Gravelines 10 km from Dunkirk, the last port through which the Anglo-French troops could evacuate, but on May 24 he is forced to stop the offensive for two days due to an inexplicable personal Hitler’s order (“The Miracle of Dunkirk”) (according to another version, the reason for the stop was not Hitler’s order, but the entry of tanks into the range of the naval artillery of the English fleet, which could shoot them with almost impunity). The respite allows the Allies to strengthen the defenses of Dunkirk and launch Operation Dynamo to evacuate their forces by sea. On May 26, German troops break through the Belgian front in West Flanders, and on May 28, Belgium, despite the demands of the Allies, capitulates. On the same day, in the Lille area, the Germans surrounded a large French group, which surrendered on May 31. Part of the French troops (114 thousand) and almost the entire English army (224 thousand) were taken out on British ships through Dunkirk. The Germans capture all British and French artillery and armored vehicles, vehicles abandoned by the Allies during the retreat. After Dunkirk, Great Britain found itself practically unarmed, although it retained its army personnel.

On June 5, German troops begin an offensive in the Lahn-Abbeville sector. Attempts by the French command to hastily plug the gap in the defense with unprepared divisions were unsuccessful. The French are losing one battle after another. The French defense disintegrates, and the command hastily withdraws its troops to the south.

June 10 Italy declares war on Great Britain and France. Italian troops invade the southern regions of France, but cannot advance far. On the same day, the French government evacuates Paris. On June 11, the Germans cross the Marne at Chateau-Thierry. On June 14 they entered Paris without a fight, and two days later they entered the Rhone Valley. On June 16, Marshal Pétain forms a new government of France, which already on the night of June 17 turns to Germany with a request for a truce. On June 18, French General Charles De Gaulle, who fled to London, calls on the French to continue their resistance. On June 21, the Germans, having encountered virtually no resistance, reached the Loire in the Nantes-Tours section, and on the same day their tanks occupied Lyon.

On June 22, in Compiegne, in the same carriage in which the German surrender was signed in 1918, the Franco-German armistice was signed, according to which France agreed to the occupation of most of its territory, the demobilization of almost the entire ground army and the internment of the navy and air force. In the free zone, as a result of the coup d'etat on July 10, the authoritarian regime of Pétain (Vichy Regime) was established, which set a course for close cooperation with Germany (collaborationism). Despite the military weakness of France, the defeat of this country was so sudden and complete that it defied any rational explanation.

The commander-in-chief of the Vichy troops, Francois Darlan, gives the order to withdraw the entire French fleet to the shores of French North Africa. Fearing that the entire French fleet might fall under the control of Germany and Italy, on July 3, 1940, British naval forces and air forces, as part of Operation Catapult, attacked French ships at Mers el-Kebir. By the end of July, the British have destroyed or neutralized almost the entire French fleet.

Annexation of the Baltic states, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR

Back in the fall of 1939, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania concluded mutual assistance agreements with the USSR, also known as base agreements, according to which Soviet military bases were located on the territory of these countries. On June 17, 1940, the USSR presented an ultimatum to the Baltic states, demanding the resignation of governments, the formation of people's governments in their place, the dissolution of parliaments, the holding of early elections and consent to the introduction of additional contingents of Soviet troops. In the current situation, the Baltic governments were forced to accept these demands.

After the entry of additional units of the Red Army into the Baltic states, in mid-July 1940, elections to the supreme authorities were held in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, in the face of a significant Soviet military presence. According to a number of modern researchers, these elections were accompanied by violations. At the same time, mass arrests of Baltic politicians are being carried out by the NKVD. On July 21, 1940, the newly elected parliaments, which included a pro-Soviet majority, proclaimed the creation of Soviet socialist republics and sent petitions to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to join the Soviet Union. On August 3, the Lithuanian SSR, on August 5, the Latvian SSR, and on August 6, the Estonian SSR, were accepted into the USSR.

On June 27, 1940, the USSR government sent two ultimatum notes to the Romanian government, demanding the return of Bessarabia (annexed in 1812 to the Russian Empire after the victory over Turkey in the Russian-Turkish War of 1806-1812; in 1918, taking advantage of the weakness of Soviet Russia, Romania sent troops to the territory of Bessarabia, and then included it in its composition) and the transfer of Northern Bukovina (never part of the Russian Empire, but populated mainly by Ukrainians) to the USSR as “compensation for the enormous damage that was caused to the Soviet Union and the population of Bessarabia by 22 domination of Romania in Bessarabia." Romania, not counting on support from other states in the event of war with the USSR, is forced to agree to meet these demands. On June 28, Romania withdraws its troops and administration from Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, after which Soviet troops are introduced there. On August 2, the Moldavian SSR was formed on the territory of Bessarabia and part of the territory of the former Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Northern Bukovina is organizationally included in the Ukrainian SSR.

Battle of Britain

After the surrender of France, Germany offers Great Britain to make peace, but is refused. On July 16, 1940, Hitler issues a directive for the invasion of Great Britain (Operation Sea Lion). However, the command of the German Navy and ground forces, citing the power of the British fleet and the Wehrmacht's lack of experience in landing operations, requires the Air Force to first ensure air supremacy. In August, the Germans began bombing Great Britain with the aim of undermining its military and economic potential, demoralizing the population, preparing for an invasion and ultimately forcing it to surrender. The German Air Force and Navy carry out systematic attacks on British ships and convoys in the English Channel. On September 4, German aircraft began massive bombing of English cities in the south of the country: London, Rochester, Birmingham, Manchester.

Despite the fact that the British suffered heavy losses among civilians during the bombing, they essentially managed to win the Battle of Britain - Germany was forced to abandon the landing operation. Since December, the activity of the German Air Force has been significantly reduced due to deteriorating weather conditions. The Germans failed to achieve their main goal - to take Great Britain out of the war.

Battles in Africa, the Mediterranean and the Balkans

After Italy entered the war, Italian troops began fighting for control of the Mediterranean, North and East Africa. On June 11, Italian aircraft strike a British naval base in Malta. 13 June Italians bomb British bases in Kenya. At the beginning of July, Italian troops invade the British colonies of Kenya and Sudan from the territory of Ethiopia and Somalia, but due to indecisive actions they are unable to advance far. On August 3, 1940, Italian troops invade British Somalia. Taking advantage of their numerical superiority, they manage to push British and South African troops across the strait into the British colony of Aden.

After the surrender of France, the administrations of some colonies refused to recognize the Vichy government. In London, General De Gaulle formed the Fighting France movement, which did not recognize the shameful surrender. The British armed forces, together with the units of Fighting France, begin to fight the Vichy troops for control of the colonies. By September, they manage to peacefully establish control over almost all of French Equatorial Africa. On October 27, the highest governing body of the French territories occupied by De Gaulle's troops, the Council of Defense of the Empire, was formed in Brazzaville. On September 24, British-French troops are defeated by fascist troops in Senegal (Dakar operation). However, in November they manage to capture Gabon (Gabon operation).

On September 13, the Italians invade British Egypt from Libya. Having occupied Sidi Barrani on September 16, the Italians stopped, and the British retreated to Mersa Matrouh. To improve their position in Africa and the Mediterranean, the Italians decide to capture Greece. After the Greek government refused to allow Italian troops into its territory, Italy launched an offensive on October 28, 1940. The Italians manage to capture part of Greek territory, but by November 8 they are stopped, and on November 14 the Greek army launches a counteroffensive, completely liberates the country and enters Albania.

In November 1940, British aircraft attacked the Italian fleet in Taranto, which made it extremely difficult for Italian troops to transport goods by sea to North Africa. Taking advantage of this, on December 9, 1940, British troops went on the offensive in Egypt, in January they occupied all of Cyrenaica and by February 1941 they reached the El Agheila area.

At the beginning of January, the British also launched an offensive in East Africa. Having recaptured Kassala from the Italians on January 21, they invade Eritrea from Sudan, capturing Karen (March 27), Asmara (April 1) and the port of Massawa (April 8). In February, British troops from Kenya enter Italian Somalia; On February 25, they occupy the port of Mogadishu, and then turn north and enter Ethiopia. On March 16, English troops landed in British Somalia and soon defeated the Italians there. Together with British troops, Emperor Haile Selassie, overthrown by the Italians in 1936, arrives in Ethiopia. The British are joined by numerous detachments of Ethiopian partisans. On March 17, British and Ethiopian troops occupy Jijiga, on March 29 - Harar, on April 6 - the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. The Italian colonial empire in East Africa ceases to exist. The remnants of Italian troops continued to resist in Ethiopia and Somalia until November 27, 1941.

In March 1941, in a naval battle off the island of Crete, the British inflicted another defeat on the Italian fleet. On March 2, British and Australian troops begin landing in Greece. On March 9, Italian troops launched a new offensive against the Greeks, but during six days of fierce fighting they suffered complete defeat and by March 26 were forced to retreat to their original positions.

Having suffered complete defeat on all fronts, Mussolini is forced to ask Hitler for help. In February 1941, a German expeditionary force under the command of General Rommel arrived in Libya. On March 31, 1941, Italian-German troops went on the offensive, recaptured Cyrenaica from the British and reached the borders of Egypt, after which the front in North Africa stabilized until November 1941.

Expansion of the bloc of fascist states. Battles in the Balkans and the Middle East

The US government is gradually beginning to reconsider its foreign policy course. It increasingly actively supports Great Britain, becoming its “non-belligerent ally” (see Atlantic Charter). In May 1940, the US Congress approved an amount of 3 billion dollars for the needs of the army and navy, and in the summer - 6.5 billion, including 4 billion for the construction of a “fleet of two oceans.” Supplies of weapons and equipment for Great Britain are increasing. September 2, 1940 The United States transfers 50 destroyers to Great Britain in exchange for the lease of 8 military bases in the British colonies in the Western Hemisphere. According to the law adopted by the US Congress on March 11, 1941 on the transfer of military materials to warring countries on loan or lease (see Lend-Lease), Great Britain was allocated $7 billion. Lend-Lease later extended to China, Greece and Yugoslavia. The North Atlantic has been declared a “patrol zone” for the US navy, which is simultaneously beginning to escort merchant ships heading to the UK.

On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact: delimitation of zones of influence in establishing a new order and mutual military assistance. At the Soviet-German negotiations held in November 1940, German diplomats invited the USSR to join this pact. The Soviet government refuses. Hitler approves the plan to attack the USSR. For these purposes, Germany begins to look for allies in Eastern Europe. On November 20, Hungary joined the Triple Alliance, on November 23 - Romania, on November 24 - Slovakia, in 1941 - Bulgaria, Finland and Spain. On March 25, 1941, Yugoslavia joins the pact, but on March 27, a military coup takes place in Belgrade, and the Simovic government comes to power, declaring young Peter II king and proclaiming the neutrality of Yugoslavia. April 5 Yugoslavia concludes a treaty of friendship and non-aggression with the USSR. In view of undesirable developments for Germany, Hitler decides to conduct a military operation against Yugoslavia and help Italian troops in Greece.

On April 6, 1941, after a massive bombing of major cities, railway junctions and airfields, Germany and Hungary invade Yugoslavia. At the same time, Italian troops, with the support of the Germans, are conducting another offensive in Greece. By April 8, the armed forces of Yugoslavia were cut into several parts and actually ceased to exist as a single whole. On April 9, German troops, having passed through Yugoslav territory, entered Greece and captured Thessaloniki, forcing the Greek East Macedonian Army to capitulate. On April 10, the Germans capture Zagreb. On April 11, the leader of the Croatian Nazis, Ante Pavelic, proclaims the independence of Croatia and calls on Croats to leave the ranks of the Yugoslav army, which further undermines its combat effectiveness. On April 13, the Germans capture Belgrade. On April 15, the Yugoslav government fled the country. On April 16, German troops enter Sarajevo. On April 16, the Italians occupied Bar and the island of Krk, and on April 17, Dubrovnik. On the same day, the Yugoslav army capitulates, and 344 thousand of its soldiers and officers are captured.

After the defeat of Yugoslavia, the Germans and Italians threw all their forces into Greece. On April 20, the Epirus army capitulates. An attempt by the Anglo-Australian command to create a defensive line at Thermopylae in order to block the Wehrmacht's path to central Greece was unsuccessful, and on April 20 the command of the allied forces decided to evacuate its forces. On April 21, Ioannina was captured. On April 23, Tsolakoglu signs the act of general surrender of the Greek armed forces. On April 24, King George II fled to Crete with the government. On the same day, the Germans captured the islands of Lemnos, Pharos and Samothrace. On April 27, Athens was captured.

On May 20, the Germans land troops on Crete, which is in the hands of the British. Although the British fleet thwarted the Germans' attempt to deliver reinforcements by sea, on May 21 the paratroopers captured the airfield at Maleme and ensured the transfer of reinforcements by air. Despite stubborn defense, British troops were forced to leave Crete by May 31. By June 2, the island was completely occupied. But due to the heavy losses of German paratroopers, Hitler abandoned plans for further landing operations to capture Cyprus and the Suez Canal.

As a result of the invasion, Yugoslavia was dismembered. Germany annexes northern Slovenia, Hungary - western Vojvodina, Bulgaria - Vardar Macedonia, Italy - southern Slovenia, part of the Dalmatian coast, Montenegro and Kosovo. Croatia is declared an independent state under an Italian-German protectorate. The collaborationist government of Nedić was created in Serbia.

After the defeat of Greece, Bulgaria annexes eastern Macedonia and western Thrace; the rest of the country is divided into Italian (western) and German (eastern) occupation zones.

On April 1, 1941, as a result of a coup in Iraq, the pro-German nationalist group of Rashid Ali-Gailani seized power. By agreement with the Vichy regime, Germany on May 12 begins transporting military equipment to Iraq through Syria, a French mandate. But the Germans, busy preparing for war with the USSR, are not able to provide significant assistance to the Iraqi nationalists. British troops invade Iraq and overthrow the government of Ali Gailani. On June 8, the British, together with units of “Fighting France,” invade Syria and Lebanon and by mid-July force the Vichy troops to capitulate.

According to the leadership of Great Britain and the USSR, there was a threat of involvement in 1941 on the side of Germany as an active ally of Iran. Therefore, from August 25, 1941 to September 17, 1941, a joint Anglo-Soviet operation to occupy Iran was carried out. Its goal was to protect Iranian oil fields from possible capture by German troops and protect the transport corridor ( southern corridor), under which the Allies carried out deliveries under Lend-Lease for the Soviet Union. During the operation, the Allied forces invaded Iran and established control over Iran's railways and oil fields. At the same time, British troops occupied southern Iran. Soviet troops occupied northern Iran.

Asia

In China, the Japanese captured the southeastern part of the country in 1939-1941. China, due to the difficult internal political situation in the country, could not provide a serious resistance (see: Civil War in China). After the surrender of France, the administration of French Indochina recognized the Vichy government. Thailand, taking advantage of the weakening of France, made territorial claims to part of French Indochina. In October 1940, Thai troops invaded French Indochina. Thailand managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Vichy army. On May 9, 1941, under pressure from Japan, the Vichy regime was forced to sign a peace treaty, according to which Laos and part of Cambodia were ceded to Thailand. After the Vichy regime lost a number of colonies in Africa, there was also a threat of the seizure of Indochina by the British and De-Gaullevites. To prevent this, in June 1941, the fascist government agreed to send Japanese troops into the colony.

Second period of the war (June 1941 - November 1942)

Background to the invasion of the USSR

In June 1940, Hitler ordered preparations for an attack on the USSR to begin, and on July 22 the OKH began developing an attack plan, codenamed Operation Barbarossa. On July 31, 1940, at a meeting with the high military command at Berghof, Hitler stated:

[…] The hope of England is Russia and America. If hope in Russia disappears, America will also disappear, because the fall of Russia will unpleasantly increase the importance of Japan in East Asia, Russia is the East Asian sword of England and America against Japan. […] Russia is the factor that England relies on most of all. Something like this actually happened in London! The British were already completely down*, but now they are up again. From listening to conversations, it is clear that Russia is unpleasantly surprised by the rapid development of events in Western Europe. […] But if Russia is defeated, England's last hope will fade away. Germany will then become the ruler of Europe and the Balkans. Solution: This clash with Russia must be ended. In the spring of '41. […] * Below (English)

On December 18, 1940, the Barbarossa plan was approved by the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Wehrmacht by Directive No. 21. The approximate completion date for military preparations is May 15, 1941. From the end of 1940, a gradual transfer of German troops to the borders of the USSR began, the intensity of which increased sharply after May 22. The German command tried to create the impression that this was a diversionary maneuver and “the main task for the summer period remains the operation to invade the islands, and measures against the East are only defensive in nature and their scope depends only on Russian threats and military preparations.” A disinformation campaign began against Soviet intelligence, which received numerous conflicting messages about the timing (end of April - beginning of May, April 15, May 15 - beginning of June, May 14, end of May, May 20, early June, etc.) and conditions of war ( after and before the start of the war with England, various demands on the USSR before the start of the war, etc.).

In January 1941, staff games were held in the USSR under the general title “Offensive operation of the front with a breakthrough of the UR”, which considered the actions of a large strike group of Soviet troops from the state border of the USSR in the direction (respectively) Poland - East Prussia and Hungary - Romania. Defense plans were not worked out until June 22.

On March 27, a coup takes place in Yugoslavia and anti-German forces come to power. Hitler decides to conduct an operation against Yugoslavia and help Italian troops in Greece, postponing the spring attack on the USSR until June 1941.

At the end of May - beginning of June, the USSR held training camps, during which 975,870 conscripts were to be called up for a period of 30 to 90 days. Some historians view this as an element of hidden mobilization in a difficult political situation - thanks to them, rifle divisions in the border and internal districts received 1900-6000 people, and the number of about 20 divisions practically reached the wartime staffing level. Other historians do not connect the training camps with the political situation and explain them by retraining the personnel “in the spirit of modern requirements.” Some historians find in the collections signs of the USSR preparing for an attack on Germany.

On June 10, 1941, the Commander-in-Chief of the German Land Forces, Field Marshal Walter von Brauchitsch, issued an order setting the date for the start of the war against the USSR - June 22.

On June 13, directives were sent to the western districts (“To increase combat readiness...”) to begin moving units of the first and second echelons to the border, at night and under the guise of exercises. On June 14, 1941, TASS reported that there were no grounds for war with Germany and that rumors that the USSR was preparing for war with Germany were false and provocative. Simultaneously with the TASS report, a massive covert transfer of Soviet troops to the western borders of the USSR begins. On June 18, an order was issued to bring some parts of the western districts to full combat readiness. On June 21, after receiving several information about tomorrow's attack, at 23:30 Directive No. 1 was sent to the troops, containing the probable date of the German attack and the order to be on combat readiness. By June 22, Soviet troops were not deployed and began the war divided into three operationally unrelated echelons.

Some historians (Viktor Suvorov, Mikhail Meltyukhov, Mark Solonin) consider the movement of Soviet troops to the border not as a defensive measure, but as preparation for an attack on Germany, citing various dates for the attack: July 1941, 1942. They also put forward the thesis of a preventive war by Germany against the USSR. Their opponents argue that there is no evidence of preparation for an attack, and all signs of preparation for an attack are preparations for war as such, regardless of the attack or repelling aggression.

Invasion of the USSR

On June 22, 1941, Germany, with the support of its allies - Italy, Hungary, Romania, Finland and Slovakia - invaded the USSR. The Soviet-German war began, in Soviet and Russian historiography called the Great Patriotic War.

German troops launch a powerful surprise attack along the entire western Soviet border with three large army groups: North, Center and South. On the very first day, a significant part of Soviet ammunition, fuel and military equipment was destroyed or captured; About 1,200 aircraft were destroyed. On June 23-25, the Soviet fronts tried to launch counterattacks, but failed.

By the end of the first ten days of July, German troops captured Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, a significant part of Ukraine and Moldova. The main forces of the Soviet Western Front were defeated in the Battle of Bialystok-Minsk.

The Soviet Northwestern Front was defeated in a border battle and driven back. However, the Soviet counterattack near Soltsy on July 14-18 led to the suspension of the German offensive on Leningrad for almost 3 weeks.

On June 25, Soviet planes bomb Finnish airfields. On June 26, Finnish troops launched a counteroffensive and soon regained the Karelian Isthmus, previously captured by the Soviet Union, without crossing the old historical Russian-Finnish border on the Karelian Isthmus (north of Lake Ladoga, the old border was crossed to great depth). On June 29, German-Finnish troops launched an offensive in the Arctic, but their advance deeper into Soviet territory was stopped.

In Ukraine, the Soviet Southwestern Front is also defeated and driven back from the border, but the counterattack of Soviet mechanized corps does not allow German troops to make a deep breakthrough and capture Kyiv.

In a new offensive on the central sector of the Soviet-German front, launched on July 10, Army Group Center captured Smolensk on July 16 and encircled the main forces of the recreated Soviet Western Front. In the wake of this success, and also taking into account the need to support the offensive on Leningrad and Kyiv, on July 19, Hitler, despite the objections of the army command, gave the order to shift the direction of the main attack from the Moscow direction to the south (Kyiv, Donbass) and north (Leningrad). In accordance with this decision, the tank groups advancing on Moscow were withdrawn from the Center group and sent to the south (2nd tank group) and north (3rd tank group). The attack on Moscow was to be continued by the infantry divisions of Army Group Center, but the battle in the Smolensk region continued, and on July 30 Army Group Center received orders to go on the defensive. Thus, the attack on Moscow was postponed.

On August 8-9, Army Group North resumed its offensive on Leningrad. The front of the Soviet troops is dissected, they are forced to retreat in diverging directions towards Tallinn and Leningrad. The defense of Tallinn pinned down part of the German forces, but on August 28, Soviet troops were forced to begin evacuation. On September 8, with the capture of Shlisselburg, German troops encircled Leningrad.

However, a new German offensive to capture Leningrad, launched on September 9, did not lead to success. In addition, the main attack formations of Army Group North were soon to be released for a new offensive on Moscow.

Having failed to take Leningrad, Army Group North launched an offensive in the Tikhvin direction on October 16, intending to link up with Finnish troops east of Leningrad. However, a counterattack by Soviet troops near Tikhvin stops the enemy.

In Ukraine, in early August, troops of Army Group South cut off the Dnieper and encircle two Soviet armies near Uman. However, they failed to capture Kyiv again. Only after the troops of the southern flank of Army Group Center (2nd Army and 2nd Tank Group) turned south did the position of the Soviet Southwestern Front sharply deteriorate. The German 2nd Tank Group, having repelled a counterattack from the Bryansk Front, crossed the Desna River and on September 15 united with the 1st Tank Group, advancing from the Kremenchug bridgehead. As a result of the battle for Kyiv, the Soviet Southwestern Front was completely destroyed.

The disaster near Kiev opened the way for the Germans to the south. On October 5, the 1st Tank Group reached the Sea of ​​Azov near Melitopol, cutting off the troops of the Southern Front. In October 1941, German troops captured almost the entire Crimea, except for Sevastopol.

The defeat in the south opened the way for the Germans to Donbass and Rostov. On October 24, Kharkov fell, and by the end of October the main cities of Donbass were occupied. On October 17, Taganrog fell. On November 21, the 1st Tank Army entered Rostov-on-Don, thus achieving the goals of Plan Barbarossa in the south. However, on November 29, Soviet troops knock out the Germans from Rostov (See Rostov operation (1941)). Until the summer of 1942, the front line in the south was established at the turn of the river. Mius.

On September 30, 1941, German troops begin an attack on Moscow. As a result of deep breakthroughs by German tank formations, the main forces of the Soviet Western, Reserve and Bryansk Fronts found themselves surrounded in the area of ​​Vyazma and Bryansk. In total, more than 660 thousand people were captured.

On October 10, the remnants of the Western and Reserve Fronts united into a single Western Front under the command of Army General G.K. Zhukov.

On November 15-18, German troops resumed their attack on Moscow, but by the end of November they were stopped in all directions.

On December 5, 1941, the Kalinin, Western and Southwestern fronts launched a counteroffensive. The successful advance of Soviet troops forces the enemy to go on the defensive along the entire front line. In December, as a result of the offensive, troops of the Western Front liberated Yakhroma, Klin, Volokolamsk, Kaluga; Kalinin Front liberates Kalinin; Southwestern Front - Efremov and Yelets. As a result, by the beginning of 1942, the Germans were thrown back 100-250 km to the west. The defeat near Moscow was the first major defeat of the Wehrmacht in this war.

The success of Soviet troops near Moscow prompts the Soviet command to launch a large-scale offensive. On January 8, 1942, the forces of the Kalinin, Western and Northwestern Fronts went on the offensive against the German Army Group Center. They fail to complete the task, and after several attempts, by mid-April, they have to stop the offensive, suffering heavy losses. The Germans retain the Rzhev-Vyazemsky bridgehead, which poses a danger to Moscow. Attempts by the Volkhov and Leningrad fronts to release Leningrad were also unsuccessful and led to the encirclement of part of the forces of the Volkhov front in March 1942.

Japanese advance in the Pacific

On December 7, 1941, Japan attacks the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. During the attack, which involved 441 aircraft based on six Japanese aircraft carriers, 8 battleships, 6 cruisers and more than 300 US aircraft were sunk and seriously damaged. Thus, in one day, most of the battleships of the US Pacific Fleet were destroyed. In addition to the United States, the next day Britain, the Netherlands (government in exile), Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Cuba, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras and Venezuela also declared war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and Italy, and on December 13, Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria declare war on the United States.

On December 8, the Japanese blockade the British military base in Hong Kong and begin an invasion of Thailand, British Malaya and the American Philippines. The British squadron, which came out to intercept, is subjected to air strikes, and two battleships - the striking force of the British in this area of ​​the Pacific Ocean - go to the bottom.

Thailand, after a short resistance, agrees to conclude a military alliance with Japan and declares war on the United States and Great Britain. Japanese aircraft begin bombing Burma from Thailand.

On December 10, the Japanese captured the American base on the island of Guam, on December 23 on Wake Island, and on December 25 Hong Kong fell. On December 8, the Japanese break through British defenses in Malaya and, rapidly advancing, push British troops back to Singapore. Singapore, which the British had previously considered an "impregnable fortress", fell on February 15, 1942, after a 6-day siege. About 70 thousand British and Australian soldiers are captured.

In the Philippines, at the end of December 1941, the Japanese captured the islands of Mindanao and Luzon. The remnants of American troops manage to gain a foothold on the Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor Island.

On January 11, 1942, Japanese troops invade the Dutch East Indies and soon capture the islands of Borneo and Celebs. On January 28, the Japanese fleet defeats the Anglo-Dutch squadron in the Java Sea. The Allies are trying to create a powerful defense on the island of Java, but by March 2 they capitulate.

On January 23, 1942, the Japanese captured the Bismarck Archipelago, including the island of New Britain, and then captured the western part of the Solomon Islands, the Gilbert Islands in February, and invaded New Guinea in early March.

On March 8, advancing in Burma, the Japanese captured Rangoon, at the end of April - Mandalay, and by May captured almost all of Burma, defeating British and Chinese troops and cutting off southern China from India. However, the onset of the rainy season and lack of strength prevent the Japanese from building on their success and invading India.

On May 6, the last group of American and Filipino troops in the Philippines surrenders. By the end of May 1942, Japan, at the cost of minor losses, managed to establish control over Southeast Asia and Northwestern Oceania. American, British, Dutch and Australian forces suffer a crushing defeat, losing all their main forces in the region.

Second stage of the Battle of the Atlantic

Since the summer of 1941, the main goal of the German and Italian fleets in the Atlantic is the destruction of merchant ships in order to complicate the delivery of weapons, strategic raw materials and food to Great Britain. The German and Italian command uses mainly submarines in the Atlantic, which operate on communications connecting Great Britain with North America, the African colonies, the Union of South Africa, Australia, India and the USSR.

From the end of August 1941, in accordance with the agreement of the governments of Great Britain and the USSR, mutual military supplies began through the Soviet northern ports, after which a significant part of German submarines began to operate in the North Atlantic. In the fall of 1941, even before the United States entered the war, attacks by German submarines on American ships were noted. In response, the US Congress on November 13, 1941 adopted two amendments to the neutrality law, according to which the ban on the entry of American ships into war zones was lifted and the arming of merchant ships was allowed.

With the strengthening of anti-submarine defense on communications in July - November, the losses of the merchant fleet of Great Britain, its allies and neutral countries are significantly reduced. In the second half of 1941 they amounted to 172.1 thousand gross tons, which is 2.8 times less compared to the first half of the year.

However, the German fleet soon seizes the initiative for a short time. After the United States entered the war, a significant part of German submarines began to operate in the coastal waters of the Atlantic coast of America. In the first half of 1942, losses of Anglo-American ships in the Atlantic increased again. But the improvement of anti-submarine defense methods has allowed the Anglo-American command, since the summer of 1942, to improve the situation on the Atlantic sea lanes, inflict a series of retaliatory strikes on the German submarine fleet and push it back to the central regions of the Atlantic.

German submarines operate throughout almost the entire Atlantic Ocean: off the coast of Africa, South America, and the Caribbean. On August 22, 1942, after the Germans sank a number of Brazilian ships, Brazil declares war on Germany. After this, fearing an undesirable reaction from other countries in South America, German submarines reduce their activity in this region.

In general, despite a number of successes, Germany was never able to disrupt Anglo-American shipping. In addition, since March 1942, British aviation began strategic bombing of important economic centers and cities in Germany, allied and occupied countries.

Mediterranean-African campaigns

In the summer of 1941, all German aviation operating in the Mediterranean was transferred to the Soviet-German front. This facilitates the tasks of the British, who, taking advantage of the passivity of the Italian fleet, seize the initiative in the Mediterranean. By mid-1942, the British, despite a number of setbacks, completely disrupted sea communications between Italy and Italian troops in Libya and Egypt.

By the summer of 1941, the position of British forces in North Africa was significantly improving. This is greatly facilitated by the complete defeat of the Italians in Ethiopia. The British command now has the opportunity to transfer forces from East Africa to North Africa.

Taking advantage of the favorable situation, British troops went on the offensive on November 18, 1941. On November 24, the Germans try to launch a counterattack, but it ends in failure. The British release the blockade of Tobruk and, developing the offensive, occupy El-Ghazal, Derna and Benghazi. By January, the British again captured Cyrenaica, but their troops found themselves dispersed over a vast area, which Rommel took advantage of. On January 21, Italian-German troops go on the offensive, break through the British defenses and rush to the northeast. At El-Ghazal, however, they were stopped, and the front stabilized again for 4 months.

May 26, 1942 Germany and Italy resume their offensive in Libya. The British suffer heavy losses and are again forced to retreat. On June 21, the English garrison in Tobruk capitulates. The Italian-German troops continue to successfully advance and on July 1 approach the English defensive line at El Alamein, 60 km from Alexandria, where due to heavy losses they are forced to stop. In August, the British command in North Africa changes. On August 30, Italo-German troops again tried to break through the British defenses near El Halfa, but suffered complete failure, which became the turning point of the entire campaign.

On October 23, 1942, the British went on the offensive, broke through the enemy’s defenses and by the end of November liberated the entire territory of Egypt, entered Libya and occupied Cyrenaica.

Meanwhile, in Africa, fighting continues for the French colony of Madagascar, which was under Vichy rule. The reason for Great Britain to conduct military operations against the colony of a former ally was the potential threat of German submarines using Madagascar as a base for operations in the Indian Ocean. On May 5, 1942, British and South African troops landed on the island. French troops put up stubborn resistance, but by November they were forced to capitulate. Madagascar comes under the control of the Free French.

On November 8, 1942, American-British troops begin landing in French North Africa. The next day, the commander-in-chief of the Vichy forces, Francois Darlan, negotiates an alliance and ceasefire with the Americans and assumes full power in French North Africa. In response, the Germans, with the consent of the Vichy government, occupy the southern part of France and begin transferring troops to Tunisia. On November 13, the allied forces begin an offensive into Tunisia from Algeria, and on the same day Tobruk was captured by the British. The Allies reached western Tunisia and encountered German forces by November 17, where by that time the Germans had managed to occupy the eastern part of Tunisia. By November 30, bad weather had stabilized the front line until February 1943.

Creation of the Anti-Hitler Coalition

Immediately after the German invasion of the USSR, representatives of Great Britain and the United States declared their support for the Soviet Union and began to provide it with economic assistance. On January 1, 1942, in Washington, representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and China signed the Declaration of the United Nations, thereby laying the foundations of the Anti-Fascist Coalition. Later, 22 more countries joined it.

Eastern Front: Second German Large-Scale Offensive

Both the Soviet and German sides expected the summer of 1942 to implement their offensive plans. Hitler aimed the main efforts of the Wehrmacht at the southern sector of the front, pursuing primarily economic goals.

The strategic plan of the Soviet command for 1942 was to “ consistently carry out a series of strategic operations in different directions in order to force the enemy to scatter his reserves and prevent him from creating a strong group to repel the offensive at any point».

The main efforts of the Red Army, according to the plans of the Supreme Command Headquarters, were supposed to be concentrated on the central sector of the Soviet-German front. It was also planned to carry out an offensive near Kharkov, in the Crimea and break the blockade of Leningrad.

However, the offensive launched by Soviet troops in May 1942 near Kharkov ended in failure. German troops managed to parry the attack, defeated Soviet troops and went on the offensive themselves. Soviet troops also suffered a crushing defeat in Crimea. For 9 months, Soviet sailors held Sevastopol, and by July 4, 1942, the remnants of the Soviet troops were evacuated to Novorossiysk. As a result, the defense of Soviet troops in the southern sector was weakened. Taking advantage of this, the German command launched a strategic offensive in two directions: towards Stalingrad and the Caucasus.

After fierce fighting near Voronezh and in the Donbass, German troops of Army Group B managed to break through to the big bend of the Don. In mid-July, the Battle of Stalingrad began, in which Soviet troops, at the cost of heavy losses, managed to pin down the enemy strike force.

Army Group A, advancing in the Caucasus, took Rostov-on-Don on July 23 and continued its attack on Kuban. On August 12, Krasnodar was captured. However, in battles in the foothills of the Caucasus and near Novorossiysk, Soviet troops managed to stop the enemy.

Meanwhile, in the central sector, the Soviet command launched a major offensive operation to defeat the enemy’s Rzhev-Sychev group (9th Army of Army Group Center). However, the Rzhev-Sychevsky operation, carried out from July 30 to the end of September, was not successful.

It was also not possible to break the blockade of Leningrad, although the Soviet offensive forced the German command to abandon the assault on the city.

Third period of the war (November 1942 - June 1944)

Turning point on the Eastern Front

On November 19, 1942, the Red Army launched a counteroffensive near Stalingrad, as a result of which it was possible to encircle and defeat two German, two Romanian and one Italian armies.

Even the failure of the Soviet offensive on the central sector of the Soviet-German front (Operation Mars) does not lead to an improvement in Germany's strategic position.

At the beginning of 1943, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive along the entire front. The blockade of Leningrad was broken, Kursk and many other cities were liberated. In February-March, Field Marshal Manstein once again seized the initiative from the Soviet troops and pushed them back in some areas of the southern direction, but he was unable to build on his success.

In July 1943, the German command tried for the last time to regain the strategic initiative in the Battle of Kursk, but it ended in a serious defeat for the German troops. The retreat of German troops begins along the entire front line - they have to leave Orel, Belgorod, Novorossiysk. Fighting for Belarus and Ukraine begins. In the Battle of the Dnieper, the Red Army inflicts another defeat on Germany, liberating Left Bank Ukraine and Crimea.

At the end of 1943 - the first half of 1944, the main combat operations took place on the southern sector of the front. The Germans leave the territory of Ukraine. The Red Army in the south reaches the 1941 border and enters the territory of Romania.

Anglo-American landings in Africa and Italy

On November 8, 1942, a large Anglo-American landing force landed in Morocco. Having overcome weak resistance from troops controlled by the Vichy government, by the end of November, having covered 900 km, they entered Tunisia, where by this time the Germans had transferred part of their troops from Western Europe.

Meanwhile, the British army goes on the offensive in Libya. The Italo-German troops stationed here were unable to hold out at El Alamein and by February 1943, having suffered heavy losses, retreated to Tunisia. On March 20, combined Anglo-American troops launched an offensive deep into Tunisian territory. The Italian-German command is trying to evacuate its troops to Italy, but by that time the British fleet was in complete control of the Mediterranean and was cutting off all escape routes. On May 13, the Italian-German troops capitulate.

On July 10, 1943, the Allies land in Sicily. The Italian troops located here surrender almost without a fight, and the German 14th Panzer Corps offered resistance to the Allies. On July 22, American troops captured the city of Palermo, and the Germans retreated to the northeast of the island to the Strait of Messina. By August 17, German units, having lost all armored vehicles and heavy weapons, crossed to the Apennine Peninsula. Simultaneously with the landing in Sicily, Free French forces landed in Corsica (Operation Vesuvius). The defeat of the Italian army sharply worsens the situation in the country. Dissatisfaction with the Mussolini regime is growing. King Victor Emmanuel III decides to arrest Mussolini and puts the government of Marshal Badoglio at the head of the country.

In September 1943, Anglo-American troops landed in the south of the Apennine Peninsula. Badoglio signs a truce with them and announces Italy's withdrawal from the war. However, taking advantage of the confusion of the Allies, Hitler frees Mussolini, and the puppet state of the Republic of Salo is created in the north of the country.

US and British troops move north in the fall of 1943. On October 1, the allies and Italian partisans liberated Naples; by November 15, the allies broke through the German defenses on the Volturno River and crossed it. By January 1944, the Allies had reached the German Winter Line fortifications in the area of ​​Monte Cassino and the Garigliano River. In January, February and March 1944, they attacked German positions three times with the goal of breaking through the enemy defenses on the Garigliano River and entering Rome, but due to deteriorating weather and heavy rains, they failed and the front line stabilized until May. At the same time, on January 22, the Allies landed troops at Anzio, south of Rome. At Anzio, the Germans launched unsuccessful counterattacks. By May the weather had improved. On May 11, the Allies launched an offensive (Battle of Monte Cassino), they broke through the German defenses at Monte Cassino and on May 25 joined forces that had previously landed at Anzio. On June 4, 1944, the Allies liberated Rome.

In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was decided to begin strategic bombing of Germany by joint Anglo-American forces. The targets of the bombing were to be both military industrial facilities and German cities. The operation was codenamed "Point Blanc".

In July-August 1943, Hamburg was subjected to massive bombing. The first massive raid on targets deep in Germany was a double raid on Schweinfurt and Regensburg on August 17, 1943. The unguarded bomber units were unable to defend themselves against attacks by German fighters, and losses were significant (about 20%). Such losses were considered unacceptable and the 8th Air Force stopped air operations over Germany until the arrival of P-51 Mustang fighters with sufficient range to fly to Berlin and back.

Guadalcanal. Asia

From August 1942 to February 1943, Japanese and American forces fought for control of the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands archipelago. In this battle of attrition, the United States ultimately prevails. The need to send reinforcements to Guadalcanal weakens Japanese forces in New Guinea, facilitating the liberation of the island from Japanese forces, which is completed in early 1943.

In late 1942 and throughout 1943, British forces launched several unsuccessful counter-offensives in Burma.

In November 1943, the Allies managed to capture the Japanese island of Tarawa.

Conferences during the third period of the war

The rapid development of events on all fronts, especially on the Soviet-German front, required the allies to clarify and agree on plans for waging war for the next year. This was done at the Cairo Conference and Tehran Conference held in November 1943.

Fourth period of the war (June 1944 - May 1945)

Western Front of Germany

On June 6, 1944, the allied forces of the United States, Great Britain and Canada, after two months of diversionary maneuvers, carried out the largest amphibious operation in history and landed in Normandy.

In August, American and French troops landed in the south of France and liberated the cities of Toulon and Marseille. On August 25, the Allies enter Paris and liberate it along with French resistance units.

In September, the allied offensive on Belgian territory begins. By the end of 1944, the Germans managed to stabilize the front line in the west with great difficulty. On December 16, the Germans launched a counteroffensive in the Ardennes, and the Allied command sent reinforcements from other sectors of the front and reserves to the Ardennes. The Germans manage to advance 100 km deep into Belgium, but by December 25, 1944, the German offensive fizzled out, and the Allies launched a counteroffensive. By December 27, the Germans could not hold their captured positions in the Ardennes and began to retreat. The strategic initiative irrevocably passes to the allies; in January 1945, German troops launched local diversionary counterattacks in Alsace, which also ended unsuccessfully. After this, American and French troops surrounded units of the German 19th Army near the city of Colmar in Alsace and defeated them by February 9 (“Colmar Pocket”). The Allies broke through the German fortifications (“Siegfried Line”, or “West Wall”) and began the invasion of Germany.

In February-March 1945, the Allies, during the Meuse-Rhine Operation, captured all German territory west of the Rhine and crossed the Rhine. German troops, having suffered heavy defeats in the Ardennes and Meuse-Rhine operations, retreated to the right bank of the Rhine. In April 1945, the Allies surrounded the German Army Group B in the Ruhr and defeated it by April 17, and the Wehrmacht lost the Ruhr Industrial Region, the most important industrial area in Germany.

The Allies continued to advance deep into Germany, and on April 25 they met Soviet troops on the Elbe. On May 2, British and Canadian troops (21st Army Group) captured the entire north-west of Germany and reached the borders of Denmark.

After the completion of the Ruhr operation, the released American units were transferred to the southern flank of the 6th Army Group to capture the southern regions of Germany and Austria.

On the southern flank, American and French troops advancing captured southern Germany, Austria, and parts of the 7th American Army, crossed the Alps along the Brenner Pass and on May 4 met with the troops of the 15th Allied Army Group advancing in Northern Italy.

In Italy, the Allied advance progressed very slowly. Despite all attempts, they failed to break through the front line and cross the Po River at the end of 1944. In April 1945, their offensive resumed, they overcame German fortifications (the Gothic Line) and broke into the Po Valley.

On April 28, 1945, Italian partisans capture and execute Mussolini. Northern Italy was completely cleared of the Germans only in May 1945.

In the summer of 1944, the Red Army began its offensive along the entire front line. By the fall, almost all of Belarus, Ukraine, and the Baltic states were cleared of German troops. Only in the west of Latvia was the surrounded group of German troops able to hold out until the end of the war.

As a result of the Soviet offensive in the north, Finland announced its withdrawal from the war. However, German troops refuse to leave Finnish territory. As a result, former “brothers in arms” are forced to fight against each other. In August, as a result of the offensive of the Red Army, Romania left the war, in September - Bulgaria. The Germans begin evacuating troops from the territory of Yugoslavia and Greece, where the people's liberation movements take power into their own hands.

In February 1945, the Budapest operation was carried out, after which Germany's last European ally, Hungary, was forced to capitulate. The offensive begins in Poland, the Red Army occupies East Prussia.

At the end of April 1945, the Battle of Berlin begins. Realizing their complete defeat, Hitler and Goebbels committed suicide. On May 8, after stubborn two-week battles for the German capital, the German command signed an act of unconditional surrender. Germany is divided into four occupation zones: Soviet, American, British and French.

On May 14-15, the last battle of World War II in Europe took place in northern Slovenia, during which the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia defeated German troops and numerous collaborator forces.

Strategic bombing of Germany

When Operation Pointblank CombinedBomberOffensive) was officially completed on April 1, 1944, the Allied Air Forces were on their way to gaining air superiority over all of Europe. Although strategic bombing continued to some extent, the Allied air forces switched to tactical bombing in support of the Normandy landings. It was not until mid-September 1944 that strategic bombing of Germany again became a priority for the Allied Air Force.

Large-scale round-the-clock bombing - by the US Air Force during the day, by the British Air Force at night - affected many industrial areas of Germany, mainly the Ruhr, followed by attacks directly on cities such as Kassel. bombingofKasselinWorldWarII), Pforzheim, Mainz and the oft-criticized raid on Dresden.

Pacific Theater

In the Pacific, combat operations were also quite successful for the Allies. In June 1944, the Americans took possession of the Mariana Islands. In October 1944, a major battle took place in Leyte Gulf, in which US forces won a tactical victory. In land battles, the Japanese army was more successful and they managed to capture all of Southern China and unite with their troops who were operating in Indochina at that time.

Conferences of the fourth period of the war

By the end of the fourth period of the war, the Allied victory was no longer in doubt. However, they had to agree on the post-war structure of the world and, first of all, Europe. The discussion of these issues by the heads of the three allied powers took place in February 1945 in Yalta. The decisions made at the Yalta Conference determined the course of post-war history for many subsequent years.

Fifth period of the war (May 1945 - September 1945)

End of the war with Japan

After the end of the war in Europe, Japan remained the last enemy of the countries of the anti-fascist coalition. By that time, about 60 countries had declared war on Japan. However, despite the current situation, the Japanese were not going to capitulate and declared the war to be fought to a victorious end. In June 1945, the Japanese lost Indonesia and were forced to leave Indochina. On July 26, 1945, the United States, Great Britain and China presented an ultimatum to the Japanese, but it was rejected. On August 6, atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima, and three days later on Nagasaki, and as a result, the two cities were almost wiped off the face of the earth. On August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan, and on August 9 launched an offensive and within 2 weeks inflicted a crushing defeat on the Japanese Kwantung Army in Manchuria. On September 2, the act of unconditional surrender of Japan was signed. The largest war in human history has ended.

Opinions and ratings

They are extremely ambiguous, which is caused by the high intensity of events in a relatively short historical period and the huge number of characters. Often, leaders carried their countries against the views of the majority of the population, maneuvering and duplicity were the order of the day.

• The future Chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler, spoke about the need to conquer “living space in the East” for the Germans back in 1925 in his book “Mein Kampf.”

• British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, as Minister of War, was one of the main supporters and main initiators of military intervention in Russia in 1918, declaring the need to “strangle Bolshevism in its cradle.” From that time on, Great Britain and France with their satellites consistently sought the international isolation of the USSR, as a result of which in September 1938 the Munich Agreement was signed, directly called the “Munich Agreement” in the USSR, which actually gave Hitler a free hand for aggression in Eastern Europe. However, after the failures of Great Britain and the Allies in almost all theaters of war and Germany’s attack on the USSR in June 1941, Churchill declared that “to fight the Huns (i.e., the Germans) I am ready for an alliance with anyone, even the Bolsheviks.” .

• After Germany’s attack on the USSR, Churchill, irritated by the Soviet ambassador Ivan Maisky, who demanded more help than Great Britain could provide and explicitly hinted at a possible loss for the USSR in case of refusal, said:

Here Churchill was lying: after the war, he admitted that 150,000 soldiers would have been enough for Hitler to capture Great Britain. However, Hitler's "Continental Policy" required first the seizure of most of the largest continent - Eurasia.

• Regarding the start of the war and Germany’s successes in its initial phase, the head of the Operations Department of the German General Staff, Colonel General Jodl, Alfred noted:

Results of the war

The Second World War had a huge impact on the destinies of mankind. 62 states (80% of the world's population) participated in it. Military operations took place on the territory of 40 states. 110 million people were mobilized into the armed forces. The total human losses reached 50-55 million people, of which 27 million people were killed at the fronts. The greatest human losses were suffered by the USSR, China, Germany, Japan and Poland.

Military spending and military losses totaled $4 trillion. Material costs reached 60-70% of the national income of the warring states. The industry of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and Germany alone produced 652.7 thousand aircraft (combat and transport), 286.7 thousand tanks, self-propelled guns and armored vehicles, over 1 million artillery pieces, over 4.8 million machine guns (without Germany) , 53 million rifles, carbines and machine guns and a huge amount of other weapons and equipment. The war was accompanied by colossal destruction, the destruction of tens of thousands of cities and villages, and innumerable disasters for tens of millions of people.

As a result of the war, the role of Western Europe in global politics weakened. The USSR and the USA became the main powers in the world. Great Britain and France, despite the victory, were significantly weakened. The war showed the inability of them and other Western European countries to maintain huge colonial empires. The anti-colonial movement intensified in African and Asian countries. As a result of the war, some countries were able to achieve independence: Ethiopia, Iceland, Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Indonesia. In Eastern Europe, occupied by Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. One of the main results of World War II was the creation of the United Nations on the basis of the Anti-Fascist coalition that emerged during the war to prevent world wars in the future.

In some countries, partisan movements that emerged during the war tried to continue their activities after the end of the war. In Greece, the conflict between communists and the pre-war government escalated into civil war. Anti-communist armed groups operated for some time after the end of the war in Western Ukraine, the Baltic states, and Poland. The civil war that has been going on there since 1927 continued in China.

Fascist and Nazi ideologies were declared criminal at the Nuremberg trials and prohibited. In many Western countries, support for communist parties grew due to their active participation in the anti-fascist struggle during the war.

Europe was divided into two camps: Western capitalist and Eastern socialist. Relations between the two blocs deteriorated sharply. A couple of years after the end of the war, the Cold War began.

Start Second world wars(September 1, 1939 – June 22, 1941).

At dawn on September 1, 1939, the troops of the German Wehrmacht suddenly launched military operations against Poland. Using overwhelming superiority in forces and means, the Nazi command was able to quickly achieve large-scale operational results. Despite the fact that France, Great Britain and the countries of the British Commonwealth immediately declared war on Germany, they never provided effective and real assistance to Poland. The courageous resistance of Polish soldiers near Mlawa, at Modlin and the heroic twenty-day defense of Warsaw could not save Poland from disaster.

At the same time, the Red Army troops, almost without encountering resistance, occupied the regions of Western Belarus and Western Ukraine from September 17 to 29. September 28, 1939 first campaign Second world wars was completed. Poland ceased to exist.

On the same day, a new Soviet-German treaty “On Friendship and Border” was concluded in Moscow, which formalized the division of Poland. New secret agreements gave the USSR the opportunity for “freedom of action” in creating a “security sphere” on its western borders, secured the annexation of the western regions of Belarus and Ukraine, and allowed the Soviet Union to conclude “mutual assistance” agreements on September 28, 1939 with Estonia, October 5 - with Latvia, October 10 - with Lithuania. According to these treaties, the USSR received the right to station its troops in the Baltic republics and create naval and
air bases. Stalin went to the transfer into the hands of the Gestapo of many hundreds of German anti-fascists hiding in the USSR from the Nazis, and also carried out the deportation of hundreds of thousands of Poles, both former military personnel and the civilian population.

At the same time, the Stalinist leadership increased pressure on Finland. On October 12, 1939, she was asked to conclude an agreement “on mutual assistance” with the USSR. However, the Finnish leadership refused to agree with the USSR, and the negotiations were unsuccessful.

The defeat of Poland and a temporary alliance with Stalin provided Hitler with a reliable rear for carrying out a blitzkrieg in the Western European theater of operations. Already on October 9, 1939, the Fuhrer signed a directive on preparing an attack on France, and 10 days later a plan for the strategic concentration of German troops to conduct offensive operations in the West was approved.

The Soviet leadership took active steps to expand the “security sphere” to northwest. On November 28, 1939, the USSR unilaterally denounced the non-aggression pact with Finland of 1932, and on the morning of November 30 began hostilities against the Finns, which lasted almost four months. The next day (December 1) in the village. Terijoki was immediately proclaimed the “government of the Democratic Republic of Finland.”

On March 12, 1940, a Soviet-Finnish peace treaty was signed in Moscow, which took into account the territorial claims made by the USSR. The Soviet Union during wars suffered huge human losses: the active army lost up to 127 thousand people killed and missing, as well as up to 248 thousand wounded and frostbitten. Finland lost just over 48 thousand killed and 43 thousand wounded.
Politically, this war caused serious damage to the Soviet Union. On December 14, 1939, the Council of the League of Nations adopted a resolution expelling him from this organization, condemning the actions of the USSR directed against the Finnish states and called on member states of the League of Nations to support Finland. The USSR found itself in international isolation.

Results of the "winter wars" clearly showed the weakness of the "indestructible" Soviet Armed Forces. Soon K.E. Voroshilov was removed from the post of People's Commissar of Defense, and his place was taken by S.K. Timoshenko.
In the spring of 1940, Wehrmacht troops began a large-scale military campaign in Western Europe. On April 9, 1940, a strike group of Nazi troops (about 140 thousand personnel, up to 1000 aircraft and all naval forces) attacked Denmark and Norway. Denmark (which had only a 13,000-strong army) was occupied within a few hours, and its government immediately announced capitulation.

The situation was different in Norway, where the armed forces managed to avoid defeat and retreat into the interior of the country, and Anglo-French troops were landed to help them. The armed struggle in Norway threatened to become protracted, so already on May 10, 1940, Hitler launched an offensive according to the Gelb plan, which envisaged a lightning strike on France through Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands, bypassing the French defensive Maginot Line. On June 22, 1940, the act of surrender of France was signed, according to which its northern territory was occupied by Germany, and the southern regions remained under the control of the “government” of the collaborationist Marshal A. Petain (“Vichy regime”).

The defeat of France led to a dramatic change in the strategic situation in Europe. The threat of a German invasion loomed over Great Britain. The war unfolded on sea lanes, where German submarines sank 100-140 British merchant ships every month.
Already in the summer of 1940, the front in the west ceased to exist, and the impending clash between Germany and the USSR began to take on more and more real outlines.

As a result of the German “pacification policy” in the northeast and east of Europe, territories with a population of 14 million people were included in the USSR, and the western border was pushed back by 200-600 km. At the VIII session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on August 2-6, 1940, these territorial “acquisitions” were legally formalized by the laws on the formation of the Moldavian SSR and the admission of the three Baltic republics to the Union.
After the victory over France, Germany accelerated preparations for the war against the USSR: the issue of the “eastern campaign” was already discussed on July 21, 1940 at a meeting of Hitler with the commanders of the armed forces, and on July 31 he set the task of starting the operation in May 1941 and finishing her for 5 months.

On August 9, 1940, a decision was made to transfer Wehrmacht forces to the borders of the USSR, and from September they began to concentrate in Romania. At the same time, a broad campaign of disinformation to the Soviet leadership began, which played a fatal role in carrying out measures to repel aggression. On September 27 in Berlin, Germany, Italy and Japan signed a tripartite pact, which was subsequently joined by Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Croatia. Finally, on December 18, 1940, Hitler approved the famous “Barbarossa option” - a plan wars against the Soviet Union.

In order to hide military preparations, I. Ribbentrop, on October 13, 1940, invited I.V. Stalin to take part in the division of spheres of interest on a global scale. A meeting on this issue took place on November 12-13 in Berlin with the participation of V.M. Molotov, but due to mutually unacceptable conditions put forward by both sides, it was not successful.

World War II in facts and figures

Ernest Hemingway from the preface to the book "A Farewell to Arms!"

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Having left the city, halfway to the front headquarters, we immediately heard and saw desperate shooting across the entire horizon with tracer bullets and shells. And they realized that the war was over. It couldn't mean anything else. I suddenly felt bad. I was ashamed in front of my comrades, but in the end I had to stop the Jeep and get out. I started having some kind of spasms in my throat and esophagus, and I started vomiting saliva, bitterness, and bile. I don't know why. Probably from nervous release, which expressed itself in such an absurd way. During all these four years of war, in different circumstances, I tried very hard to be a restrained person and, it seems, I really was one. And here, at the moment when I suddenly realized that the war was over, something happened - my nerves gave way. The comrades did not laugh or joke, they were silent.

Konstantin Simonov. "Different days of the war. A writer's diary"

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Surrender of Japan

The terms of Japan's surrender were set out in the Potsdam Declaration, signed on July 26, 1945 by the governments of Great Britain, the United States, and China. However, the Japanese government refused to accept them.

The situation changed after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as well as the entry into the war against Japan by the USSR (August 9, 1945).

But even despite this, members of the Supreme Military Council of Japan were not inclined to accept the terms of surrender. Some of them believed that the continuation of hostilities would lead to significant losses of Soviet and American troops, which would make it possible to conclude a truce on terms favorable to Japan.

On August 9, 1945, Japanese Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki and a number of members of the Japanese government asked the emperor to intervene in the situation in order to quickly accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. On the night of August 10, Emperor Hirohito, who shared the Japanese government's fear of the complete destruction of the Japanese nation, ordered the Supreme Military Council to accept unconditional surrender. On August 14, the emperor's speech was recorded in which he announced Japan's unconditional surrender and the end of the war.

On the night of August 15, a number of officers of the Ministry of the Army and employees of the Imperial Guard attempted to seize the imperial palace, place the emperor under house arrest and destroy the recording of his speech in order to prevent the surrender of Japan. The rebellion was suppressed.

At noon on August 15, Hirohito's speech was broadcast by radio. This was the first address of the Emperor of Japan to ordinary people.

The Japanese surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, on board the American battleship Missouri. This put an end to the bloodiest war of the 20th century.

LOSSES OF PARTIES

Allies

USSR

From June 22, 1941 to September 2, 1945, about 26.6 million people died. Total material losses - $2 trillion 569 billion (about 30% of all national wealth); military expenses - $192 billion in 1945 prices. 1,710 cities and towns, 70 thousand villages and villages, 32 thousand industrial enterprises were destroyed.

China

From September 1, 1939 to September 2, 1945, from 3 million to 3.75 million military personnel and about 10 million civilians died in the war against Japan. In total, during the years of the war with Japan (from 1931 to 1945), China's losses amounted, according to official Chinese statistics, to more than 35 million military and civilians.

Poland

From September 1, 1939 to May 8, 1945, about 240 thousand military personnel and about 6 million civilians died. The territory of the country was occupied by Germany, and resistance forces operated.

Yugoslavia

From April 6, 1941 to May 8, 1945, according to various sources, from 300 thousand to 446 thousand military personnel and from 581 thousand to 1.4 million civilians died. The country was occupied by Germany, and resistance units were active.

France

From September 3, 1939 to May 8, 1945, 201,568 military personnel and about 400 thousand civilians died. The country was occupied by Germany and there was a resistance movement. Material losses - 21 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

Great Britain

From September 3, 1939 to September 2, 1945, 382,600 military personnel and 67,100 civilians died. Material losses - about 120 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

USA

From December 7, 1941 to September 2, 1945, 407,316 military personnel and about 6 thousand civilians died. The costs of military operations are about 341 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

Greece

From October 28, 1940 to May 8, 1945, about 35 thousand military personnel and from 300 to 600 thousand civilians died.

Czechoslovakia

From September 1, 1939 to May 11, 1945, according to various estimates, from 35 thousand to 46 thousand military personnel and from 294 thousand to 320 thousand civilians died. The country was occupied by Germany. Volunteer units fought as part of the Allied armed forces.

India

From September 3, 1939 to September 2, 1945, about 87 thousand military personnel died. The civilian population did not suffer direct losses, but a number of researchers consider the deaths of 1.5 to 2.5 million Indians during the famine of 1943 (caused by an increase in food supplies to the British army) to be a direct consequence of the war.

Canada

From September 10, 1939 to September 2, 1945, 42 thousand military personnel and about 1 thousand 600 merchant seamen died. Material losses amounted to about 45 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

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I saw women, they were crying for the dead. They cried because we lied too much. You know how survivors return from war, how much space they take up, how loudly they boast of their exploits, how terrible they portray death. Still would! They might not come back either

Antoine de Saint-Exupery. "Citadel"

Hitler's coalition (Axis countries)

Germany

From September 1, 1939 to May 8, 1945, according to various sources, from 3.2 to 4.7 million military personnel died, civilian losses ranged from 1.4 million to 3.6 million people. The costs of military operations are about 272 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

Japan

From December 7, 1941 to September 2, 1945, 1.27 million military personnel were killed, non-combat losses - 620 thousand, 140 thousand were wounded, 85 thousand people were missing; civilian casualties - 380 thousand people. Military expenses - 56 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

Italy

From June 10, 1940 to May 8, 1945, according to various sources, from 150 thousand to 400 thousand military personnel died, 131 thousand were missing. Civilian losses ranged from 60 thousand to 152 thousand people. Military expenses - about 94 billion US dollars in 1945 prices.

Hungary

From June 27, 1941 to May 8, 1945, according to various sources, from 120 thousand to 200 thousand military personnel died. Civilian casualties are about 450 thousand people.

Romania

From June 22, 1941 to May 7, 1945, according to various sources, from 300 thousand to 520 thousand military personnel and from 200 thousand to 460 thousand civilians died. Romania was initially on the side of the Axis countries; on August 25, 1944, it declared war on Germany.

Finland

From June 26, 1941 to May 7, 1945, about 83 thousand military personnel and about 2 thousand civilians died. On March 4, 1945, the country declared war on Germany.

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It is still not possible to reliably assess the material losses suffered by the countries on whose territory the war took place.

Over the course of six years, many large cities, including some state capitals, suffered total destruction. The scale of destruction was such that after the end of the war these cities were built almost anew. Many cultural values ​​were irretrievably lost.

RESULTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin Roosevelt and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (from left to right) at the Yalta (Crimean) Conference (TASS Photo Chronicle)

The allies of the anti-Hitler coalition began to discuss the post-war structure of the world at the height of hostilities.

On August 14, 1941, on board a warship in the Atlantic Ocean near Fr. Newfoundland (Canada), US President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill signed the so-called. "Atlantic Charter"- a document declaring the goals of the two countries in the war against Nazi Germany and its allies, as well as their vision of the post-war world order.

On January 1, 1942, Roosevelt, Churchill, as well as the USSR Ambassador to the USA Maxim Litvinov and the Chinese representative Song Tzu-wen signed a document that later became known as "Declaration of the United Nations". The next day, the declaration was signed by representatives of 22 other states. Commitments were made to make every effort to achieve victory and not to conclude a separate peace. It is from this date that the United Nations traces its history, although the final agreement on the creation of this organization was reached only in 1945 in Yalta during a meeting of the leaders of the three countries of the anti-Hitler coalition - Joseph Stalin, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. It was agreed that the UN's activities would be based on the principle of unanimity of the great powers - permanent members of the Security Council with the right of veto.

In total, three summits took place during the war.

The first one took place in Tehran November 28 - December 1, 1943. The main issue was the opening of a second front in Western Europe. It was also decided to involve Turkey in the anti-Hitler coalition. Stalin agreed to declare war on Japan after the end of hostilities in Europe.

In the early morning of September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Goebbels’s propaganda presented this event as a response to the previous “seizure by Polish soldiers” of a radio station in the German border town of Gleiwitz (it later turned out that the German security service staged the attack in Gleiwitz, using German death row prisoners dressed in Polish military uniforms). Germany sent 57 divisions against Poland.

Great Britain and France, bound by allied obligations with Poland, after some hesitation, declared war on Germany on September 3. But the opponents were in no hurry to get involved in active struggle. According to Hitler's instructions, German troops were to adhere to defensive tactics on the Western Front during this period in order to “sparing their forces as much as possible, to create the preconditions for the successful completion of the operation against Poland.” The Western powers did not launch an offensive either. 110 French and 5 British divisions stood against 23 German ones, without taking serious military action. It is no coincidence that this confrontation was called a “strange war.”

Left without help, Poland, despite the desperate resistance of its soldiers and officers to the invaders in Gdansk (Danzig), on the Baltic coast in the Westerplatte region, in Silesia and other places, could not hold back the onslaught of the German armies.

On September 6, the Germans approached Warsaw. The Polish government and diplomatic corps left the capital. But the remnants of the garrison and the population defended the city until the end of September. The defense of Warsaw became one of the heroic pages in the history of the struggle against the occupiers.

At the height of the tragic events for Poland on September 17, 1939, units of the Red Army crossed the Soviet-Polish border and occupied the border territories. In this regard, the Soviet note said that they “took under protection the lives and property of the population of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.” On September 28, 1939, Germany and the USSR, having practically divided the territory of Poland, entered into a friendship and border treaty. In a statement on this occasion, representatives of the two countries emphasized that “thereby they created a solid foundation for lasting peace in Eastern Europe.” Having thus secured new borders in the east, Hitler turned to the west.

On April 9, 1940, German troops invaded Denmark and Norway. On May 10, they crossed the borders of Belgium, Holland, and Luxembourg and began an attack on France. The balance of forces was approximately equal. But the German shock armies, with their strong tank formations and aviation, managed to break through the Allied front. Some of the defeated Allied troops retreated to the English Channel coast. Their remnants were evacuated from Dunkirk at the beginning of June. By mid-June, the Germans had captured the northern part of French territory.

The French government declared Paris an "open city." On June 14, it was surrendered to the Germans without a fight. Hero of the First World War, 84-year-old Marshal A.F. Petain spoke on the radio with an appeal to the French: “With pain in my heart, I tell you today that we must stop the fight. Tonight I turned to the enemy to ask him if he is ready to seek with me ... a means to put an end to hostilities.” However, not all French supported this position. On June 18, 1940, in a broadcast from the London BBC radio station, General Charles de Gaulle stated:

“Has the last word been said? Is there no more hope? Has the final defeat been dealt? No! France is not alone! ...This war is not limited only to the long-suffering territory of our country. The outcome of this war is not decided by the Battle of France. This is a world war... I, General de Gaulle, currently in London, appeal to the French officers and soldiers who are on British territory... with an appeal to establish contact with me... Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance should not go out and will not go out.”

On June 22, 1940, in the Compiègne forest (in the same place and in the same carriage as in 1918), a Franco-German truce was concluded, this time meaning the defeat of France. In the remaining unoccupied territory of France, a government was created headed by A.F. Petain, which expressed its readiness to cooperate with the German authorities (it was located in the small town of Vichy). On the same day, Charles de Gaulle announced the creation of the Free France Committee, the purpose of which was to organize the fight against the occupiers.

After the surrender of France, Germany invited Great Britain to begin peace negotiations. The British government, headed at that moment by a supporter of decisive anti-German actions, W. Churchill, refused. In response, Germany strengthened the naval blockade of the British Isles, and massive German bomber raids began on English cities. Great Britain, for its part, signed an agreement with the United States in September 1940 on the transfer of several dozen American warships to the British fleet. Germany failed to achieve its intended goals in the “Battle of Britain.”

Back in the summer of 1940, the strategic direction of further actions was determined in the leadership circles of Germany. The Chief of the General Staff F. Halder then wrote in his official diary: “Eyes are turned to the East.” Hitler at one of the military meetings said: “Russia must be liquidated. The deadline is spring 1941.”

In preparation for this task, Germany was interested in expanding and strengthening the anti-Soviet coalition. In September 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan concluded a military-political alliance for a period of 10 years - the Tripartite Pact. It was soon joined by Hungary, Romania and the self-proclaimed Slovak state, and a few months later by Bulgaria. A German-Finnish agreement on military cooperation was also concluded. Where it was not possible to establish an alliance on a contractual basis, they acted by force. In October 1940, Italy attacked Greece. In April 1941, German troops occupied Yugoslavia and Greece. Croatia became a separate state - a satellite of Germany. By the summer of 1941, almost all of Central and Western Europe was under the rule of Germany and its allies.

1941

In December 1940, Hitler approved the Barbarossa plan, which provided for the defeat of the Soviet Union. This was the plan for blitzkrieg (lightning war). Three army groups - “North”, “Center” and “South” were supposed to break through the Soviet front and capture vital centers: the Baltic states and Leningrad, Moscow, Ukraine, Donbass. The breakthrough was ensured by powerful tank formations and aviation. Before the onset of winter, it was planned to reach the Arkhangelsk - Volga - Astrakhan line.

On June 22, 1941, the armies of Germany and its allies attacked the USSR. A new stage of the Second World War began. Its main front was the Soviet-German front, the most important component was the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people against the invaders. First of all, these are the battles that thwarted the German plan for a lightning war. In their ranks one can name many battles - from the desperate resistance of border guards, the Battle of Smolensk to the defense of Kyiv, Odessa, Sevastopol, besieged but never surrendered Leningrad.

The largest event of not only military but also political significance was the battle of Moscow. The offensives of the German Army Group Center, launched on September 30 and November 15-16, 1941, did not achieve their goal. It was not possible to take Moscow. And on December 5-6, the counter-offensive of the Soviet troops began, as a result of which the enemy was thrown back from the capital 100-250 km, 38 German divisions were defeated. The victory of the Red Army near Moscow became possible thanks to the steadfastness and heroism of its defenders and the skill of its commanders (the fronts were commanded by I. S. Konev, G. K. Zhukov, S. K. Timoshenko). This was Germany's first major defeat in World War II. In this regard, W. Churchill stated: “The Russian resistance broke the back of the German armies.”

The balance of forces at the beginning of the counter-offensive of Soviet troops in Moscow

Important events occurred at this time in the Pacific Ocean. Back in the summer and autumn of 1940, Japan, taking advantage of the defeat of France, seized its possessions in Indochina. Now it has decided to strike at the strongholds of other Western powers, primarily its main rival in the struggle for influence in Southeast Asia - the United States. On December 7, 1941, more than 350 Japanese naval aircraft attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbor (in the Hawaiian Islands).

In two hours, most of the warships and aircraft of the American Pacific Fleet were destroyed or disabled, the number of Americans killed was more than 2,400 people, and more than 1,100 people were wounded. The Japanese lost several dozen people. The next day, the US Congress decided to start a war against Japan. Three days later, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

The defeat of German troops near Moscow and the entry of the United States of America into the war accelerated the formation of the anti-Hitler coalition.

Dates and events

• July 12, 1941- signing of the Anglo-Soviet agreement on joint actions against Germany.
• August 14- F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill issued a joint declaration on the goals of the war, support for democratic principles in international relations - the Atlantic Charter; in September the USSR joined it.
• September 29 - October 1- British-American-Soviet conference in Moscow, a program for mutual supplies of weapons, military materials and raw materials was adopted.
• November 7- the law on Lend-Lease (transfer by the United States of America of weapons and other materials to opponents of Germany) was extended to the USSR.
• January 1, 1942- The Declaration of 26 states - “united nations” fighting against the fascist bloc was signed in Washington.

On the fronts of the world war

War in Africa. Back in 1940, the war spread beyond Europe. That summer, Italy, eager to make the Mediterranean its “inland sea,” attempted to seize the British colonies in North Africa. Italian troops occupied British Somalia, parts of Kenya and Sudan, and then invaded Egypt. However, by the spring of 1941, British armed forces not only drove the Italians out of the territories they had captured, but also entered Ethiopia, occupied by Italy in 1935. Italian possessions in Libya were also under threat.

At the request of Italy, Germany intervened in military operations in North Africa. In the spring of 1941, the German corps under the command of General E. Rommel, together with the Italians, began to oust the British from Libya and blocked the Tobruk fortress. Then Egypt became the target of the German-Italian offensive. In the summer of 1942, General Rommel, nicknamed the “Desert Fox,” captured Tobruk and broke through with his troops to El Alamein.

The Western powers were faced with a choice. They promised the leadership of the Soviet Union to open a second front in Europe in 1942. In April 1942, F. Roosevelt wrote to W. Churchill: “Your and my people demand the creation of a second front in order to remove the burden from the Russians. Our peoples cannot help but see that the Russians are killing more Germans and destroying more enemy equipment than the United States and England combined.” But these promises were at odds with the political interests of Western countries. Churchill cabled Roosevelt: “Don’t let North Africa out of your sight.” The Allies announced that the opening of a second front in Europe was forced to be postponed until 1943.

In October 1942, British troops under the command of General B. Montgomery launched an offensive in Egypt. They defeated the enemy at El Alamein (about 10 thousand Germans and 20 thousand Italians were captured). Most of Rommel's army retreated to Tunisia. In November, American and British troops (numbering 110 thousand people) under the command of General D. Eisenhower landed in Morocco and Algeria. The German-Italian army group, squeezed in Tunisia by British and American troops advancing from the east and west, capitulated in the spring of 1943. According to various estimates, from 130 thousand to 252 thousand people were captured (in total, 12-14 people fought in North Africa Italian and German divisions, while over 200 divisions of Germany and its allies fought on the Soviet-German front).

Fighting in the Pacific Ocean. In the summer of 1942, the American naval forces defeated the Japanese in the battle of Midway Island (4 large aircraft carriers, 1 cruiser were sunk, 332 aircraft were destroyed). Later, American units occupied and defended the island of Guadalcanal. The balance of forces in this combat area changed in favor of the Western powers. By the end of 1942, Germany and its allies were forced to suspend the advance of their troops on all fronts.

"New order"

In the Nazi plans for the conquest of the world, the fate of many peoples and states was predetermined.

Hitler, in his secret notes, which became known after the war, provided for the following: the Soviet Union would “disappear from the face of the earth”, within 30 years its territory would become part of the “Greater German Reich”; after the “final victory of Germany” there will be reconciliation with England, a treaty of friendship will be concluded with it; the Reich will include the countries of Scandinavia, the Iberian Peninsula and other European states; The United States of America will be “permanently excluded from world politics”, it will undergo “complete re-education of the racially inferior population”, and the population “with German blood” will be given military training and “re-education in the national spirit”, after which America will “become a German state” .

Already in 1940, directives and instructions “on the Eastern Question” began to be developed, and a comprehensive program for the conquest of the peoples of Eastern Europe was outlined in the “Ost” master plan (December 1941). The general guidelines were as follows: “The highest goal of all activities carried out in the East should be to strengthen the military potential of the Reich. The task is to remove the largest amount of agricultural products, raw materials, and labor from the new eastern regions,” “the occupied regions will provide everything necessary... even if the consequence of this is the starvation of millions of people.” Part of the population of the occupied territories was to be destroyed on the spot, a significant part was to be resettled in Siberia (it was planned to destroy 5-6 million Jews in the “eastern regions”, evict 46-51 million people, and reduce the remaining 14 million people to the level of a semi-literate labor force, education limited to a four-year school).

In the conquered countries of Europe, the Nazis methodically implemented their plans. In the occupied territories, a “cleansing” of the population was carried out - Jews and communists were exterminated. Prisoners of war and part of the civilian population were sent to concentration camps. A network of more than 30 death camps has engulfed Europe. The terrible memory of millions of tortured people is associated among the war and post-war generations with the names Buchenwald, Dachau, Ravensbrück, Auschwitz, Treblinka, etc. In only two of them - Auschwitz and Majdanek - more than 5.5 million people were exterminated. Those who arrived at the camp underwent “selection” (selection), the weak, primarily the elderly and children, were sent to the gas chambers and then burned in the ovens of the crematoria.

From the testimony of an Auschwitz prisoner, Frenchwoman Vaillant-Couturier, presented at the Nuremberg trials:

“There were eight cremation ovens at Auschwitz. But since 1944 this number has become insufficient. The SS forced the prisoners to dig colossal ditches in which they set fire to brushwood doused with gasoline. The corpses were thrown into these ditches. We saw from our block how, about 45 minutes to an hour after the arrival of the party of prisoners, large flames began to burst out of the crematorium ovens, and a glow appeared in the sky, rising above the ditches. One night we were awakened by a terrible scream, and the next morning we learned from people who worked in the Sonderkommando (the team that serviced the gas chambers) that the day before there was not enough gas and therefore children were thrown into the furnaces of cremation furnaces while still alive.”

At the beginning of 1942, Nazi leaders adopted a directive on the “final solution to the Jewish question,” that is, on the systematic destruction of an entire people. During the war years, 6 million Jews were killed - one in three. This tragedy was called the Holocaust, which translated from Greek means “burnt offering.” The orders of the German command to identify and transport the Jewish population to concentration camps were perceived differently in the occupied countries of Europe. In France, the Vichy police helped the Germans. Even the Pope did not dare to condemn the removal of Jews from Italy by the Germans in 1943 for subsequent extermination. And in Denmark, the population hid Jews from the Nazis and helped 8 thousand people move to neutral Sweden. After the war, an alley was laid out in Jerusalem in honor of the Righteous Among the Nations - people who risked their lives and the lives of their loved ones to save at least one innocent person sentenced to imprisonment and death.

For residents of occupied countries who were not immediately subjected to extermination or deportation, the “new order” meant strict regulation in all spheres of life. The occupation authorities and German industrialists seized a dominant position in the economy with the help of "Aryanization" laws. Small enterprises closed, and large ones switched to military production. Some agricultural areas were subject to Germanization, and their population was forcibly evicted to other areas. Thus, about 450 thousand residents were evicted from the territories of the Czech Republic bordering Germany, and about 280 thousand people from Slovenia. Mandatory supplies of agricultural products were introduced for peasants. Along with control over economic activities, the new authorities pursued a policy of restrictions in the field of education and culture. In many countries, representatives of the intelligentsia - scientists, engineers, teachers, doctors, etc. - were persecuted. In Poland, for example, the Nazis carried out a targeted curtailment of the education system. Classes at universities and high schools were prohibited. (Why do you think, why was this done?) Some teachers, risking their lives, continued to teach students illegally. During the war years, the occupiers killed about 12.5 thousand teachers of higher educational institutions and teachers in Poland.

The authorities of Germany's allied states - Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, as well as the newly proclaimed states - Croatia and Slovakia, also pursued a tough policy towards the population. In Croatia, the Ustasha government (participants of the nationalist movement that came to power in 1941), under the slogan of creating a “purely national state,” encouraged the mass expulsion and extermination of Serbs.

The forced removal of the working population, especially young people, from the occupied countries of Eastern Europe to work in Germany took on a wide scale. General Commissioner “for the use of labor” Sauckel set the task of “completely exhausting all human reserves available in the Soviet regions.” Trains with thousands of young men and women forcibly driven away from their homes reached the Reich. By the end of 1942, German industry and agriculture employed the labor of about 7 million “Eastern workers” and prisoners of war. In 1943, another 2 million people were added to them.

Any insubordination, and especially resistance to the occupation authorities, was mercilessly punished. One of the terrible examples of the Nazis’ reprisal against civilians was the destruction of the Czech village of Lidice in the summer of 1942. It was carried out as an “act of retaliation” for the murder of a major Nazi official, “Protector of Bohemia and Moravia” Heydrich, committed the day before by members of a sabotage group.

The village was surrounded by German soldiers. The entire male population over 16 years of age (172 people) was shot (the residents who were absent that day - 19 people - were captured later and also shot). 195 women were sent to the Ravensbrück concentration camp (four pregnant women were taken to maternity hospitals in Prague, after giving birth they were also sent to the camp, and newborn children were killed). 90 children from Lidice were taken from their mothers and sent to Poland, and then to Germany, where their traces were lost. All houses and buildings of the village were burned to the ground. Lidice disappeared from the face of the earth. German cameramen carefully filmed the entire “operation” - “for the edification” of contemporaries and descendants.

Turning point in the war

By mid-1942, it became obvious that Germany and its allies had failed to carry out their original war plans on any front. In subsequent military actions it was necessary to decide which side would have the advantage. The outcome of the entire war depended mainly on events in Europe, on the Soviet-German front. In the summer of 1942, the German armies launched a major offensive in the southern direction, approached Stalingrad and reached the foothills of the Caucasus.

Battles for Stalingrad lasted more than 3 months. The city was defended by the 62nd and 64th armies under the command of V.I. Chuikov and M.S. Shumilov. Hitler, who had no doubt about victory, declared: “Stalingrad is already in our hands.” But the counteroffensive of Soviet troops that began on November 19, 1942 (front commanders N.F. Vatutin, K.K. Rokossovsky, A.I. Eremenko) ended in the encirclement of German armies (numbering over 300 thousand people), their subsequent defeat and capture , including commander Field Marshal F. Paulus.

During the Soviet offensive, the losses of the armies of Germany and its allies amounted to 800 thousand people. In total, in the Battle of Stalingrad they lost up to 1.5 million soldiers and officers - approximately a quarter of the forces then operating on the Soviet-German front.

Battle of Kursk. In the summer of 1943, an attempt by a German attack on Kursk from the Orel and Belgorod areas ended in a crushing defeat. On the German side, over 50 divisions (including 16 tank and motorized) took part in the operation. A special role was given to powerful artillery and tank strikes. On July 12, the largest tank battle of World War II took place on a field near the village of Prokhorovka, in which about 1,200 tanks and self-propelled artillery units collided. At the beginning of August, Soviet troops liberated Oryol and Belgorod. 30 enemy divisions were defeated. The losses of the German army in this battle amounted to 500 thousand soldiers and officers, 1.5 thousand tanks. After the Battle of Kursk, the offensive of Soviet troops unfolded along the entire front. In the summer and autumn of 1943, Smolensk, Gomel, Left Bank Ukraine and Kyiv were liberated. The strategic initiative on the Soviet-German front passed to the Red Army.

In the summer of 1943, the Western powers began fighting in Europe. But they did not open, as expected, a second front against Germany, but struck in the south, against Italy. In July, British and American troops landed on the island of Sicily. Soon a coup d'état took place in Italy. Representatives of the army elite removed Mussolini from power and arrested him. A new government was created headed by Marshal P. Badoglio. On September 3, it concluded an armistice agreement with the British-American command. On September 8, the surrender of Italy was announced, and troops of Western powers landed in the south of the country. In response, 10 German divisions entered Italy from the north and captured Rome. On the newly formed Italian front, British-American troops with difficulty, slowly, but still pushed back the enemy (in the summer of 1944 they occupied Rome).

The turning point in the course of the war immediately affected the positions of other countries - allies of Germany. After the Battle of Stalingrad, representatives of Romania and Hungary began to explore the possibility of concluding a separate peace with the Western powers. The Francoist government of Spain issued statements of neutrality.

On November 28 - December 1, 1943, a meeting of the leaders of the three countries took place in Tehran- members of the anti-Hitler coalition: USSR, USA and Great Britain. I. Stalin, F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill discussed mainly the question of the second front, as well as some questions of the structure of the post-war world. US and British leaders promised to open a second front in Europe in May 1944, launching the landing of Allied troops in France.

Resistance movement

Since the establishment of the Nazi regime in Germany, and then the occupation regimes in European countries, the Resistance movement to the “new order” began. It was attended by people of different beliefs and political affiliations: communists, social democrats, supporters of bourgeois parties and non-party people. German anti-fascists were among the first to join the fight in the pre-war years. Thus, at the end of the 1930s, an underground anti-Nazi group arose in Germany, led by H. Schulze-Boysen and A. Harnack. In the early 1940s, it was already a strong organization with an extensive network of secret groups (in total, up to 600 people participated in its work). The underground carried out propaganda and intelligence work, maintaining contact with Soviet intelligence. In the summer of 1942, the Gestapo discovered the organization. The scale of its activities amazed the investigators themselves, who called this group the “Red Chapel.” After interrogation and torture, the leaders and many members of the group were sentenced to death. In his last word at the trial, H. Schulze-Boysen said: “Today you judge us, but tomorrow we will be the judges.”

In a number of European countries, immediately after their occupation, an armed struggle began against the invaders. In Yugoslavia, the communists became the initiators of nationwide resistance to the enemy. Already in the summer of 1941, they created the Main Headquarters of the people's liberation partisan detachments (it was headed by I. Broz Tito) and decided on an armed uprising. By the fall of 1941, partisan detachments numbering up to 70 thousand people were operating in Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1942, the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia (PLJA) was created, and by the end of the year it practically controlled a fifth of the country's territory. In the same year, representatives of organizations participating in the Resistance formed the Anti-Fascist Assembly of People's Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ). In November 1943, the veche proclaimed itself the temporary supreme body of legislative and executive power. By this time, half of the country’s territory was already under his control. A declaration was adopted that defined the foundations of the new Yugoslav state. National committees were created in the liberated territory, and the confiscation of enterprises and lands of fascists and collaborators (people who collaborated with the occupiers) began.

The Resistance movement in Poland consisted of many groups with different political orientations. In February 1942, part of the underground armed forces united into the Home Army (AK), led by representatives of the Polish émigré government, which was located in London. “Peasant battalions” were created in the villages. Detachments of the Army of the People (AL) organized by the communists began to operate.

Guerrilla groups carried out sabotage on transport (over 1,200 military trains were blown up and about the same number set on fire), at military enterprises, and attacked police and gendarmerie stations. The underground members produced leaflets telling about the situation at the fronts and warning the population about the actions of the occupation authorities. In 1943-1944. partisan groups began to unite into large detachments that successfully fought against significant enemy forces, and as the Soviet-German front approached Poland, they interacted with Soviet partisan detachments and army units and carried out joint combat operations.

The defeat of the armies of Germany and its allies at Stalingrad had a particular impact on the mood of people in the warring and occupied countries. The German security service reported on the “state of mind” in the Reich: “The belief has become universal that Stalingrad marks a turning point in the war... Unstable citizens see Stalingrad as the beginning of the end.”

In Germany, in January 1943, total (general) mobilization into the army was announced. The working day increased to 12 hours. But simultaneously with the desire of the Hitler regime to gather the forces of the nation into an “iron fist,” rejection of his policies grew among different groups of the population. Thus, one of the youth circles issued a leaflet with the appeal: “Students! Students! The German people are looking at us! They expect us to be liberated from Nazi terror... Those who died at Stalingrad call on us: rise up, people, the flames are burning!”

After the turning point in the fighting on the fronts, the number of underground groups and armed detachments fighting against the invaders and their accomplices in the occupied countries increased significantly. In France, the Maquis became more active - partisans who carried out sabotage on railways, attacked German posts, warehouses, etc.

One of the leaders of the French Resistance movement, Charles de Gaulle, wrote in his memoirs:

“Until the end of 1942, there were few Maquis detachments and their actions were not particularly effective. But then hope increased, and with it the number of those who wanted to fight increased. In addition, compulsory “labor conscription,” which in a few months mobilized half a million young men, mostly workers, for use in Germany, and the dissolution of the “armistice army,” prompted many dissenters to go underground. The number of more or less significant Resistance groups increased, and they waged a guerrilla war, which played a primary role in wearing out the enemy, and later in the ensuing Battle of France.”

Figures and facts

Number of participants in the Resistance movement (1944):

• France - over 400 thousand people;
• Italy - 500 thousand people;
• Yugoslavia - 600 thousand people;
• Greece - 75 thousand people.

By mid-1944, leading bodies of the Resistance movement had formed in many countries, uniting different movements and groups - from communists to Catholics. For example, in France, the National Council of the Resistance included representatives of 16 organizations. The most determined and active participants in the Resistance were the communists. For the sacrifices made in the fight against the occupiers, they were called the “party of those executed.” In Italy, communists, socialists, Christian Democrats, liberals, members of the Action Party and the Democracy of Labor party participated in the work of national liberation committees.

All participants in the Resistance sought first of all to liberate their countries from occupation and fascism. But on the question of what kind of power should be established after this, the views of representatives of individual movements diverged. Some advocated the restoration of pre-war regimes. Others, primarily the communists, sought to establish a new, “people's democratic power.”

Liberation of Europe

The beginning of 1944 was marked by major offensive operations by Soviet troops on the southern and northern sectors of the Soviet-German front. Ukraine and Crimea were liberated, and the 900-day blockade of Leningrad was lifted. In the spring of this year, Soviet troops reached the state border of the USSR for more than 400 km, approaching the borders of Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Romania. Continuing the defeat of the enemy, they began to liberate the countries of Eastern Europe. Next to the Soviet soldiers, units of the 1st Czechoslovak Brigade under the command of L. Svoboda and the 1st Polish Division, formed during the war on the territory of the USSR, fought for the freedom of their peoples. T. Kosciuszko under the command of Z. Berling.

At this time, the Allies finally opened a second front in Western Europe. On June 6, 1944, American and British troops landed in Normandy, on the northern coast of France.

The bridgehead between the cities of Cherbourg and Caen was occupied by 40 divisions with a total number of up to 1.5 million people. The Allied forces were commanded by American General D. Eisenhower. Two and a half months after the landing, the Allies began advancing deeper into French territory. They were opposed by about 60 understrength German divisions. At the same time, resistance units launched an open struggle against the German army in the occupied territory. On August 19, an uprising began in Paris against the troops of the German garrison. General de Gaulle, who arrived in France with the Allied troops (by that time he had been proclaimed head of the Provisional Government of the French Republic), fearing the “anarchy” of the mass liberation struggle, insisted that Leclerc’s French tank division be sent to Paris. On August 25, 1944, this division entered Paris, which by that time had been practically liberated by the rebels.

Having liberated France and Belgium, where in a number of provinces the Resistance forces also launched armed actions against the occupiers, the Allied troops reached the German border by September 11, 1944.

At that time, a frontal offensive by the Red Army was taking place on the Soviet-German front, as a result of which the countries of Eastern and Central Europe were liberated.

Dates and events

Fighting in the countries of Eastern and Central Europe in 1944-1945.

1944

• July 17 - Soviet troops crossed the border with Poland; Chelm, Lublin liberated; In the liberated territory, the power of the new government, the Polish Committee of National Liberation, began to assert itself.
• August 1 - the beginning of the uprising against the occupiers in Warsaw; this action, prepared and led by the émigré government located in London, was defeated by the beginning of October, despite the heroism of its participants; By order of the German command, the population was expelled from Warsaw, and the city itself was destroyed.
• August 23 - the overthrow of the Antonescu regime in Romania, a week later Soviet troops entered Bucharest.
• August 29 - the beginning of the uprising against the occupiers and the reactionary regime in Slovakia.
• September 8 - Soviet troops entered Bulgarian territory.
• September 9 - anti-fascist uprising in Bulgaria, the government of the Fatherland Front comes to power.
• October 6 - Soviet troops and units of the Czechoslovak Corps entered the territory of Czechoslovakia.
• October 20 - troops of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia and the Red Army liberated Belgrade.
• October 22 - Red Army units crossed the Norwegian border and occupied the port of Kirkenes on October 25.

1945

• January 17 - troops of the Red Army and the Polish Army liberated Warsaw.
• January 29 - Soviet troops crossed the German border in the Poznan region. February 13 - Red Army troops captured Budapest.
• April 13 - Soviet troops entered Vienna.
• April 16 - The Berlin operation of the Red Army began.
• April 18 - American units entered the territory of Czechoslovakia.
• April 25 - Soviet and American troops met on the Elbe River near the city of Torgau.

Many thousands of Soviet soldiers gave their lives for the liberation of European countries. In Romania, 69 thousand soldiers and officers died, in Poland - about 600 thousand, in Czechoslovakia - more than 140 thousand and about the same in Hungary. Hundreds of thousands of soldiers died in other, including opposing, armies. They fought on opposite sides of the front, but were similar in one thing: no one wanted to die, especially in the last months and days of the war.

During the liberation in the countries of Eastern Europe, the issue of power acquired paramount importance. The pre-war governments of a number of countries were in exile and now sought to return to leadership. But new governments and local authorities appeared in the liberated territories. They were created on the basis of the organizations of the National (People's) Front, which arose during the war years as an association of anti-fascist forces. The organizers and most active participants of the national fronts were communists and social democrats. The programs of the new governments provided not only for the elimination of occupation and reactionary, pro-fascist regimes, but also for broad democratic reforms in political life and socio-economic relations.

Defeat of Germany

In the fall of 1944, troops of the Western powers - participants in the anti-Hitler coalition - approached the borders of Germany. In December of this year, the German command launched a counteroffensive in the Ardennes (Belgium). American and British troops found themselves in a difficult position. D. Eisenhower and W. Churchill turned to I.V. Stalin with a request to speed up the offensive of the Red Army in order to divert German forces from west to east. By Stalin's decision, the offensive along the entire front was launched on January 12, 1945 (8 days earlier than planned). W. Churchill subsequently wrote: “It was a wonderful feat on the part of the Russians to speed up a broad offensive, undoubtedly at the cost of human lives.” On January 29, Soviet troops entered the territory of the German Reich.

On February 4-11, 1945, a conference of the heads of government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain took place in Yalta. I. Stalin, F. Roosevelt and W. Churchill agreed on plans for military operations against Germany and post-war policy towards it: zones and conditions of occupation, actions to destroy the fascist regime, the procedure for collecting reparations, etc. An accession agreement was also signed at the conference The USSR entered the war against Japan 2-3 months after the surrender of Germany.

From the documents of the conference of the leaders of the USSR, Great Britain and the USA in Crimea (Yalta, February 4-11, 1945):

“...Our unyielding goal is the destruction of German militarism and Nazism and the creation of guarantees that Germany will never again be able to disturb the peace of the world. We are determined to disarm and disband all German armed forces, to destroy once and for all the German General Staff, which has repeatedly contributed to the revival of German militarism, to confiscate or destroy all German military equipment, to liquidate or take control of all German industry that could be used for military purposes. production; subject all war criminals to fair and speedy punishment and exact compensation in kind for the destruction caused by the Germans; wipe out the Nazi Party, Nazi laws, organizations and institutions from the face of the earth; to remove all Nazi and militaristic influence from public institutions, from the cultural and economic life of the German people, and to take together such other measures in Germany as may prove necessary for the future peace and security of the whole world. Our goals do not include the destruction of the German people. Only when Nazism and militarism are eradicated will there be hope for a dignified existence for the German people and a place for them in the community of nations.”

By mid-April 1945, Soviet troops approached the capital of the Reich, and on April 16 the Berlin operation began (front commanders G.K. Zhukov, I.S. Konev, K.K. Rokossovsky). It was distinguished by both the offensive power of the Soviet units and the fierce resistance of the defenders. On April 21, Soviet units entered the city. On April 30, A. Hitler committed suicide in his bunker. The next day, the Red Banner fluttered over the Reichstag building. On May 2, the remnants of the Berlin garrison capitulated.

During the battle for Berlin, the German command issued the order: “Defend the capital to the last man and to the last cartridge.” Teenagers - members of the Hitler Youth - were mobilized into the army. The photo shows one of these soldiers, the last defenders of the Reich, who was captured.

On May 7, 1945, General A. Jodl signed an act of unconditional surrender of German troops at the headquarters of General D. Eisenhower in Reims. Stalin considered such a unilateral capitulation to the Western powers insufficient. In his opinion, surrender had to take place in Berlin and before the high command of all countries of the anti-Hitler coalition. On the night of May 8-9, in the Berlin suburb of Karlshorst, Field Marshal W. Keitel, in the presence of representatives of the high command of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France, signed the act of unconditional surrender of Germany.

The last European capital to be liberated was Prague. On May 5, an uprising against the occupiers began in the city. A large group of German troops under the command of Field Marshal F. Scherner, who refused to lay down their arms and broke through to the west, threatened to capture and destroy the capital of Czechoslovakia. In response to the rebels' request for help, units of three Soviet fronts were hastily transferred to Prague. On May 9 they entered Prague. As a result of the Prague operation, about 860 thousand enemy soldiers and officers were captured.

On July 17 - August 2, 1945, a conference of the heads of government of the USSR, USA and Great Britain took place in Potsdam (near Berlin). Those who took part in it were I. Stalin, G. Truman (US President after F. Roosevelt, who died in April 1945), and C. Attlee (who replaced W. Churchill as British Prime Minister) discussed “the principles of the coordinated policy of the allies towards the defeated Germany." A program of democratization, denazification, and demilitarization of Germany was adopted. The total amount of reparations it had to pay was confirmed as $20 billion. Half was intended for the Soviet Union (it was later calculated that the damage inflicted by the Nazis on the Soviet country amounted to about $128 billion). Germany was divided into four occupation zones - Soviet, American, British and French. Liberated by Soviet troops, Berlin and the capital of Austria, Vienna, were placed under the control of the four Allied powers.

At the Potsdam Conference. In the first row from left to right: K. Attlee, G. Truman, I. Stalin

Provision was made for the establishment of an International Military Tribunal to try Nazi war criminals. The border between Germany and Poland was established along the Oder and Neisse rivers. East Prussia went to Poland and partially (the region of Königsberg, now Kaliningrad) to the USSR.

End of the war

In 1944, at a time when the armies of the anti-Hitler coalition countries were conducting a widespread offensive against Germany and its allies in Europe, Japan intensified its actions in Southeast Asia. Its troops launched a massive offensive in China, capturing a territory with a population of over 100 million people by the end of the year.

The strength of the Japanese army at that time reached 5 million people. Its units fought with particular tenacity and fanaticism, defending their positions to the last soldier. In the army and aviation, there were kamikazes - suicide bombers who sacrificed their lives by directing specially equipped aircraft or torpedoes at enemy military targets, blowing themselves up along with enemy soldiers. The American military believed that it would be possible to defeat Japan no earlier than 1947, with losses amounting to at least 1 million people. The participation of the Soviet Union in the war against Japan could, in their opinion, significantly facilitate the achievement of the assigned tasks.

In accordance with the commitment given at the Crimean (Yalta) Conference, the USSR declared war on Japan on August 8, 1945. But the Americans did not want to give up the leading role in the future victory to the Soviet troops, especially since by the summer of 1945 atomic weapons had been created in the United States. On August 6 and 9, 1945, American planes dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Testimony of historians:

“On August 6, a B-29 bomber appeared over Hiroshima. The alarm was not announced, since the appearance of one plane did not seem to pose a serious threat. At 8.15 am the atomic bomb was dropped by parachute. A few moments later, a blinding fireball broke out over the city, the temperature at the epicenter of the explosion reached several million degrees. Fires in the city, built up with light wooden houses, covered an area within a radius of more than 4 km. Japanese authors write: “Hundreds of thousands of people who became victims of atomic explosions died an unusual death - they died after terrible torture. The radiation even penetrated into the bone marrow. People without the slightest scratch, seemingly completely healthy, after a few days or weeks, or even months, their hair suddenly fell out, their gums began to bleed, diarrhea appeared, the skin became covered with dark spots, hemoptysis began, and they died in full consciousness.”

(From the book: Rozanov G. L., Yakovlev N. N. Recent history. 1917-1945)

Hiroshima. 1945

As a result of nuclear explosions in Hiroshima, 247 thousand people died, in Nagasaki there were up to 200 thousand killed and wounded. Later, many thousands of people died from wounds, burns, and radiation sickness, the number of which has not yet been accurately calculated. But politicians didn't think about it. And the cities that were bombed did not constitute important military installations. Those who used the bombs mainly wanted to demonstrate their strength. US President Henry Truman, upon learning that a bomb had been dropped on Hiroshima, exclaimed: “This is the greatest event in history!”

On August 9, troops of three Soviet fronts (over 1 million 700 thousand personnel) and parts of the Mongolian army began an offensive in Manchuria and on the coast of North Korea. A few days later they went 150-200 km into enemy territory in some areas. The Japanese Kwantung Army (numbering about 1 million people) was under threat of defeat. On August 14, the Japanese government announced its agreement with the proposed terms of surrender. But Japanese troops did not stop resisting. Only after August 17 did units of the Kwantung Army begin to lay down their arms.

On September 2, 1945, representatives of the Japanese government signed an act of unconditional surrender of Japan on board the American battleship Missouri.

The Second World War is over. 72 states with a total population of over 1.7 billion people took part in it. The fighting took place on the territory of 40 countries. 110 million people were mobilized into the armed forces. According to updated estimates, up to 62 million people died in the war, including about 27 million Soviet citizens. Thousands of cities and villages were destroyed, innumerable material and cultural values ​​were destroyed. Humanity paid a huge price for the victory over the invaders who sought world domination.

The war, in which atomic weapons were used for the first time, showed that armed conflicts in the modern world threaten to destroy not only an increasing number of people, but also humanity as a whole, all life on earth. The hardships and losses of the war years, as well as examples of human self-sacrifice and heroism, left a memory of themselves in several generations of people. The international and socio-political consequences of the war turned out to be significant.

References:
Aleksashkina L.N. / General history. XX - early XXI centuries.

The Second World War was the bloodiest and most brutal military conflict in the entire history of mankind and the only one in which nuclear weapons were used. 61 states took part in it. The dates of the beginning and end of this war, September 1, 1939 - 1945, September 2, are among the most significant for the entire civilized world.

The causes of the Second World War were the imbalance of power in the world and the problems provoked by the results of the First World War, in particular territorial disputes. The winners of the First World War, the USA, England, and France, concluded the Treaty of Versailles on conditions that were most unfavorable and humiliating for the losing countries, Turkey and Germany, which provoked an increase in tension in the world. At the same time, adopted in the late 1930s by England and France, the policy of appeasing the aggressor made it possible for Germany to sharply increase its military potential, which accelerated the Nazis’ transition to active military action.

Members of the anti-Hitler bloc were the USSR, USA, France, England, China (Chiang Kai-shek), Greece, Yugoslavia, Mexico, etc. On the German side, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Albania, Bulgaria, Finland, China (Wang Jingwei), Thailand, Finland, Iraq, etc. participated in World War II. Many states that took part in the Second World War did not take action on the fronts, but helped by supplying food, medicine and other necessary resources.

Researchers identify the following main stages of the Second World War.

The first stage from September 1, 1939 to June 21, 1941. The period of the European blitzkrieg of Germany and the Allies.

Second stage June 22, 1941 - approximately mid-November 1942. Attack on the USSR and the subsequent failure of the Barbarossa plan.

The third stage, the second half of November 1942 - the end of 1943. A radical turning point in the war and Germany’s loss of strategic initiative. At the end of 1943, at the Tehran Conference, in which Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill took part, a decision was made to open a second front.

The fourth stage lasted from the end of 1943 to May 9, 1945. It was marked by the capture of Berlin and the unconditional surrender of Germany.

Fifth stage May 10, 1945 – September 2, 1945. At this time, fighting takes place only in Southeast Asia and the Far East. The United States used nuclear weapons for the first time.

The Second World War began on September 1, 1939. On this day, the Wehrmacht suddenly began aggression against Poland. Despite the reciprocal declaration of war by France, Great Britain and some other countries, no real assistance was provided to Poland. Already on September 28, Poland was captured. A peace treaty between Germany and the USSR was concluded on the same day. Having thus received a reliable rear, Germany begins active preparations for war with France, which capitulated already in 1940, on June 22. Nazi Germany begins large-scale preparations for war on the eastern front with the USSR. Plan Barbarossa was approved already in 1940, on December 18. The Soviet senior leadership received reports of the impending attack, but fearing to provoke Germany, and believing that the attack would be carried out at a later date, they deliberately did not put the border units on alert.

In the chronology of the Second World War, the most important period is the period of June 22, 1941-1945, May 9, known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War. On the eve of World War II, the USSR was an actively developing state. As the threat of conflict with Germany increased over time, defense and heavy industry and science developed primarily in the country. Closed design bureaus were created, whose activities were aimed at developing the latest weapons. At all enterprises and collective farms, discipline was tightened as much as possible. In the 30s, more than 80% of the officers of the Red Army were repressed. In order to make up for the losses, a network of military schools and academies has been created. But there was not enough time for full training of personnel.

The main battles of World War II, which were of great importance for the history of the USSR, are:

The Battle of Moscow September 30, 1941 – April 20, 1942, which became the first victory of the Red Army;

The Battle of Stalingrad July 17, 1942 – February 2, 1943, which marked a radical turning point in the war;

Battle of Kursk July 5 – August 23, 1943, during which the largest tank battle of World War II took place near the village of Prokhorovka;

The Battle of Berlin - which led to the surrender of Germany.

But events important for the course of World War II took place not only on the fronts of the USSR. Among the operations carried out by the Allies, it is worth especially noting: the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which caused the United States to enter World War II; opening of the second front and landing in Normandy on June 6, 1944; the use of nuclear weapons on August 6 and 9, 1945 to strike Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The end date of World War II was September 2, 1945. Japan signed the act of surrender only after the defeat of the Kwantung Army by Soviet troops. The battles of World War II, according to rough estimates, claimed 65 million people on both sides. The Soviet Union suffered the greatest losses in World War II - 27 million citizens of the country died. It was he who took the brunt of the blow. This figure is also approximate and, according to some researchers, underestimated. It was the stubborn resistance of the Red Army that became the main cause of the defeat of the Reich.

The results of World War II horrified everyone. Military actions have brought the very existence of civilization to the brink. During the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, fascist ideology was condemned, and many war criminals were punished. In order to prevent similar possibilities of a new world war in the future, at the Yalta Conference in 1945 it was decided to create the United Nations Organization (UN), which still exists today. The results of the nuclear bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki led to the signing of pacts on the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and a ban on their production and use. It must be said that the consequences of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki are still felt today.

The economic consequences of World War II were also serious. For Western European countries it turned into a real economic disaster. The influence of Western European countries has decreased significantly. At the same time, the United States managed to maintain and strengthen its position.

The significance of World War II for the Soviet Union is enormous. The defeat of the Nazis determined the future history of the country. As a result of the conclusion of the peace treaties that followed the defeat of Germany, the USSR noticeably expanded its borders. At the same time, the totalitarian system was strengthened in the Union. Communist regimes were established in some European countries. Victory in the war did not save the USSR from the mass repressions that followed in the 50s