Rebel scientist Nicolaus Copernicus: brief biography, scientific activity and life of an outstanding genius. Biography of Copernicus

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Biography of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Short biography:

Education: University of Padua, University of Krakow, University of Ferrara, University of Bologna

Place of Birth: Toruń, Poland

A place of death: Frauenburg, Poland

– Polish astronomer, mathematician: biography with photos, main ideas and discoveries, contributions to science, heliocentric system of the world, the Sun in the center.

Accepted in modern times as the father of astronomy, he was born on February 19, 1473. starts in Toruń, Poland. He was the son of a successful merchant. After the death of his father, he was raised by his uncle, a wealthy Catholic bishop. It was his uncle who arranged for Copernicus to study at the University of Krakow, which was famous at that time for its mathematical, philosophical and astronomical studies. training programs. Copernicus later studied humanities in Bologna, medicine in Padua, and law at the University of Ferrarra. In 1500 he lectured on astronomy in Rome and in 1503 he graduated from Ferrara with the degree of Doctor of Canon Law. Soon after this, in 1507, Copernicus returned to Poland, where he was elected canonist of the church. He conscientiously fulfilled his church duties, but also practiced medicine, wrote a treatise on monetary reform and eventually turned his attention to the topic of astronomy.

The interest in astronomy eventually developed into a major interest. During its biographies Nicolaus Copernicus he worked alone, without using outside help or consultations. All observations were made without the use of optical instruments, because the latter were invented only a hundred years later. Nicolaus Copernicus watched from a tower located on the protective wall surrounding the monastery. In 1530, Copernicus completed work on his first great work entitled “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” (On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres). It was in this book that he argued that the Earth rotates on its axis once every day and travels around the Sun throughout the year. This was an unimaginably fantastic idea at the time. Before the time of Copernicus, thinkers in the Western world adhered to the Ptolemaic theory, according to which the universe was a closed space, limited by a spherical shell, beyond which there was nothing. They believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe and that the stars, planets and the Sun revolved around the stationary Earth. This was the famous geocentric (Earth-centered) theory. Copernicus was in no hurry to publish his book, as he was a perfectionist and believed that it was necessary to check and double-check his observations.

Thirteen years after it was written, in 1543, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium was finally published. Unfortunately, Copernicus died later that year and did not learn about the great controversy he had created. It is said that he apparently received the first copy of his book on his deathbed when he died on May 24, 1543 in Frombork, Poland. His great book went against the philosophical and religious beliefs that were propagated in the Middle Ages. The Church argued that man was created by God in his own image and therefore is the next creature after him. That is, man is superior to all other creatures and was not at all part of the natural world. The Church feared that because of the teachings of Nicolaus Copernicus, people would believe that they were just part of the world, but not above it, which went against the theories of politically powerful churchmen of the time. His work forever changed man's place in outer space. The revelation of the heliocentric (sun-centered) theory marked the beginning of scientific revolution and a new look at the picture of the Universe.

Nicolaus Copernicus was a great scientist who lived from 1473 to 1543 in Poland. Copernicus's range of interests and subjects of study included a variety of things relating to astronomy, physics, mathematics, economics and mechanics. His discoveries and works contributed to the development of many areas human life and more than one scientific revolution.

The main achievements of Copernicus, known to every schoolchild, were works on natural science, in which the usual theory about the central position of the Earth in the solar system was refuted and described how celestial bodies actually interact with each other. Unfortunately, the work entitled “On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies” was banned for some time due to the religious beliefs of those years, however, it was not forgotten and remained one of the most ingenious creations in the field of physics and natural science.

Copernicus was born in a city called Torun. This happened significant event February 19, 1473. Although the scientist’s homeland is Poland, his ancestors were of German origin. The future genius became the fourth child. However, the Copernicians were far from poor, and the head of the family was a respected merchant, so each of the offspring received a decent education.

For the first ten years of his life, the boy grew up in complete peace, cared for by his parents and having everything he needed. However, life began to test the future scientist already from early years. His hometown was overtaken by a terrible epidemic of plague, which flourished in those days. Copernicus Sr. came under attack, and then the boy’s entire family. Left unattended, he could have lost everything, but his maternal uncle suddenly decided to take part in his nephew's life. Lukasz Vachenrodi took upon himself the responsibility for Nikolai's education and upbringing.

As a young man, in October 1491, Copernicus came to Krakow with the goal of adding his name to the list of applicants to the Faculty of Arts. Together with his brother, whose name was Andrzej, he successfully graduated from the university and then went on a trip to Italy.

Nicolaus Copernicus and heliocentrism.

The emergence of a craving for science

Fate brought Copernicus to Bologna, which was famous for its educational institutions. Having become interested in jurisprudence, which was especially popular at that time, he decides to enroll in the faculty to study civil, ecclesiastical and canon law. However, despite his academic success, Nikolai began to gravitate more and more towards natural and exact sciences, and especially to astronomy.

The young Copernicus took his first serious step in this area in 1497, when he made his first observation together with the experienced and fairly famous astronomer Dominico Maria Novaro. As a result, it was found that the Moon is approximately at an equal distance from the earth both in quadrature and during the full moon and new moon. However, this statement completely contradicted the theory put forward earlier by Claudius Ptolemy. It was this discrepancy that pushed Copernicus to new experiments and works.

Despite his many talents, Copernicus often lacked cash. At the beginning of 1498, he was approved for the post of canon of the Frombork Chapter, and a little later, Nicholas’s brother received the same position. However, this did not help cope with the lack of money. The fact is that the brothers lived in Bologna, which at that time was famous for its high cost and attracted rich people from all over the world.

Left without a livelihood, the Copernicians were in a depressed state, but, fortunately, fate sent them a man like Bernard Sculteti. He took part in their lives and helped organize their income. More than once the Polish canon would meet the brothers and help them more than once.

Having decided to travel a little, Nikolai leaves Bologna and heads to his homeland - Poland. Having stayed there not so long, just a little less than a year, he goes to Italy and begins to study medicine. Having entered the University of Padua to study, he quickly absorbs enormous amounts of knowledge and a few years later receives the long-awaited doctorate.

Having enriched his knowledge and acquired many different skills, he again goes to his homeland as an educated person, ready to conduct new experiments and capable of new discoveries. Therefore, with particular interest and enthusiasm, Copernicus proceeds to continue astronomical observations, which he started back in Italy. In the Polish city of Lidzbark he was constrained by certain circumstances, and in Frombork he had at his disposal not very convenient conditions for carrying out work.

However, nothing stopped the young scientist: neither the latitude of the area, which interfered with comfortable observation of the planets, nor fogs, nor cloudy weather. Good telescopes had not yet been invented at that time., and Copernicus did not have tools that made it possible to track the time of all phenomena with absolute accuracy.

But despite everything the above difficulties, the scientist nevertheless published his book entitled “Small Commentary,” in which he summarized the results of his experiments and observations, and also revealed the first hypotheses of his main theory. The convictions were understandable and impressive, but the book was not full of mathematical proofs, which Copernicus saved for a more voluminous work.

This video will tell about the life of this talented person.

Life in wartime

Copernicus was unable to fully delve into the proof of his numerous hypotheses, since the war with the crusaders began. The scientist then again received quite a significant government position, however, unlike many others dignitaries, he chose not to sit out in places remote from the battles, but to take direct part in them. Showing remarkable courage, courage and military ingenuity, he became the commander-in-chief of the defense of Olsztyn and defended the city from the enemy.

The merits of Copernicus during the war did not go unnoticed and, and he was awarded for courage and bravery by the Polish government. Copernicus was appointed commissioner. A little later, Nikolai takes over the post of general administrator. Since this was the highest position in which Copernicus had to be, his financial situation improved significantly, which opened up new opportunities for the scientist to conduct experiments and scientific works.

Despite the war, it was in the twenties that Copernicus conducted the most active research activities. During this period, the scientist made the following discoveries and experiments:

1. Conducted observations of planets during a time called opposition. Its essence is that the planets are at the opposite point from the Sun. This study prompted Copernicus to think about the possibility that the celestial bodies in question were in a constant position and did not make any movements relative to their orbit.
2. Completed the creation of his theory and presented it fully formalized in a book, which called into question the veracity of the statements of Claudius Ptolemy, who argued that our planet does not leave its orbit and is at the center of the Universe, and the rest of the celestial bodies revolve around it.
3. Confirmed the above hypothesis through complex mathematical calculations.

The work of Copernicus turned the entire scientific world upside down, because the opinion that the Sun and other planets move in relation to the Earth has existed for more than one and a half thousand years. However, there are some inaccuracies in Copernicus's work. For example, he believed that all stars were stationary and located on a huge sphere, which, in turn, was located at a very distant distance from the Earth. Such inaccuracies were a consequence of the lack of decent equipment and good telescopes, which were invented a little later.

other hobbies

As has already been said many times, Copernicus was a versatile and developed person in many areas of activity. And during his research, he continued to improve his medical skills and abilities, thanks to which he gained fame great doctor. His list of patients included the following:

• bishops of Warmia;
• officials and those close to the royal court of Prussia;
• Tiedemann Giese - famous geologist, as well as prince-bishop;
• Alexander Skulteti - canon of the chapter.

It should be noted that Copernicus never refused help ordinary people, strived to do as much as possible for each patient. Thanks to him, people survived; looking at their illness, many professionals of that time simply shrugged their shoulders. Nikolai's contemporaries always noticed that he was not guided by the traditional prescriptions of doctors for certain situations, but rather approached the issue with his characteristic originality.

At the age of 60, Copernicus was entrusted with the duties of chairman of the construction fund. Despite his age, he did not stop his scientific activity and continued his research. A year before his death, Nikolai publishes a book dedicated to the study of the sides and angles of a triangle.

Having lived a long life full of amazing discoveries, Nicolaus Copernicus died on May 24, 1543. However, the memory of him and his achievements still lives among us, and his works are highly valued by modern scientists and researchers.

Video

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Everyone who has ever studied at school has definitely heard the name of this man, who has many merits to his name. Humanity is grateful to him, along with Galileo and Giordano Bruno, for the statement heliocentric system world, which helped to get out of the abyss of ignorance. However, this is where most people’s knowledge ends. Let's find out together who Nicolaus Copernicus really was, how his hard fate and for what merits he can really be considered a great man. Unlike his own teachers and students, this man managed to escape the persecution and machinations of the Holy Inquisition - this alone makes one take off his figurative hat to him.

Servant of the cult Nicolaus Copernicus: brief biography of the ascetic and scientist

It’s still worth looking for a person as hard-working and dedicated to dedication as our hero. Like the astronomy teacher from the cult Soviet film “The Light of a Distant Star” Marin Miroy, he lived only by science, discovered a star and could not calm down, looking for strong and irrefutable evidence of this. They say that scientific activity Copernicus was for him the basis of all life, his oxygen and water. He devoted himself entirely and without reserve to pure science, promoted astronomy, physics, and mathematics, from which he earned sincere love and the gratitude of descendants.

Interesting

The Polish scientist, theologian and astronomer, whose name is known to almost everyone, is often lost in the existing “triumvirate”. When many people mention Copernicus, they mean completely different people - Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei. A funny incident happened to the former speaker of the Russian Duma, Boris Gryzlov, when he publicly issued a phrase that led listeners into a state of slight stupor: “The term pseudoscience comes from the Middle Ages. You can recall, for example, Copernicus, who was sent to the stake for saying, “But it still spins!” It was this scientist who was not afraid of the persecution of the Holy Inquisition, or rather, she passed him by with her highest attention, to our great happiness and his.

Briefly about the life of Nicolaus Copernicus

This remarkable scientist truly devoted himself entirely to research activities. He had an outstanding talent by nature, but he himself put a lot of effort into getting an education that allowed him to achieve such success. Unconditional faith, incredible hard work, audacity of thinking and an unconventional mindset allowed him not only to take aim at the most intimate secrets of the universe, over which humanity had been struggling for several thousand years, but also to understand them, to give answers to questions that previously seemed insoluble.

Most outstanding discovery Copernicus is rightfully considered to be his confirmation of the heliocentric system of the world, which he voiced in his work “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.” With this treatise, he completely destroyed the concept of Claudius Ptolemy, which reigned supreme in the world for about two thousand years. However, it would be incorrect to call the scientist only an astronomer, since his research was widely varied. He studied hydraulics, mechanical engineering, economics and even law.

Moreover, in every case he was sure to achieve success. It’s not without reason that they say that talented people succeed in everything. reputed scientist Nikolai Copernicus was also a skilled physician. He was well versed in organic and inorganic chemistry, on the basis of which he compiled medicines and potions. Avicenna's teaching helped him bring his skill to almost perfection. Moreover, it is known that he treated people completely free of charge, distributing elixirs and potions to the poor just like that. He lived his life flying like a bright star across the sky, and his most famous student was the German astronomer and mathematician Georg Joachim von Lauchen (Rhetik), but more on that later.

Birth and childhood of a little genius

As a result of hostilities between the Teutonic Order and the Polish Crown (Thirteen Years' War), the small town of Thorn in 1466 completely came under Polish jurisdiction. The new “owners” named it in their own way - Torun, despite the fact that mainly Germans lived there. It is precisely because of such vicissitudes that the ethnicity of the great scientist remains controversial, despite the passing years. It is known for certain that the mother of the future genius was a purebred German and her name was Barbara Watzenrode. His father was definitely from Krakow, but whether he was an ethnic Pole is unclear. He was engaged in trade and had a fairly good income to support his family.

On February 19, 1473, in the house of the merchant Copernicus, a boy was born, whom it was decided to name Nicholas. He was not an only child, as he also had a brother, Andrei (Andrzej?) and two sisters, Katarina and Barbara. In 1982, his father unexpectedly died for unknown reasons, and since then the boy was raised in a German-speaking environment. Scientists believe that this is precisely why all his subsequent scientific works written in Latin and German, and there are no texts in Polish at all. The easiest way is to consider Copernicus as both a Polish and a German scientist - almost all researchers of his work agreed on this.

The Making of the Encyclopedist Copernicus

The family didn't get into difficult situation after the death of the breadwinner, since the wife initially had her own, albeit small, fortune. In addition, being left with four children in her arms, her relatives helped her. The nine-year-old boy Nikolai was raised by his mother’s brother, the priest Lukasz Watzenrode. He taught him writing and arithmetic, immediately seeing incredible potential in the tomboy.

When no one knew who Nicolaus Copernicus was, the family had already decided that after completing his studies he would become a clergyman. This choice was largely influenced by Uncle Lukash, who by that time had already received the rank of bishop and could help advance in the church hierarchy.

University and area of ​​interest

It is not known whether young Nikolai attended any school, since for some reason no records of this have survived. When he turned eighteen, he successfully passed his exams and entered the University of Krakow. During his studies, he received exceptionally excellent grades in all subjects. He really liked literature and theology, persistently studied medicine, studied mathematics, but astronomy aroused his strongest interest. He could sit over star charts all night long, calculating and measuring something.

In ninety-four, his studies were completed, but Copernicus never received any degree or academic title. However, he was not going to claim it, because his family decided his future fate. He was supposed to become a priest, and this was not discussed. Three years later, he packed his things and left for Italy to continue his studies at the University of Bologna under the guidance of the famous Domenico Novara, mathematician and astronomer. There he managed to make acquaintance with Professor Scipio del Ferro, who gave impetus to the development of world mathematics.

Church manager

The teachings of Nicolaus Copernicus were formed under the influence of many factors, and his “main” profession also played a significant role here. While he was traveling around overseas countries, through the efforts of his uncle in Poland, he was issued a certificate confirming his title of canon (acting clergyman) of the diocese of Warmia. By the beginning of the new century, he left his studies in Krakow, again without receiving a diploma or scientific degree. He went to Rome, and Rheticus in his notes indicates that he taught several courses there in various disciplines, but these facts have no confirmation.

After this, he returns home, but unable to sit in one place, tormented by a thirst for knowledge, he again goes to study, but to the University of Padua, where he is actively studying medicine. In the third year of the sixteenth century, he finally successfully passes all exams, writes thesis and receives a doctorate, but remains in Italy for another three years to practice medicine.

In 1506, his uncle wrote to Nicholas about his illness, and he quickly returned home, where he became Lukash’s faithful assistant and secretary. At that time, he lived in Heilsberg Castle, where it was convenient to conduct various astronomical studies and precise observations from the tower, and also worked as a teacher in Krakow. After Uncle Lukasz ordered him to live long in the twelfth year, Copernicus moved to the tiny town of Frombork, where he was listed as a priest and began his immediate duties. In the episcopal council (chapter) he was very respected, they really took him into account, they completely trusted him, which is why they made him a property manager (trustee). In addition, the chancellor of the diocese was constantly ill, and Father Nikolai also took over his duties.

While dealing with church issues, he never forgot about science and his research, and meanwhile his fame expanded and grew. Soon it went far beyond the borders of Germany, Prussia and Poland. It was rumored that even Pope Leo X invited the church scientist to take part in the development of the calendar reform, but he refused. However, not only scientific works occupied his time, he also devoted it to practical issues. For example, with his light hand, a hydraulic pumping station was developed and built in the town of Frombork, which supplied water to all houses during the three-year Teutonic-Polish war that began in 21, he helped develop fortifications and protect the city from knights, and after that he also participated in later peace negotiations.

Theoretical reflections on the rotation of planets

The entire science of Nicolaus Copernicus was fundamentally different from what was considered generally accepted in those days. He thoroughly and in detail studied the works of the Pythagoreans Philolaus and Nikitas of Syracuse, and mastered the heroic works of Aristotle and Ptolemy. As a result, he came to the conclusion that the harmonious system they had compiled was in fact artificial and could not possibly exist in nature. It occurred to him that not the Earth, but the Sun should become the indestructible center of the Universe, then all the “mechanisms” would work correctly.

However, at that time he had no idea about the ellipticity of orbits and the motion of astronomical bodies, so he decided to leave the concepts that the ancients had used before him (epicycles and deferents). The whole theory of Copernicus lies in the statements he derived and presented to the general public.

• The celestial spheres, as well as the orbits of bodies, do not have a universal center.
• The center of the Earth cannot be the center of the Universe. It can become the central point only for the mass of the planet itself and for its satellite, the Moon.
• The sun is the central point of reference around which all other planets move.
• The distance to the Sun from the Earth is much less than to other visible stars in the sky.
• The movement of the star in the day-night time period is not real, but imaginary, and it occurs only due to the rotation of the Earth itself.
• Our planet, like others in the system, revolves exclusively around the Sun and its axis.
• The movement of our and other planets fully explains their location and other characteristics.
• The geocentric system, which at that time still dominated the world with all its might, was broken by all these statements and destroyed into pieces.

Life of the doctrine of planetary motion

Nikolai’s hypotheses and evidence for them clearly contradicted the canons, which is why one could fear all sorts of reprisals. However, the Catholic Church was so busy with the Reformation that it turned a blind eye to all the “tricks” of the scientist. This was also positively influenced by the sharp rejection of Copernicus’ theories by Protestants. To update the calendar, the Vatican needed observations of the Sun and the Earth, so Pope Clement VII even got acquainted with a lecture on the history of Nicolaus Copernicus about the very heliocentric system of the structure of the Universe, prepared and read especially for him by Bishop Wigmanstadt.

Some clergy at that time sorted out the details and began to shout about heresy with all their might. But the emerging Copernicanism could no longer be stopped. In the sixteenth year of the seventeenth century, a theological commission was convened, which considered the scientist’s theory criminal, and the most high-profile trial regarding its followers was the trial of Galileo Galilei in the thirty-third. It is interesting that the treatise “De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium” itself was banned for only four years. It was possible to completely exclude it from the Roman Index of Prohibited Works much later - only by 1835.

The finale of the life of a Renaissance astronomer

By the thirty-first year of the sixteenth century, Copernicus decided to completely abandon all business and devote himself to completing the book that he had been struggling with for more than forty years. By the forty-second year, the scientist’s health began to deteriorate significantly, he was struck by paralysis, and the life of Nicolaus Copernicus was clearly heading towards sunset. On May 24, 1543, he died in his own bed, presumably from a stroke. All recent months He was plunged into a severe coma, which is why he never saw his work published, although this happened during his lifetime.

Location of the burial place of the great scientist for a long time remained unknown. Only in the fifth year of the twenty-first century did archaeologists stumble upon part of the leg bones and a skull during excavations in the church of the town of Frombork. This was enough for scientists to conduct comparative analysis DNA and match the results with two hairs found in his books. Doubts disappeared - it was Nikolai’s ashes. In 2010, the burial procedure was initiated and today the astronomer rests in the same city in the cathedral.

Reflection of the memory of the heliocentrist

Since the church, albeit slightly belatedly, recognized the theologian’s teachings as heretical, it was somehow not accepted to glorify him. Only in the nineteenth century, when his theories had already become generally accepted, monuments began to be erected to him in Warsaw, Krakow, Wroclaw, Regensburg, Gdansk, Olsztyn and in his native Torun. Named after him chemical element and craters on Mars and the Moon, an orbital observatory and even an airport.

Many people of art used the image of the thinker to create literary, musical and works of art. Interestingly, in 2011, a Polish-made cartoon called Gwiazda Kopernika (“Star of Copernicus”) was released. Commemorative banknotes, coins and stamps were issued in his honor.

The famous astronomer led a rather secluded life, and did not care about wealth. Sometimes he wore clothes with patches, and ate the same thing for weeks. Moreover, this did not bother him at all.

The canon's personal life is celibate. That's why Copernicus never married. It was rumored that he had a secret relationship with Anna Schiller, the daughter of the writer, but this was not supported by anything.

Initially, young Nikolai studied law and jurisprudence at the University of Bologna, and only then began to study canonical calculations. But he never became a notary or lawyer.

In 1519, an epidemic of the terrible bubonic plague broke out in Valencia, which was actively spread by rats. The scientist took an active part in stopping the problem, personally treated the sick and forced everyone to wash their hands.

Copernicus was truly lucky - in the sixteenth century it was very difficult not to fall under the watchful eye of the Holy Inquisition when preaching ideas like his.

He returned to the theory of Aristarchus of Samos in the 16th century. Polish astronomer Nikolay Copernicus . He is considered the founder heliocentric system of the world, which in 1543 he outlined in the book “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” (Fig. 24). Copernicus believed that the Sun was at the center of the Universe, and the Earth and other planets moved around it in circular orbits. The orbits of Mercury and Venus are closer to the Sun compared to the orbit of the Earth, and Jupiter and Saturn are further away. The Moon rotates around the Earth, and the Earth rotates around its own axis. Copernicus even calculated the distances of the planets from the Sun and their periods of revolution.

The teachings of Copernicus were not just a big step in astronomy, it gave a powerful impetus for the development of all natural sciences and marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution. It was not safe to express such bold thoughts in the Middle Ages. Copernicus understood this perfectly; he wrote: “The sun is the center of the universe and, therefore, motionless. Everyone believes that this statement is absurd and absurd from a philosophical point of view and, moreover, formally heretical, since its expressions largely contradict the Holy Scriptures, according to the literal meaning of the words, as well as the usual interpretation and understanding of the Fathers of the Church and teachers of theology."

The life of a follower of Copernicus, an Italian philosopher and scientist, writer and poet, was tragically cut short J. Bruno (1548-1600). His guesses, significantly ahead of the times, made an invaluable contribution to the development of astronomy. He believed that the stars were celestial bodies similar to our Sun, and that there were still undiscovered planets in the solar system. Bruno argued that the Universe is infinite and there are many worlds in it. He was convicted for his freethinking Catholic Church like a heretic. He spent 8 years in prison, refusing to renounce his beliefs. In the verdict of the inquisitorial tribunal, Bruno was recognized as an “impenitent, stubborn and unyielding heretic,” excommunicated from the church and subjected to “the most merciful punishment without shedding blood,” that is, burning alive at the stake. In response to the verdict, Bruno told the judges: “You are probably more afraid of sentencing me than I am of hearing it. “And he threw it in the face of his executioners: “Burn does not mean refute!” On February 17, 1600 he was executed. The life and death of Giordano Bruno has become a symbol of fidelity to his convictions.

At the end of his life, his compatriot Bruno, an outstanding naturalist, philosopher, and mechanic, chose a different line of behavior in relation to the prohibitions of the religious worldview. Galileo Galileo . A follower of the heliocentric system of the world, he was the first to use an optical instrument - a telescope - for astronomical observations, thanks to which he made a number of discoveries in astronomy. Having seen the surface relief, mountains and craters on the Moon, reminiscent of those on Earth, Galileo convincingly argued that the division of the world into terrestrial and celestial is illegal. The scientist discovered the satellites of Jupiter, saw spots on the Sun, proved that Venus revolves around the Sun and, like the Moon, changes its phases. Galileo saw that the Milky Way was a grandiose cluster of stars, invisible to the naked eye.

Bruno Galileo was 34 years old the year he was executed. He could not have been unaware of the persecution by the Inquisition of such revolutionary views on the structure of the world, but nevertheless continued to propagate his ideas, acquiring everything larger number supporters and followers. Sooner or later this was bound to lead to serious conflict with the Catholic Church, and in 1633 Galileo appeared before the Inquisition (Fig. 25). Under the threat of torture, he was forced to renounce his convictions, but, according to legend, at the end of the trial he uttered his famous phrase: “And yet she turns!” Material from the site

With each decade, more and more knowledge about the Universe accumulated, and no prohibitions could stop the development of natural scientific thought. Austrian scientist AND. Kepler (1571 -1630) discovered the laws of planetary motion. The French scientist R. Descartes created a vortex model of the Universe, according to which all celestial bodies were formed as a result of vortex movements of the world's matter. Identical particles, continuously moving and interacting, united into bodies different shapes and different sizes. From Descartes' point of view, solar system represents one of these vortexes of world matter, and the planets revolve around the Sun, carried away by this vortex. In 1666, young Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation (he was only 23 years old!). In the 17th century in natural science, the Newtonian idea dominated that the first impulse of the Universe was given by a supernatural force, which then allowed matter to move in accordance with the laws of mechanics.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. knowledge about the Universe deepened and expanded. The idea of ​​galaxies as rotating formations consisting of a huge number of stars was formed. On starry sky they may appear as nebulae similar to the Milky Way. Gradually, humanity began to realize true scale Universe.

On this page there is material on the following topics:

• Bruno's contributions to astronomy and philosophical views

• The structure of the universe based on the teachings of Copernicus Bruno Galileo

• Mechanical (ships machine engine) discoveries 16-19 in abstract

• Report on N. Copernicus, J. Bruno, Galilee

• Main directions in the development of astronomy 16-19 centuries

Questions about this material:

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Torun, his father was a merchant who came from Germany. The future scientist was orphaned early; he was raised in the house of his uncle, bishop and famous Polish humanist Lukasz Wachenrode.

In 1490, Copernicus graduated from the University of Krakow, after which he became a canon of the cathedral in the fishing town of Frombork. In 1496 he went on a long journey through Italy. Copernicus studied at the universities of Bologna, Ferrara and Padua, studied medicine and church law, and became a Master of Arts. In Bologna, the young scientist became interested in astronomy, which determined his fate.

In 1503, Nicolaus Copernicus returned to his homeland as a fully educated man; he first settled in Lidzbark, where he served as his uncle's secretary. After the death of his uncle, Copernicus moved to Frombork, where he carried out research until the end of his life.

Social activity

Nicolaus Copernicus took an active part in governing the region in which he lived. He was in charge of economic and financial affairs, fought for its independence. Among his contemporaries, Copernicus was known as statesman, a talented doctor and expert in astronomy.

When the Lutheran Council organized a commission to reform the calendar, Copernicus was invited to Rome. The scientist proved the prematureness of such a reform, since at that time the length of the year was not yet known exactly.

Astronomical observations and heliocentric theory

The creation of the heliocentric system was the result many years of work Nicolaus Copernicus. For about one and a half millennia, there was a system of world structure proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy. It was believed that the Earth was at the center of the Universe, and the other planets and the Sun revolved around it. This theory could not explain many of the phenomena that astronomers observed, but it agreed well with the teachings of the Catholic Church.

Copernicus observed the movement of celestial bodies and came to the conclusion that the Ptolemaic theory was incorrect. In order to prove that all the planets revolve around the Sun, and the Earth is only one of them, Copernicus carried out complex mathematical calculations and spent more than 30 years of hard work. Although the scientist mistakenly believed that all the stars were stationary and located on the surface of a huge sphere, he was able to explain the apparent movement of the Sun and the rotation of the firmament.

The results of the observations were summarized in the work of Nicolaus Copernicus “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres,” published in 1543. In it he developed new philosophical ideas and focused on improving mathematical theory, which described the movement of celestial bodies. The revolutionary nature of the scientist’s views was recognized by the Catholic Church later, when in 1616 his work was included in the “Index of Prohibited Books.”