Modern technologies in chemistry communication. New materials in chemistry and the possibilities of their application

Every teacher wants his subject to arouse deep interest among schoolchildren, so that students can not only write chemical formulas and reaction equations, but also understand the chemical picture of the world, be able to think logically, so that every lesson is a holiday, a small performance that brings joy to both students and to the teacher. We are used to the fact that during the lesson the teacher talks, and the student listens and learns. Listening to ready-made information is one of the most ineffective ways to learn. Knowledge cannot be transferred from head to head mechanically (heard - learned). Many people think that they just need to force the student to listen and things will immediately improve. However, the student, like any person, is endowed with free will, which cannot be ignored. Therefore, it is impossible to break this natural law and subjugate them even for good purposes. The desired result cannot be achieved this way.

It follows from this that it is necessary to make the student an active participant in the educational process. A student can only learn information through his own activities if he is interested in the subject. Therefore, the teacher needs to forget about the role of an informant; he must play the role of an organizer of the student’s cognitive activity.

We can distinguish different types of activities for the student to master new material: material, materialized and intellectual. Material activity is understood as activity with the object of study. For chemistry, such an object is a substance, i.e. The material activity in chemistry lessons is conducting experiments. Experiments can be carried out by students or demonstrated by the teacher.

Materialized activity is activity with material models, formulas, tabular, digital, graphic material, etc. In chemistry, this is activity with material models of molecules, crystal lattices, chemical formulas, solving chemical problems, comparing physical quantities characterizing the substances being studied. Any external activity (hand activity) is reflected in the brain, i.e. passes into the internal plane, into intellectual activity. By conducting experiments, composing chemical formulas and equations, comparing digital material, the student draws conclusions, systematizes facts, establishes certain relationships, draws analogies, etc.

So, the teacher must organize all types of educational and cognitive activities for the student in the lesson. It is necessary that the student’s educational and cognitive activity corresponds to the educational material that must be learned. It is necessary that as a result of activity, the student independently comes to some conclusions, so that he creates knowledge for himself.

The most important principle of didactics is the principle of independent creation of knowledge, which lies in the fact that knowledge is not obtained by the student in a ready-made form, but is created by him as a result of certain cognitive activities organized by the teacher.

The independent discovery of the slightest grain of knowledge by a student gives him great pleasure, allows him to feel his capabilities, and elevates him in his own eyes. The student asserts himself as an individual. The student keeps this positive range of emotions in his memory and strives to experience it again and again. This is how interest arises not just in the subject, but what is more valuable - in the process of cognition itself - cognitive interest. Various types of technologies contribute to the development of cognitive and creative interests in students: computer technology, problem-based and research-based learning technology, game-based learning technology, and the use of tests.

1. Computer technology

The use of computers and multimedia technologies gives positive results when explaining new material, simulating various situations, collecting the necessary information, assessing learning skills, etc., and also makes it possible to put into practice such teaching methods as: business games, problem-solving exercises , presentations and more. Computer technology makes it possible to have a volume of information that teachers who rely on traditional teaching methods do not have. Multimedia training programs use animations and sound, which, by influencing several information channels of the learner at once, enhance perception and facilitate the assimilation and memorization of the material. In my lessons I use various programs on CDs that help me explain new or repeat old topics, consolidate and systematize the knowledge gained. An example of one lesson. Topic: “Oxygen subgroup, characteristics. Getting oxygen." During the lesson, a multimedia projector was used, where experiments were shown on the screen that were impossible to demonstrate in a school laboratory. Several tables were also designed on the screen. The children were asked to analyze, compare and draw a conclusion. From the above, we come to the conclusion that computer technology increases the level of learning and arouses students’ interest in the subject.

2. Problem-based learning technology

The technology of problem-based learning involves the creation, under the guidance of a teacher, of problem situations and the active independent activity of students to resolve them, as a result of which the creative mastery of knowledge, skills, abilities and the development of thinking abilities occurs. Problematic situations in the classroom can arise in the most unexpected ways. For example, in the 8th grade, while studying the topic “Electronegativity,” a student asked the question: “Does hydrogen give electrons to lithium or vice versa?” Classmates answered that lithium gives up electrons, since its atomic radius is larger. Immediately another student asked: “What will hydrogen turn into then?” Opinions were divided: some believed that the hydrogen atom, by adding an electron, turned into a helium atom, since it now had two electrons, while others did not agree with this, objecting that helium had a nuclear charge of +2, and this particle had +1. So what is this particle? A problematic situation has arisen that can be resolved by familiarizing yourself with the concept of ions. The teacher himself can create a problematic situation in the lesson. Example lesson. Topic: “Simple and complex substances.” The teacher provides the student with a wide field of activity: asks problematic questions, offers to write out simple and complex substances separately from a list of various substances, and leads the student himself, using his life experience, knowledge of previous lessons, to try to formulate the concept of simple and complex substances. The student creates knowledge for himself, this is how interest arises not just in the subject, but in the process of cognition itself.

3. Research learning technology

Research activity of schoolchildren is a set of actions of a search nature, leading to the discovery of unknown facts, theoretical knowledge and methods of activity. In this way, students become familiar with the basic research methods in chemistry, master the ability to independently obtain new knowledge, constantly turning to theory. Involving basic knowledge to solve problem situations involves the formation and improvement of both general educational and special skills of students (conducting chemical experiments, correlating observed phenomena with changes in the state of molecules, atoms, ions, conducting a mental chemical experiment, modeling the essence of processes, etc.) . Research can be carried out with the aim of obtaining new knowledge, generalization, acquiring skills, applying acquired knowledge, studying specific substances, phenomena, processes. So, when studying the topic “Salts of nitric acid” in the 9th grade, I use elements of research work. The research includes: conducting theoretical analysis; predicting methods for obtaining substances and their properties; drawing up an experimental testing plan and its implementation; formulating a conclusion. The result is a logical chain: theoretical analysis – forecasting – experiment. Michael Faraday said: “No science needs experiment to such an extent as chemistry. Its basic laws, theories and conclusions are based on facts. Therefore, constant monitoring by experience is necessary.” To systematize the knowledge gained, students fill out the table:

Nitric acid salts

Students' research work takes up more time in class than completing assignments based on the model. However, the time spent is subsequently compensated by the fact that students quickly and correctly complete tasks and can independently study new material. In addition, the awareness and strength of their knowledge increases, and a sustainable interest in the subject appears.

4. Game-based learning technology

Intellectual and creative games (ICGs) stimulate the development of students’ cognitive interests, contribute to the development of their intellectual and creative abilities, enable children to assert themselves and realize themselves in the intellectual and creative sphere through the game, and help compensate for the lack of communication. ITI can be used not only in extracurricular and extracurricular activities, but also in the classroom (when learning new material, repeating what has been learned, monitoring students’ knowledge, etc.)

The most complex and time-consuming are business and role-playing games. Carrying out such games allows you to achieve the following goals: to teach students to highlight the main thing in the content of educational material, to present it in a concise form; develop skills in text analysis, associative thinking, independent judgment, promote self-determination of students, develop communication skills, broaden their horizons, repeat and generalize the material studied. In my practice, I systematically use game forms of organizing knowledge control and constantly notice how this increases students’ interest in the material being studied and the subject as a whole, how students who have been reading so little lately suddenly begin to leaf through books, reference books, and encyclopedias. So in the classroom, when studying topics related to ecology, for example, on the topic “Natural sources of hydrocarbons and their processing,” I use role-playing games using expert groups. The class is divided into two groups: “specialists” and “journalists”. The first ones select the material and prepare a visual aid. The second ones prepare questions that they should ask during the game.

To reinforce materials in grades 8–9, I use didactic games: “Chemical cubes,” “Chemical lotto,” “Tic-tac-toe,” “Find the mistake,” “Chemical battle.” I also conduct spectacular intellectual and creative games in extracurricular activities: “KVN”, “What, where, when”, “Star Hour”.

5. Using tests in chemistry lessons

The use of tests in chemistry lessons also figures prominently in the process of introducing new technologies. This makes it possible to mass test students’ knowledge. Test methodology is a universal means of testing knowledge and skills. Tests are an economical, targeted and individual form of control. Systematic testing of knowledge in the form of tests contributes to a solid mastery of the academic subject, fosters a conscious attitude to learning, forms accuracy, hard work, dedication, activates attention, and develops the ability to analyze. Test control ensures equal testing conditions for all students, that is, the objectivity of knowledge testing increases. This method brings variety to academic work and increases interest in the subject. I conduct final tests in grades 8–10 in the form of a test.

 increase in unit capacity of components and assemblies

The need to increase the unit capacity of nodes is associated with an increase in the need for products and limited space for equipment placement. As capacity increases, capital costs and depreciation charges per unit of finished product are reduced. The number of service personnel is being reduced, which leads to a reduction in the wage fund and an increase in labor productivity. An increase in the unit capacity of units is most typical for continuous large-tonnage production. In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, this is not a determining factor in most cases.

 development of environmentally friendly technologies that reduce or eliminate environmental pollution from production waste (creation of waste-free technologies)

This is a very important problem, especially for industries associated with chemical transformations of substances, in particular in the production of biologically active substances and substances included in the final release forms. At the same time, in the case of direct production of medicines and cosmetics, the problem of waste is not so important. This is due to the fact that, in essence, these industries must be waste-free, and waste generation is possible only if technological regulations are violated.

 Use of combined technological schemes

This problem is very important when organizing the production of small-scale products. Small-scale industries, in particular the fine organic synthesis industry, are characterized by a very large range of products. At the same time, a number of products can be produced using similar technological methods on the same technological scheme. The same thing occurs in the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, when similar release forms (tablets, creams, solutions) of different names can be produced using the same technological scheme.

 Increasing energy efficiency of production

In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, this problem is not of great importance, since in the vast majority of cases the processes take place at room temperature and do not have a high thermal effect.

The next important issue that we must consider from the point of view of general issues of organizing production is the conditions that influence the choice of equipment for the chemical technological process and the method of organizing the process.

1.2.3. Conditions influencing the choice of equipment design for a chemical technological process

The quality of the target product is determined by strict adherence to technological regulations and the competent choice of basic equipment necessary for production. By main equipment we mean the equipment in which the main technological stages take place: chemical reactions, preparation of starting components, production of target final products, etc. The rest of the equipment that is necessary to ensure the technological process is auxiliary. Thus, the first task that needs to be solved when organizing production is the choice of technological equipment. This choice is subject to a number of conditions, some of which are listed below

 Temperature and thermal effect of the process

Determine the choice of coolant and the design of heat exchange surface elements.

 Pressure

Determines the material of the device and the design features of the equipment based on mechanical strength.

 Process environment

Determines the choice of device material from the point of view of corrosion resistance and the method of corrosion protection. In the case of the production of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, the choice of device material is determined by the requirements for the quality of the final product, especially in terms of the content of metal impurities and organic compounds.

 Physical state of reactants

Determines the method of organizing the process (batch or continuous), the method of loading initial components and unloading final products, and the design of mixing devices.

 Kinetics of the process

Determines the method of organizing the process and the type of equipment.

 Method of organizing the process

Determines the choice of equipment type.

With the constant development of science and industry, chemistry and chemical technology offer the world constant innovation. As a rule, their essence lies in improving methods for processing raw materials into consumer goods and/or means of production. This happens due to a number of processes.

New chemical technologies allow:

• introduce new types of raw materials into economic activities;
• process absolutely all types of raw materials;
• replace expensive components with cheaper analogues;
• use materials comprehensively: obtain different products from one type of raw material and vice versa;
• rational costs, recycling.

We can say that general chemical technology largely redistributes and regulates production processes, which is very important today due to many positive factors that are important for people associated with industry.

Classification and description of sub-sectors

Chemical technologies can be classified according to the types of substances with which work is carried out: organic and inorganic. The specifics of the work depend on the tasks assigned and the characteristics of the area to which the final product is oriented.

Chemical technology of inorganic substances is, for example, the production of acids, soda, alkalis, silicates, mineral fertilizers and salts. All these products are widely used in various industries, in particular metallurgy, as well as in agriculture, etc.

In pharmaceuticals and mechanical engineering, rubbers, alcohol, plastics, various dyes, etc. are often used. Their production is carried out by enterprises using technologies for the production of organic substances. Many of these enterprises occupy serious positions in the industry and with their work significantly influence the state’s economy.

Absolutely all processes and apparatus of chemical technology are divided into five main groups:

• hydromechanical;
• thermal;
• diffusion;
• chemical;
• mechanical.

Depending on the characteristics of the organization, chemical technology processes can be continuous or periodic.

Modern challenges of chemical technology

Due to increasing interest in the environmental situation in the world, the demand for innovations that can optimize production processes and reduce the volume of consumed raw materials has increased. This also applies to energy costs. This type of resource is very valuable within the framework of production, therefore its consumption must be monitored and, if possible, minimized. To this end, energy- and resource-saving processes in chemical technology are being actively developed and implemented today. With their help, production is streamlined, preventing excessive costs of consumables of different categories. Thus, the harmful impact of chemical production technologies and anthropogenic factors on nature is reduced.

Chemical technology in industry today has become an integral part of the manufacturing processes of the final product. It is difficult to dispute the fact that it is this area of ​​human activity that has the most detrimental impact on the state of the planet as a whole. That is why scientists are doing everything possible to prevent environmental disaster, although the pace of popularization and implementation of such developments is still insufficient.

The use of modern chemical technologies helps to improve the state of nature, minimizing the volume of materials used in production, ensuring the replacement of toxic substances with safer ones and the introduction of new compounds into production, etc. The task is to restore the damage caused to the environment: depletion of the planet's resources, air pollution. In recent years, various studies have been especially actively carried out in the field of ecology and rationalization of the impact of production on the environment. It becomes mandatory to combine the efficient operation of the enterprise with the safety and non-toxicity of the final products.

Theoretical foundations of chemical technology

With the development of related industries, the basic processes and apparatus of chemical technology are constantly modernized and updated, the main aspects of production, the principles of their operation and the operation of machines used to perform operations are studied in more depth. The basis of such disciplines is the theoretical foundations of chemical technology.

In countries recognized as world leaders, training students in technical specialties in this area is considered the most important. The reason for this is, firstly, the decisive role of process engineering in the activities of the chemical industry. And secondly, the growing importance of this discipline at the interdisciplinary level.

Despite the significant differences between different industries, they are based on the same principles, various physical laws and chemical processes are closely related to modern engineering branches, including materials science. In recent years, chemical technologies have penetrated deeply even into those areas where no one would think of admitting their presence. Thus, in modern markets there is increasingly talk about the role of process engineering in a more global sense, rather than within the operations of one industry.

Fundamentals of chemical technology in domestic education

The successful development of a particular industry is impossible in the absence of high-quality educational institutions that produce qualified specialists. Since the chemical industry is an important component of the country’s economy, it is necessary to create all the necessary conditions for training valuable personnel in this area. Today, the fundamentals of chemical technology are part of the compulsory program in related fields in many higher education institutions around the world.

Unfortunately, the principles of teaching technical areas in Russia and some CIS countries are radically different from the methods adopted in European countries and America. This usually has a negative impact on the quality of higher education. For example, the main emphasis is still placed on narrow chemical-technological specialties, and a lot of attention is also paid to the design and operational branches of mechanics. Such narrow-profile characteristics of higher education have become the main reason why domestic industries lag behind foreign ones according to such criteria as product quality, resource intensity, environmental friendliness, etc.

The main mistake was the underestimation of process engineering as a system-forming and comprehensively applicable discipline, and at the moment the main task of the domestic industry is to pay much more attention to its development and development. Today, the issues of training qualified personnel, as well as establishing and optimizing production, are the most pressing problems in the CIS and the Russian Federation in particular.

, petrochemical industry, energy, transport, military equipment and many others.

Chemical technologies in historical development

When considering the development of chemical technology in the 20th century, especially after the First World War, it is possible to reveal some of its characteristic, specific features. It is known that 99.5% of the earth's crust consists of 14 chemical elements: oxygen, silicon, carbon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, hydrogen, titanium, phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur. However, despite the widespread distribution of many of these elements, they were not drawn into the orbit of the chemical industry in the 19th century. This applies equally to fluorine, titanium, chlorine, magnesium, aluminum and hydrogen.

For chemical technology of the 20th century. It is typical to refer specifically to these most common elements. Hydrogen is currently the bread of modern chemistry. Ammonia synthesis, alcohol synthesis, liquid fuel synthesis, etc. require the production of billions of cubic meters of hydrogen annually. The widespread involvement of hydrogen in chemical production is a characteristic feature of 20th century chemistry.

The chemistry of silicon and, in particular, the chemistry of organosilicon compounds is acquiring great importance in modern technology. The chemistry of titanium, chlorine, magnesium, potassium, and aluminum is also acquiring exceptional importance. At the same time, chemical technology, especially in connection with the development of atomic and reactive technology, strives to use the rarest and most dispersed elements of the earth’s crust, which are the most important basis for technology of the 20th century.

The basis of organic synthesis in the 19th century. was coal tar obtained by coking coal. In the 20th century, these raw materials give way to simple and easily accessible gases obtained from a wide range of solid fuels, ranging from peat, low-grade brown coals and ending with anthracite and coke. Gases obtained during oil production and refining are used on a large scale. Throughout the 20th century. Natural fossil gases are increasingly being used (Figure 1).

Fig1. Products obtained from natural gas (methane).

Thus, if in the 19th century. The basis of the chemical industry was coal tar, then in the first half of the 20th century. The main raw material base for the organic synthesis industry is coal and oil and the gases obtained from them: hydrogen, carbon monoxide, a wide range of hydrocarbons and a number of other materials. Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, carbon monoxide, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw materials base of modern chemistry. Consequently, a characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements, previously used on an insignificant scale, and their transformation into the basis of modern chemical technology, as well as the widespread use of solid fuels, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as chemical raw materials.

A characteristic feature of chemical technology is also the use of rare elements, associated, in particular, with the requirements of nuclear technology. Chemistry significantly contributes to the development of nuclear technology, providing it with various materials - metals (uranium, lithium, etc.), heavy water, hydrogen, plastics, etc.

It should be noted that one of the features of modern chemistry is the requirement for the purity of the products produced. Impurities contained in starting substances often negatively affect the properties of the resulting product. Therefore, recently in the chemical industry very pure starting substances (monomers) containing at least 99.8-99.9% of the main substance are increasingly used. A characteristic feature of modern chemical technology is that it is equipped with new methods of influence; Particularly important are the use of high pressures from several hundred to 1500-2000 or more atmospheres, deep vacuum (up to thousandths of an atmosphere), high temperatures up to several thousand degrees, the use of deep cold (low temperatures close to absolute zero), as well as the use of electric discharges , ultrasound, radioactive radiation, etc. Naturally, the increase in the technical level of chemical production in general, and therefore the rapid development of the organic synthesis industry in particular, is ensured by the supply of the chemical industry with modern, high-performance equipment, appropriate apparatus and machines.

First, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for purifying gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for rubber vulcanization, plastic presses, deep cooling equipment, etc. were developed and created. Of particular importance Since the 20s, they have acquired powerful oil gas separation plants, highly efficient rectification and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to pre-design the molecular structure of a substance according to oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, oxide carbon, methane, acetylene, ethylene and some other gases are the main raw material base of modern chemistry.

Consequently, a characteristic feature of the latest chemical technology is the use of common elements, previously used on an insignificant scale, and their transformation into the basis of modern chemical technology, as well as the widespread use of solid fuels, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons as chemical raw materials.

A characteristic feature of chemical technology is also the use of rare elements, associated, in particular, with the requirements of nuclear technology. Chemistry significantly contributes to the development of nuclear technology, providing it with various materials - metals (uranium, lithium, etc.), heavy water, hydrogen, plastics, etc.

It should be noted that one of the features of modern chemistry is the requirement for the purity of the products produced. Impurities contained in starting substances often negatively affect the properties of the resulting product. Therefore, recently in the chemical industry very pure starting substances (monomers) containing at least 99.8-99.9% of the main substance are increasingly used. A characteristic feature of modern chemical technology is that it is equipped with new methods of influence; Particularly important are the use of high pressures from several hundred to 1500-2000 or more atmospheres, deep vacuum (up to thousandths of an atmosphere), high temperatures up to several thousand degrees, the use of deep cold (low temperatures close to absolute zero), as well as the use of electric discharges , ultrasound, radioactive radiation, etc. Naturally, the increase in the technical level of chemical production in general, and therefore the rapid development of the organic synthesis industry in particular, is ensured by the supply of the chemical industry with modern, high-performance equipment, appropriate apparatus and machines. First, the production of basic equipment for ammonia synthesis was mastered. Synthesis columns, separators, water and ammonia scrubbers for purifying gases from carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as centrifuges, vacuum filters, autoclaves for rubber vulcanization, plastic presses, deep cooling equipment, etc. were developed and created. Of particular importance Since the 20s, they have acquired powerful oil gas separation units, highly efficient rectification and adsorption equipment, high-pressure compressors and reactors, refrigeration units, etc. The main trend of modern chemistry is the desire to pre-design the molecular structure of a substance in accordance with predetermined properties. The synthesis of substances with predetermined properties in modern chemistry is not carried out blindly, but on the basis of an in-depth study of the laws of molecular formation. Therefore, a number of new branches of chemical science are receiving great development.

Essentially, from random searches and finds, chemistry, starting from the 1920s, moved to the systematic replacement and displacement of natural scarce materials with materials that are not only not inferior in quality, but, on the contrary, superior to these natural materials. For example, Chilean natural saltpeter was replaced by synthetic nitrogen compounds. Synthetic rubber is not inferior in quality to natural rubber. In recent years, some researchers have been working to improve the quality of natural rubber rather than synthetic rubber so that it can compete with some specialty synthetic rubbers. Great strides have been made in the field of synthesis of artificial fiber, the production of which dates back just a few decades.

Since the 1920s, natural products have been pushed aside and are being replaced by synthetic products of equal quality. This is a completely natural process. The fact is that chemical methods of processing substances, the introduction of chemical processes into production lead to a significant reduction in production time and to a significant reduction in labor costs, and at the same time to the production of products of higher quality than natural products. So, if it takes 70 man-days to produce 1 ton of artificial viscose staple fiber, then 238 man-days are spent to produce 1 ton of cotton fiber. In the production of viscose silk, labor costs are approximately 10 times less than in the production of natural silk. When producing 1 ton of ethyl alcohol (necessary for the production of a number of synthetic products) from petroleum raw materials, labor costs in comparison with the production of this alcohol from food raw materials are reduced by 20-22 times. The following data shows how much has been done in the field of synthesis of new substances . Currently, 100 thousand inorganic chemical compounds are known in nature, while the number of known organic substances, natural and artificial, has exceeded three million and continues to grow rapidly. Only industrially developed compounds obtained from oil number 10 thousand items. Along with the creation of new synthetic materials, there is a continuous process of improving the quality of existing industrially produced substances. Finally, the fundamental possibility of artificially obtaining natural compounds of any complexity has now been proven. The time is not far off when various types of complex protein substances, which are the basis of life, will be synthesized in the laboratories of organic chemists.

A characteristic feature of modern technology is that it develops on the basis of the widespread use of electricity. Moreover, if previously the steam engine only to some extent provided technological “raw materials” for the chemical industry in the form of steam and heat, then electricity becomes the most important element of a kind of technological “raw material” for, for example, processes such as electrolysis.

To produce ammonia, synthesized from hydrogen and air nitrogen obtained by electrolysis of water, approximately 12 thousand kWh of electricity must be consumed. For the production of synthetic rubber based on ethylene, about 15 thousand kWh is consumed, and for some other types of rubber - 17 thousand kWh and even more. The production of one ton of acetate silk requires 20 thousand kWh, tons of phosphorus - from 14 to 20 thousand kWh and tons of artificial abrasives - about 6-9 thousand kWh - this is approximately the same as for production powerful tractor.

The development of the chemical industry is characterized by the widest automation of technological processes. Complex automation is primarily necessary in the chemical industry, which is characterized by large-scale production. Automation of the chemical industry is facilitated by the predominance of continuous production processes, as well as harmful and even dangerous work. In the chemical industry, first of all, the processes of regulating temperature, pressure, composition, reaction rate, etc. are fully automated, since for continuous chemical processes (inaccessible for direct observation) it is especially important to maintain the stability of technological regimes. In chemical production, complete mechanization and automation have generally been carried out, and only the functions of supervision and control, as well as performing preventive repairs, remain with humans.

The most important areas of automation of chemical production are the introduction of new automatic devices based on the use of electronic mathematical machines, the transition to comprehensive mechanization and automation of entire chemical plants. In the United States, production automation has received the greatest development in the oil and chemical industries. Along with the automation of the control of individual installations and individual technological processes, fully automated enterprises are being commissioned, such as, for example, an oil refinery, equipped with an electronic production process control system, which was put into operation in 1949, and then the Spencer Chemical ammonia plant, which is characterized by high degree of automation of production processes. The rapid development of chemistry led to the fact that only within 10-15 years after the end of the Second World War, hundreds of new materials were created, replacing metal, wood, wool, silk, glass and much more.

The production of synthetic materials required to ensure technical progress in various sectors of the national economy is being developed at an accelerated pace. This is characterized by an increase in the production of mineral fertilizers, as well as pesticides and ammonia, an increase in the use of oil and natural gases, coke oven gas and coal coking products for the production of synthetic resins, rubber, alcohol, detergents, high-quality varnishes and dyes, plastics, artificial fiber, electrical insulating materials, special materials for mechanical engineering, radio engineering, etc.

In particular, new effective synthesis methods are being introduced to avoid the consumption of huge quantities of food products in the production of technical products. For example, the consumption of huge amounts of grain for the production of ethyl alcohol to obtain synthetic rubber has raised the problem of replacing food products with synthetic alcohol. To obtain 1 ton of ethyl alcohol instead of 4 tons of grain or 10 tons of potatoes, it is enough to consume 2 tons of liquefied natural gas. To produce 1 ton of synthetic rubber instead of almost 9 tons of grain or 22 tons of potatoes, it is enough to spend only about 5 tons of liquefied gases from oil refineries.

Many economists believe that in the next decade more than 50% of the world's chemical production will be derived from petroleum feedstocks. All this speaks of great achievements in organic synthesis.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the development of socialist production required expanding the scope of practical application of chemistry, increasing the role of special chemical and chemical-technological education, and raising the level of training of both researchers and teachers, and chemical engineers. In the early 1920s. Independent chemistry departments are being organized within the physics and mathematics departments of universities. These departments have introduced specializations in inorganic, physical, organic, analytical chemistry, biochemistry and agrochemistry. In 1920, the Moscow Chemical-Technological Institute named after. D. I. Mendeleev. Since 1929, independent chemical departments have been opened at universities on the basis of chemical departments to train specialists for research institutions and chemical production laboratories, and new chemical-technological institutes have been created.

Since the mid-1950s. in chemistry and chemical technology, the finest methods for studying various substances are created, new materials are produced - chemical fibers, plastics, glass-ceramics, semiconductors, new physiologically active substances and drugs, chemical fertilizers and insectofungicides. Chemistry has penetrated into all branches of science and the national economy. Chemical education has therefore become an integral part of the training of specialists in polytechnic, industrial, metallurgical, energy, electrical engineering, machine and instrument engineering, geological, mining, petroleum, agricultural, forestry, medical, veterinary, food, light industry and other higher industries. and secondary specialized educational institutions.

Specialists for scientific and pedagogical activities are trained mainly by chemical faculties of universities and pedagogical institutes, as well as faculties of chemical-biological, biological-chemical, natural sciences, etc.

The training of chemist specialists at Soviet universities lasts 5 years (in evening and correspondence courses - up to 6). Special courses in inorganic, organic, analytical, physical, colloidal chemistry, crystal chemistry, general chemical technology, and chemistry of macromolecular compounds are studied here. More than half of the teaching time in special disciplines is occupied by student work in laboratories. Students undergo practical training (28 weeks) at enterprises, research institutions and laboratories.

The training of specialists in chemistry and chemical technology and teachers for higher educational institutions continues in graduate school. The largest centers for training chemists, besides universities, are the following institutes: Moscow Chemical Technology Institute. D. I. Mendeleev, Leningrad Technological Institute. Lensoveta, Moscow Institute of Fine Chemical Technology named after. M. V. Lomonosov, Belarusian Technological University named after. S. M. Kirova, Voronezh Technological Institute, Dnepropetrovsk Chemical-Technological Institute named after. F. E. Dzerzhinsky, Ivanovo Chemical-Technological Institute, Kazan Chemical-Technological Institute named after. S. M. Kirova, Kazakh Chemical-Technological Institute, etc.

Chemical specialists (technological technicians) are also trained in secondary specialized educational institutions - in chemical and chemical-technological technical schools, located, as a rule, in the centers of the chemical industry, at large chemical plants. In 1977, over 120 such educational institutions trained technicians in over 30 chemical and chemical-technological specialties (chemical technology of oil, gas, coal, glass and glass products, technology of chemical fibers, etc.). Graduates of these educational institutions are used in chemical production as foremen, foremen, laboratory assistants, machine operators, etc. Chemical-technological vocational schools satisfy the need for skilled workers for various branches of the chemical industry.

Improving the structure and content of chemical and chemical-technological education is associated with the scientific and pedagogical activities of many Soviet scientists - A. E. Arbuzov, B. A. Arbuzov, A. N. Bakh, S. I. Volfkovich, N. D. Zelinsky, I. A. Kablukova, V. A. Kargina, I. L. Knunyants, D. P. Konovalov, S. V. Lebedeva, S. S. Nametkina, B. V. Nekrasova, A. N. Nesmeyanova, A. E. Porai-Koshitsa, A. N. Reformatsky, S. N. Reformatsky, N. N. Semenov, Y. K. Syrkin, V. E. Tishchenko, A. E. Favorsky and others. New achievements of chemical sciences are covered in special chemical journals that help improve the scientific level of chemistry and chemical technology courses in higher education.

In developed countries, the major centers of the structure and content of chemical and chemical-technological education are: Great Britain - Cambridge, Oxford, Bath, Birmingham universities, Manchester Polytechnic Institute; in Italy - Bologna, Milan universities; in the USA - California, Columbia, Michigan Technological Universities, University of Toledo, California, Massachusetts Institutes of Technology; in France - Grenoble 1st, Marseille 1st, Clermont-Ferrand, Compiegne Technological, Lyon 1st, Montpellier 2nd, Paris 6th and 7th universities, Laurent, Toulouse polytechnic institutes; in Hepmania - Dortmund, Hannover, Stuttgart universities, Higher Technical Schools in Darmstadt and Karlsruhe; in Japan - Kyoto, Okayama, Osaka, Tokyo universities, etc.

, M., 1971;

Fundamentals of technology and petrochemical synthesis, ed. A. I. Dintses and L. A. Potolovsky, M., 1960.

Chemistry in modern technologies

Elpatova Olga Ivanovna,

Chemistry teacher

The purpose of the work is to analyze the history of the creation of computers and show what chemical elements are used in the development of computer technologies.

Over the past few decades, computer technology has been developing along the path of increasing miniaturization of parts and increasing costs of their production. Microprocessors of the latest generations contain a huge number of transistors (10 million or more), measuring a tenth of a micron (10-7 meters). The next step towards the microworld will lead to nanometers (10-9 meters) and billions of transistors in one chip. A little more - and we will find ourselves in the range of atomic sizes, where the laws of quantum mechanics begin to apply.

Richard Feynman noted twenty years ago that the laws of physics will not prevent the reduction in the size of computing devices until “until bits reach the size of atoms and quantum behavior becomes dominant.” Another problem that indicates that modern computer technology is becoming obsolete is the problem of approaching the speed limit. Thus, modern computer media can accommodate millions of records that existing search algorithms can no longer cope with.

This led to an increase in computer performance as a whole. The starting point of all “technological breakthroughs” in computer technology are discoveries in basic sciences such as physics and chemistry.

In computer technology, there is a periodization of the development of electronic computers. A computer is classified into one generation or another depending on the type of main elements used in it or on the technology of their manufacture.

An analysis of the history of the creation of computers showed that in the development of computer technology there has been a tendency to reduce the size of key elements and increase the speed of their switching. We took as a basis the theory of five generations of computers instead of six, because We believe that we are at the turn of the fourth and fifth generations.

One of the first chemical elements encountered in the history of computers is germanium. Germanium one of the most important elements for technological progress, since, along with silicon, germanium has become the most important semiconductor material.

In appearance, germanium can easily be confused with silicon. These elements are not only competitors claiming to be the main semiconductor material, but also analogues. However, despite the similarity of many technical properties, it is quite simple to distinguish a germanium ingot from a silicon one: germanium is more than two times heavier than silicon.

Formally, a semiconductor is a substance with a resistivity from thousandths to millions of ohms per 1 cm.

The sensitivity of germanium is remarkable not only to external influences. The properties of germanium are greatly influenced by even minute amounts of impurities. The chemical nature of the impurities is no less important.

The addition of a group V element makes it possible to obtain a semiconductor with an electronic type of conductivity. This is how GES is prepared (electronic germanium doped with antimony). By adding a group III element, we will create a hole type of conductivity in it (most often this is GDH - hole germanium doped with gallium).

Let us recall that “holes” are places vacated by electrons that have moved to another energy level. An “apartment” vacated by a migrant can be immediately occupied by his neighbor, but he also had his own apartment. Relocations are made one after another, and the hole moves.

The combination of regions with electron and hole conductivity formed the basis of the most important semiconductor devices - diodes and transistors.

The creation of diodes formed the basisfirst generation of computersbased on vacuum tubes in the 40s. These are electric vacuum diodes and triodes, which are a glass flask with a tungsten filament in the center.

Tungsten are usually classified as rare metals. It differs from all other metals in its special heaviness, hardness and refractoriness.

At the beginning of the 20th century. tungsten filament began to be used in light bulbs: it allows the heat to be raised to 2200°C and has a high luminous efficiency. And in this capacity, tungsten is absolutely indispensable today. The indispensability of tungsten in this area is explained not only by its refractoriness, but also by its ductility. From one kilogram of tungsten a wire 3.5 km long is drawn,those. This kilogram is enough to make the filaments of 23 thousand 60-watt light bulbs. It is thanks to this property that the global electrical industry consumes only about 100 tons of tungsten per year.

Electronic stuffing UNIVAC there were more than 5,000 vacuum tubes. Memory on mercury flasks made it possible to store information up to one and a half kilobytes. The most notable element in the UNIVAC design was a special drive that allowed information to be written to and read from magnetic tape. The use of a vacuum tube as the main element of a computer created many problems. Due to the fact that the height of the glass lamp is 7 cm, the machines were huge. Every 7-8 min. one of the lamps was failing, and since there were 15 - 20 thousand of them in the computer, it took a lot of time to find and replace the damaged lamp. In addition, they generated enormous amounts of heat, and special cooling systems were required to operate a “modern” computer of that time.

The emergence of the first generation of computers was made possible thanks to three technical innovations: electron vacuum tubes, digital information coding, and the creation of artificial memory devices using electrostatic tubes.

In second generation of computersused instead of vacuum tubes transistors, invented in 1948. It was a point-contact device in which three metal “antennae” were in contact with a bar of polycrystalline germanium. Polycrystalline germanium was obtainedfusing indium on both sides of the hydroelectric plate. All areas require germanium of very high purity - physical and chemical. To achieve this, monocrystalline germanium is grown: the entire ingot is one crystal.

Transistors were more reliable, durable, and had large RAM.

With the invention of the transistor and the use of new memory storage technologies, it became possible to significantly reduce the size of computers, make them faster and more reliable, and significantly increase the memory capacity of computers.

Just as the advent of transistors led to the creation of the second generation of computers, the advent ofintegrated circuitsmarked a new stage in the development of computing technology - the birththird generation machines.

An integrated circuit, also called a chip, is a miniature electronic circuit etched onto the surface of a silicon crystal with an area of ​​about 10 mm 2 . Until 1965, most semiconductor devices were made on a germanium basis. But in subsequent years, the process of gradual displacement of germanium itself began to develop. silicon . This element is the second most abundant on Earth after oxygen. Not ideal, but simply high-purity and ultra-pure silicon has become the most important semiconductor material. At a temperature different from absolute zero, its own conductivity arises, and the carriers of electric current are not only free electrons, but also so-called holes - places abandoned by electrons.

By introducing certain alloying additives into ultra-pure silicon, conductivity of one type or another is created in it. Additions of elements of the third group of the periodic table lead to the creation of hole conductivity, and the fifth - electronic.

Silicon semiconductor devicesThey compare favorably with germanium ones, primarily by better performance at elevated temperatures and lower reverse currents. A great advantage of silicon was the resistance of its dioxide to external influences. It was this that made it possible to create the most advanced planar technology for the production of semiconductor devices, which consists of heating a silicon wafer in oxygen or a mixture of oxygen and water vapor, and covering it with a protective layer of SiO 2 .

Having then etched “windows” in the right places, doping impurities are introduced through them, contacts are also connected here, and the device as a whole is meanwhile protected from external influences. For germanium, such a technology is not yet possible: the stability of its dioxide is insufficient.

Under the onslaught of silicon, gallium arsenide and other semiconductors, germanium lost its position as the main semiconductor material. In 1968, the United States was already producing much more silicon transistors than germanium ones.

A small plate of crystalline material measuring approximately 1 mm 2 turns into a highly complex electronic device, equivalent to a radio unit consisting of 50-100 or more ordinary parts. It is capable of amplifying or generating signals and performing many other radio functions.

The first integrated circuits (ICs) appeared in 1964. The appearance of the IP meant a genuine revolution in computing technology. After all, it alone is capable of replacing thousands of transistors, each of which, in turn, has already replaced 40 vacuum tubes. The performance of third-generation computers has increased 100 times, and the dimensions have decreased significantly. At the same time, semiconductor memory appeared, which is still used in personal computers as operational memory.

The idea of ​​an integrated circuit appeared - a silicon crystal on which miniature transistors and other elements are mounted. In the same year, the first sample of an integrated circuit appeared, containing five transistor elements on a germanium crystal. Scientists quickly learned to place first tens, and then hundreds or more transistor elements on one integrated circuit. Third generation computers operated at speeds of up to one million operations per second.

Since the mid-70s, there have been fewer and fewer fundamental innovations in computer science. Progress is mostly along the lines ofdevelopment of what has already been invented and invented, first of all, by increasing the power and miniaturization of the element base and the computers themselves.

In the early 70s. an attempt was made to find out whether it was possible to place more than one integrated circuit on a single chip. The development of microelectronics led to the creationfourth generationcars and the emergencelarge integrated circuits. It became possible to place thousands of integrated circuits on a single chip.

This made it possible to combine most of the computer components into a single miniature part - which is what Intel did in 1971, releasing the first microprocessor. It was possible to place the central processing unit of a small computer on a chip with an area of ​​only a quarter of a square inch (1.61 cm 2 ). The era of microcomputers has begun.

Integrated circuits already contained thousands of transistors. What is the speed of a modern microcomputer? It is 10 times faster than the speed of third-generation computers using integrated circuits, 1000 times faster than the speed of second-generation computers using transistors, and 100,000 times faster than the speed of first-generation computers using vacuum tubes.

Therefore, computers with higher speed characteristics are needed. Therefore, experts around the world have taken up the challenge of solving this problem by creating a computing system of the future. Experimental development of a quantum computer is currently underway.biocomputer, neurocomputer, optical computer, probabilistic computer of nanoelectronics, nanocomputer, nanorobots, molecular mechanical automata, high-temperature semiconductor materials.