Computational linguistics. Computational Linguistics: Methods, Resources, Applications

linguistics statistical linguistics software

History of the development of computational linguistics

The process of formation and formation of modern linguistics as a science of natural language is a long historical development of linguistic knowledge. Linguistic knowledge is based on elements, the formation of which took place in the process of activity, inextricably linked with the development of the structure of oral speech, the emergence, further development and improvement of writing, learning to write, as well as the interpretation and decoding of texts.

Natural language as an object of linguistics occupies a central place in this science. In the process of language development, ideas about it also changed. If earlier no special importance was attached to the internal organization of the language, and it was considered, first of all, in the context of its relationship with the outside world, then, starting from the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, a special role is assigned to the internal formal structure of the language. It was during this period that the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure developed the foundations of such sciences as semiology and structural linguistics, and were detailed in his book A Course in General Linguistics (1916).

The scientist owns the idea of ​​considering the language as a single mechanism, an integral system of signs, which in turn makes it possible to describe the language mathematically. Saussure was the first to propose a structural approach to language, namely, the description of a language by studying the relationships between its units. By units, or "signs", he understood a word that combines both meaning and sound. The concept proposed by the Swiss scientist is based on the theory of language as a system of signs, consisting of three parts: language (from French langue), speech (from French parole) and speech activity (from French langage).

The scientist himself defined the science he created, semiology, as "a science that studies the life of signs within the framework of the life of society." Since language is a sign system, in search of an answer to the question of what place linguistics occupies among other sciences, Saussure argued that linguistics is part of semiology. It is generally accepted that it was the Swiss philologist who laid the theoretical foundation of a new direction in linguistics, becoming the founder, the "father" of modern linguistics.

The concept put forward by F. de Saussure was further developed in the works of many outstanding scientists: in Denmark - L. Elmslev, in the Czech Republic - N. Trubetskoy, in the USA - L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris, N. Chomsky. As for our country, here structural linguistics began its development at about the same period of time as in the West - at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. - in the works of F. Fortunatov and I. Baudouin de Courtenay. It should be noted that I. Baudouin de Courtenay worked closely with F. de Saussure. If Saussure laid the theoretical foundation of structural linguistics, then Baudouin de Courtenay can be considered the person who laid the foundations for the practical application of the methods proposed by the Swiss scientist. It was he who defined linguistics as a science that uses statistical methods and functional dependencies, and separated it from philology. The first experience of applying mathematical methods in linguistics was phonology - the science of the structure of the sounds of a language.

It should be noted that the postulates put forward by F. de Saussure could be reflected in the problems of linguistics that were relevant in the middle of the 20th century. It is during this period that a clear trend towards the mathematization of the science of language is outlined. Practically in all large countries, the rapid development of science and computer technology begins, which in turn required more and more new linguistic foundations. The result of all this was the rapid convergence of the exact and humanities, as well as the active interaction of mathematics and linguistics, which found practical application in solving urgent scientific problems.

In the 1950s, at the intersection of such sciences as mathematics, linguistics, computer science and artificial intelligence, a new direction of science arose - computational linguistics (also known as machine linguistics or automatic processing of texts in natural language). The main stages in the development of this direction took place against the backdrop of the evolution of artificial intelligence methods. A powerful impetus to the development of computational linguistics was the creation of the first computers. However, with the advent of a new generation of computers and programming languages ​​in the 60s, a fundamentally new stage in the development of this science begins. It should also be noted that the origins of computational linguistics go back to the works of the famous American linguist N. Chomsky in the field of formalizing the structure of the language. The results of his research, obtained at the intersection of linguistics and mathematics, formed the basis for the development of the theory of formal languages ​​and grammars (generative or generative grammars), which is widely used to describe both natural and artificial languages, in particular programming languages. To be more precise, this theory is quite a mathematical discipline. It can be considered one of the first in such a direction of applied linguistics as mathematical linguistics.

The first experiments and first developments in computational linguistics relate to the creation of machine translation systems, as well as systems that simulate human language abilities. In the late 80s, with the advent and active development of the Internet, there was a rapid growth in the volume of text information available in electronic form. This has led to the fact that information retrieval technologies have moved to a qualitatively new stage of their development. There was a need for automatic processing of texts in natural language, completely new tasks and technologies appeared. Scientists are faced with such a problem as the rapid processing of a huge stream of unstructured data. In order to find a solution to this problem, great importance has been given to the development and application of statistical methods in the field of automatic word processing. It was with their help that it became possible to solve such problems as dividing texts into clusters united by a common theme, highlighting certain fragments in the text, etc. In addition, the use of methods of mathematical statistics and machine learning made it possible to solve the problems of speech recognition and the creation of search engines.

Scientists did not stop at the achieved results: they continued to set themselves new goals and objectives, to develop new techniques and methods of research. All this led to the fact that linguistics began to act as an applied science, combining a number of other sciences, the leading role among which belonged to mathematics with its variety of quantitative methods and the ability to use them for a deeper understanding of the phenomena being studied. Thus began its formation and development of mathematical linguistics. At the moment, this is a rather “young” science (it has existed for about fifty years), however, despite its very “young age”, it is an already established field of scientific knowledge with many successful achievements.

Timofeeva Maria Kirillovna
Doctor of Philology, Senior Researcher, Laboratory of Logic Systems, Institute of Mathematics. S.L. Soboleva SB RAS, Head of the Department of Fundamental and Applied Linguistics, Institute for the Humanities of Novosibirsk State University. Graduated from the Department of Mathematical Linguistics of the Faculty of Humanities of Novosibirsk State University.
Research interests: philosophical and methodological foundations of linguistics, logical problems of semantics and pragmatics of natural language, functional mathematical models of natural language, natural and formal languages.

Stukachev Alexey Ilyich
Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor, Senior Research Fellow at the Institute of Mathematics. S.L. Soboleva SB RAS, Associate Professor, Department of Discrete Mathematics and Informatics, Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, NSU, Associate Professor, Department of Fundamental and Applied Linguistics, Institute for the Humanities, NSU
Research interests: mathematical logic, computability theory (generalized computability, computability in admissible sets, HF-computability), model theory (constructive models, effective representations of systems, degrees of representability), computable analysis. Mathematical linguistics: formal semantics, Montagu semantics, distributive semantics.

Barakhnin Vladimir Borisovich
Leading Researcher of the Laboratory of Information Resources of the Institute of Computational Technologies of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor of the Department of Mathematical Modeling of the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics of the Novosibirsk State University, Professor of the Department of Informatics Systems and General Informatics of the Faculty of Information Technologies of the Novosibirsk State University.
Research interests: building models of distributed information systems, creating algorithms for processing semi-structured text documents, automating the complex analysis of poetic texts, methodological issues of informatics.

Bruches Elena Pavlovna
Postgraduate student of the Institute of Informatics Systems named after. A.P. Ershova SB RAS, Assistant of the Department of Fundamental and Applied Linguistics of the Institute for the Humanities of Novosibirsk State University, computational linguist at the "OnPositive" company.
Research interests: natural language processing, machine learning, artificial intelligence.

Pavlovsky Evgeny Nikolaevich
Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, member of the Council of Young Scientists and Specialists under the Government of the Novosibirsk Region, member of the expert council of the Technopark of the Novosibirsk Akademgorodok, chairman of the organizing committee of the Siberian Symposium on Data Science and Engineering conference.
Professional goal: systematization of approaches to the formalization of business requirements in big data projects.

Palchunov Dmitry Evgenievich
Leading researcher at the Institute of Mathematics. S. L. Soboleva SB RAS, Head of the Department of General Informatics, NSU, Head of the Department "Institute of Discrete Mathematics and Informatics", Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics, NSU.
Research interests: Fundamental results on the study of Boolean algebras with distinguished ideals (I-algebras) are obtained.

Sviridenko Dmitry Ivanovich
Employee of the Institute of Mathematics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Novosibirsk State University, businessman, organizer and co-owner of high-tech companies operating in the field of information, communication and digital technologies. Participates in research on semantic modeling funded by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation.
Research interests: philosophy, methodology, applied mathematical logic. The author of the concept and mathematical theory of semantic modeling, put forward together with academicians of the Russian Academy of Sciences S.S. Goncharov and Yu.L. Ershov in the 80s of the last century. Currently, he continues to actively develop the methodology and mathematical theory of this concept, and is also engaged in applications of this concept to various fields. Works on the creation of a methodology, mathematical theory, and language of semantic smart deals and contracts, applying the ideas of semantic modeling in relation to TRIZ and other areas.

Savostyanov Alexander Nikolaevich
Leading researcher in the Laboratory of Differential Psychophysiology of the Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Head of the Laboratory of Psychological Genetics of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor of the Department of General Informatics of the Faculty of Information Technology of NSU, Professor of the Department of Fundamental and Applied Linguistics of the Humanitarian Institute of NSU.
Scientific interests: neurophysiology, psychogenetics, neurolinguistics, methods of computer processing of biological signals. Research is aimed at identifying risk factors for the emergence and development of affective pathologies in humans, depending on the social and climatic conditions of life. As part of the research, expeditions are carried out to various regions of Russia (Novosibirsk region, Tyva, Yakutia, the Altai Republic) and neighboring countries (Mongolia, China) to collect biological material and a collection of EEG records under various experimental conditions. The aim of the research is to create diagnostic systems that allow assessing the risk of violation of the emotional regulation of human behavior under conditions of increased stress.

Introduction

What is Computational Linguistics?

COMPUTER LINGUISTICS , a direction in applied linguistics, focused on the use of computer tools - programs, computer technologies for organizing and processing data - for modeling the functioning of a language in certain conditions, situations, problem areas, etc., as well as the entire scope of computer language models in linguistics and related disciplines. Actually, only in the latter case we are talking about applied linguistics in the strict sense, since computer modeling of a language can also be considered as a sphere of application of computer science and programming theory to solving problems of the science of language. In practice, however, almost everything related to the use of computers in linguistics is referred to as computational linguistics.

As a special scientific direction, computational linguistics took shape in the 1960s. The Russian term "computational linguistics" is a tracing-paper from English computational linguistics. Since the adjective computational in Russian can also be translated as “computational”, the term “computational linguistics” is also found in the literature, but in Russian science it acquires a narrower meaning, approaching the concept of “quantitative linguistics”. The flow of publications in this area is very high. In addition to thematic collections, the journal Computational Linguistics is published quarterly in the United States. A large organizational and scientific work is carried out by the Association for Computational Linguistics, which has regional structures (in particular, the European branch). Every two years there are international conferences on computational linguistics - COLING. Relevant issues are usually widely presented also at various conferences on artificial intelligence.

Tasks

Computational linguistics takes on the actual linguistic problems of computer modeling of language activity. Its tasks are to build more accurate and more complete linguistic models and more advanced algorithms for analysis and synthesis.

The main directions are:

1) Human-computer interaction: control - programming languages, information transfer - interface.

2) Work with texts: indexing, analysis and classification, automatic editing (error correction), knowledge detection, machine translation.

History

A simple generation of a subset of the English language for accessing databases was provided by one of the early American systems LIFER (Language Interface Facility wich Elipsis and Recursion), created in the 70s. Following it, other, more flexible systems appeared on the computer market, providing a limited natural language interface with a computer.

In the 1980s, a number of companies were formed in the United States engaged in the development and sale of natural language interfaces with databases and expert systems. In 1985 The Semantec Corporation presented such a Q&A software package, the Carnegie Group offered a similar package, LanguageCraft.

Active work is underway to create automatic translation systems. The SYSTRAN automatic translation system, developed under the direction of D. Tom, commissioned by the US Air Force, has become widespread. During 1974 - 1975. the system was used by the NASA Aerospace Association to translate documents for the Apollo-Soyuz project. Nowadays, she translates from several languages ​​about 100,000 pages annually.

In Europe, work on the creation of computer translation systems was stimulated by the formation of the European Information Network (EURONET DIANA). In 1982, the European Economic Community announced the creation of the European EUROTRA program, the purpose of which is to develop a computer translation system for all European languages. Initially, the project was estimated at $12 million; in 1987, experts determined the total cost of this project at more than $160 million.

In Japan, computational linguistics research is centered around a nationwide fifth-generation computer program launched in 1981.

There are a number of military projects to create human-machine interfaces in natural language. In the United States, they are carried out mainly as part of the Strategic Computer Initiative, a ten-year program adopted by the Department of Defense in 1983. Its goal is to create a new generation of "intelligent" weapons and military systems in order to ensure long-term technological superiority of the United States.

Naturally, artificial intelligence experts, who are well versed in computers and programming languages, energetically set about solving the problem of understanding the language with their own methods. There was a search for natural language algorithms. Complex language understanding programs were created for very narrow special areas, partial machine translation programs were implemented, and a number of others. But there was no decisive progress in solving the problem of understanding the language. Language and man are so connected that scientists had to deal with the problem of understanding the world by man. And this is the realm of philosophy.

Basic concepts of linguistics

Novoselova Irina

Why aren't all machine translations perfect? What determines the quality of a translation? Does the author have enough knowledge to use and supplement existing computer dictionaries? The author tried to provide answers to these questions in her work. Report on the topic - in the attached file, the product of project activities - on the school portal

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International

research

conference

high school students and students

"Education. The science. Profession"

Section "Foreign Linguistics"

"Computer Linguistics"

Made by Irina Novosyolova

MOU gymnasium No. 39 "Classic"

10 "B" class

Scientific supervisors:

Chigrineva Tatyana Dmitrievna,

English teacher of the highest category

Osipova Svetlana Leonidovna,

computer science teacher of the highest category

city ​​of Otradny

2011

1. English words in ICT

Look at the website

1. My experiment

One of the tasks is to conduct an experiment, which consists in comparing the capabilities of various computer linguistic dictionaries, for a more accurate and approximate translation from English into Russian.

The following sites have been tested:

1. http://translate.eu/
2. http://translate.google.ru/#ru
3. http://www.langinfo.ru/index.php?div=6
4. http://www2.worldlingo.com/ru/products_services/worldlingo_translator.html

For the purity of the experiment, I chose sentences with varying degrees of complexity of stylistic translation. The input phrases are as follows:

1. A new report says today's teenagers are more selfish than they were 20 years ago

(New report says today's teens are more selfish than they were 20 years ago)

2. She believes video games and the Internet are the biggest reasons for this increased selfishness.

(She believes that video games and the Internet are the biggest reasons for this growing selfishness)

3. They want to be better than others

(They want to be better than the rest)

4. She found the big increase started from the year 2000, which is when violent video games became really popular.

(She found a lot of growth starting in 2000 when violent video games became really popular)

After translating these sentences on online translator sites, I got the following results:

1. http://translate.eu/

Plan:

1. What is computational linguistics?

2. Object and subject of computational linguistics

4. Tasks of computational linguistics

5. Research methods of computational linguistics

6. History and causes of computational linguistics

7. Basic terms of computational linguistics

8. Scientists involved in the problem of computational linguistics

9. Associations and conferences on computational linguistics

10. Used literature.

Computational Linguistics - an independent direction in applied linguistics, focused on the use of computers to solve problems related to the use of natural language. (Schilihina K.M.)

Computational linguistics– being one of the areas of applied linguistics, she studies the linguistic foundations of computer science and all aspects of the connection between language and thinking, modeling language and thinking in a computer environment using computer programs, and her interests lie in the field of: 1) optimizing communication based on linguistic knowledge 2) creating natural language interface and language understanding typologies for human-machine communication 3) creation and modeling of information computer systems (Sosnina E.P.)

Object of Computational Linguistics- analysis of the language in its natural state in the process of use by people in various situations of communication, as well as how the features of the language can be formulated.

Tasks of Computational Linguistics:


Computational linguistics research methods:

1. modeling method- a special object of study that is not available in direct observation. By definition, mathematician K. Shannon, a model is a representation of an object in some form, different from the form of their real existence.

2. knowledge representation theory method implies ways of representing knowledge that are oriented towards automatic processing by modern computers.

3. programming language theory method(programming language theory) is a field of computer science associated with the design, analysis, characterization and classification of programming languages ​​and the study of their individual features.

Causes of Computational Linguistics

1. The advent of computers

2. The problem of communication with computers of unprepared users

1. A dictionary search system developed at Berkbeck College in London in 1948.

2. Warren Weaver memorandum

3. The beginning of the introduction of the first computers in the field of machine translation

4. Georgetown project in 1954

1. ALPAC (Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee) 2. new stage in the development of computer technologies and their active use in linguistic tasks 3. creation of a new generation of computers and programming languages ​​4. growing interest in machine translation 60

-70s of the twentieth century

Late 80s - early 90s of the twentieth century

The emergence and active development of the Internet

• Rapid growth of volumes of text information in electronic form

• The need for automatic processing of texts in natural language

1. PROMT and ABBY (Lingvo) products 2. Machine translation technologies 3. Translation Memory technologies

Modern commercial systems

• Animation of texts

• Communication models

• Computer lexicography

• Machine translate

• Corpus of texts

Analysis of texts in natural language

3 levels of text structure:

• Surface syntactic structure

• Deep syntactic structure

• Semantic level

The task of synthesis is inverse with respect to analysis

Animation of the text

1. Exchange of texts through visual images on the display screen

2. 2 modalities of human thinking: symbolic and visual.

1. Imitation of the communication process 2. Creation of an effective dialogue model Communication models

Hypertext- a special way of organizing and presenting text, in which several texts or fragments of text can be interconnected by various types of links.

Differences between hypertext and traditional text

Hypertext

1. speech processing

• 2. processing of written text

Speech processing

1. automatic speech synthesis

A) the development of synthesizers of the "text-to-speech" type. Includes 2 blocks: block of linguistic text processing And acoustic synthesis block.

2. automatic speech recognition

1) text recognition

2) text analysis

3) text synthesis

IPS (information retrieval system)- these are software systems for storing, searching and issuing information of interest.

Zakharov V.P. believes that IPS is an ordered set of documents and information technologies designed for storing and retrieving information - texts or data.

3 types of IPS

3 types of IPS

Manual is a library search.

• Mechanized IPS are technical tools that ensure the selection of the necessary documents

• Automatic- search for information using computers

Computer lexicography

Computer lexicography- one of the important areas of applied linguistics, deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

There are 2 directions in lexicography:

• Traditional lexicography compiling traditional dictionaries

• Machine lexicography automates the preparation of dictionaries and solves the problems of developing electronic dictionaries

Tasks of computer lexicography

• Automatic derivation of various dictionaries from text

• Creation of dictionaries that are electronic versions of traditional dictionaries or complex electronic linguistic dictionaries for traditional dictionary works, such as LINGVO

• Development of theoretical and practical aspects of compiling special computer dictionaries, for example, for information retrieval, machine translation

Machine translate

Machine translate- converting text in one natural language into another natural language using a computer.

Types of machine translation

• FAMT(Fully Automated Machine Translation) - fully automatic translation

• HAMT(Human Aided machine Translation) - machine translation with the participation of a person

• MAHT(Machine Aided Human Translation) is a translation carried out by a person using auxiliary software and linguistic tools.

• 2) professional MP– better translation with subsequent human editing

• 3) interactive MP- is considered a transfer in special support systems, takes place in a dialogue mode with a computer system. The quality of the MT depends on the settings, resources, type of texts.

Corpus of texts

Corpus of texts- this is a collection of texts, which is based on a logical idea, a logical idea that unites these texts.

Language corpus- a large, electronically presented, unified, structured, labeled, philologically competent array of language data, designed to solve specific linguistic problems.

Representativeness is the most important property of the corpus

The purpose of the language corpus is to show the functioning of linguistic units in their natural contextual environment

Based on the corpus, you can get data:

1. about the frequency of grammatical categories

2. About frequency changes

3. about changes in contexts in different periods of time

5. about the joint occurrence of lexical units

6. about the features of their compatibility

Brown Corps


Corpus of texts - this is a collection of texts, which is based on a logical idea, a logical idea that unites these texts. The embodiment of this logical idea: the rules for organizing texts into a corpus, algorithms and programs for analyzing the corpus of texts, the ideology and methodology associated with this. National Corps represents a given language at a certain stage (or stages) of its existence and in all the variety of genres, styles, territorial and social options, etc. Basic terms of computational linguistics

Programming languages (PL) is a class of artificial languages ​​designed to process information using a computer. Any programming language is a strict (formal) sign system with which computer programs are written. According to various estimates, there are currently between a thousand and ten thousand different programming languages.

• Informatics(Computer Science) - the science of the regularities of recording, storing, processing, transmitting and using information with the help of technical means.

Search for information (Information Retrieval) is the process of finding such documents (texts, records and

etc.) that match the request.

« Information retrieval system (IPS) is an ordered set of documents (arrays of documents) and information technologies designed to store and search for information - texts (documents) or data (facts).

Machine lexicography(Computational Lexicography) is engaged in the automation of the preparation of dictionaries and solves the problems of developing electronic

dictionaries.

Machine translate is a computer transformation of text on one

natural language into a text equivalent in content to another

natural language.

Hypertext is a technology for organizing information and a specially structured text, divided into separate blocks, having a non-linear representation, for the effective presentation of information in computer environments.

frame is a structure for representing declarative knowledge about a typified thematically unified situation, i.e. data structure about a stereotypical situation.

• Scenario - this is a sequence of several episodes in time, this is also a representation of a stereotypical situation or stereotypical behavior, only the elements of the scenario are the steps of the algorithm or instructions.

• Plan - representation of knowledge about the possible actions that are necessary to achieve a certain goal.

Scientists in the field of computational linguistics:

• Soviet and Russian scientists: Alexey Lyapunov, Igor Melchuk, Olga Kulagina, Yu.D. Apresyan, N.N. Leontiev, Yu.S. Martemyanov, Z.M. Chaliapin, Igor Boguslavsky, A.S. Narignani, A.E. Kibrik, Baranov A.N.

• Western scientists Cast: Yorick Vilks, Gregory Grevenstette, Gravil Corbett, John Carroll, Diana McCarthy, Luis Marquez, Dan Moldovan, Joachim Nivre, Victor Raskin, Eduard Hovey.

Associations and Conferences in Computational Linguistics:

• "Dialog"- the main Russian conference on computational linguistics with international participation.

The priority of the Dialogue is computer modelling Russian language. The working languages ​​of the conference are Russian and English. To attract foreign reviewers, the main part of applied works is submitted in English.

Main directions of the conference:

• Linguistic semantics and semantic analysis

• Formal language models and their applications

• Theoretical and computer lexicography

• Evaluation methods for text analysis and machine translation systems

• Corpus linguistics. Creation, application, evaluation of corpus

• Internet as a linguistic resource. Linguistic technologies on the Internet

• Ontologies. Knowledge Extraction from texts

• Computer analysis of documents: abstracting, classification, Search

• Automatic Sentiment Analysis of Texts

• Machine translate

• communication models. Communication, dialogue and speech act

• Analysis and speech synthesis

2. Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is an international scientific and professional society of people working on problems involving natural language and computing. An annual meeting is held every summer at locations where significant computational linguistics research is carried out. Founded in 1962, originally named Association for Machine Translation and Computational Linguistics (AMTCL). In 1968 this became the ACL.

• ACL has a European (EACL) and North American (NACL) branches.

• ACL magazine, Computational linguistics, is the main forum for research in computational linguistics and natural language processing. Since 1988 the magazine has been published for the ACL MIT Press.

• ACL book series, Research in Natural Language Processing, published Cambridge University Press.

• Every year the ACL and its chapters organize international conferences in different countries.

ACL 2014 was held in Baltimore, USA.

• References:

• 1. Marchuk Yu.N. Computational linguistics: textbook / Yu.N. Marchuk. - M.: AST: East-West, 2007 - 317 p.

• 2. Shilihina K.M. Fundamentals of Applied Linguistics: textbook for the specialty 021800 (031301) - Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, Voronezh, 2006.

• 3. Boyarsky K.K. Introduction to Computational Linguistics. Textbook.- St. Petersburg: NRU ITMO, 2013.- 72 p.

• 4. Shchipitsina L.Yu. Information technologies in linguistics: textbook / L.Yu. Shchipitsina.- M.: FLINTA: science, 2013.- 128 p.

• 5. Sosnina E.P. Introduction to Applied Linguistics: textbook / E.P. Sosnina. - 2nd ed., Corrected. and additional - Ulyanovsk: UlGTU, 2012. -110 p.

• 6. Baranov A.N. Introduction to Applied Linguistics: Textbook.- M.: Editorial URSS, 2001.- 360 p.

• 7. Applied linguistics: Textbook / L.V. Bondarko, L.A. Verbitskaya, G.Ya. Martynenko and others; Rep. Editor A.S. Gerd. SPb.: publishing house S.-Petersburg. Univ., 1996.- 528 p.

• 8. Shemyakin Yu.I. Beginnings of Computational Linguistics: Textbook. M.: Publishing house of MGOU, A / O "Rosvuznauka", 1992.