The global ethnic crisis is the essence. Geographic study of ethnic crises smooth, igor yurievich

Lesson 1 Global Ethnic Crisis

Lesson 1

Global ethnic crisis

Tasks:

1. To form an idea of ​​the ethnic crisis as a global problem of humanity.

2. Consider the anatomy of the ethnic crisis through the prism of geography.

3. Develop skills in working with the text of the textbook: separate the main information and secondary information, reformulate in your own words, systematize.

4. Develop skills in group work: sharing information, developing a joint solution, presenting to the class.

5. To cultivate interest in the world around and the events taking place in it.

How did this become possible: the enlightened XXI century,

multicultural world, global Internet network,

Al Jazeera, CNN, quarks, plasma, DNA secrets

and space, and humanity has not become more tolerant,

neither more humane nor smarter, and religion does not soften morals,

but becomes an additional line of division of society.

Valeria Novodvorskaya, journalist

"New time", No. 6, 2006.

Enhanced cognitive activity

Students are encouraged to recall previously studied material

What is the modern world?

What is he? What tendencies are typical for it?

Trends:

1. "Narrowing of the world" - the possibility of faster movement in space, temporary "reduction" of distances due to the technical capabilities of modern transport.

2. Formation of stable economic ties between the countries of the world at two levels: international and transnational. International relations are carried out between states at the level of heads of state, government and other state organizations. Transnational relations are carried out at the level of transnational corporations through the network of their subsidiaries and branches.

3. Deep development and penetration of communication systems (communications) into all spheres of human life.

Conclusion: These trends lead to the fact that the world is becoming compact, accessible, transparently viewed. The world is shrinking to a point.

Along with the tendencies of unification and integration, the processes of regionalization are observed in the world: the rise of nationalism and "sovereignty". There is a tendency towards self-determination, self-identification of countries and peoples. The growth and deepening of national and ethnic problems is observed.

New material

Give examples of “hot spots” on the planet.

Working with the map "Hot spots of the planet".

The problem of the ethnic crisis is global in nature.

Confirm that the problem is truly global. (It is characterized by all three features: it arose as a result of the development of society, it hinders the further development of mankind and threatens the existence of the world community, it can only be solved by the efforts of all countries of the world.).

Prove that the problem of the ethnic crisis affects everyone.

(Terrorism has become one of the forms of manifestation of the global ethnic crisis. People of different nationalities, religions and life principles become victims of terrorist acts.).

Organization of work in groups.

Group work.

Each group has 5 people.

Duration of work in groups is 15-17 minutes.

Each group receives a task.

1. Get acquainted with the text of the textbook p.226-233. Distribute tasks between group members yourself:

The text "The principle of identity of state and national borders" and "Movement of nations towards self-determination and striving for the formation of supernations", pp. 226-227.

The text "Aging" of nations and the destabilization of interethnic relations ", pp. 228-229.

Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities ”, pp. 229-230.

- "Ecology and ethnic strife", "Other factors" provoking "outbursts of nationalism", pp. 230-232.

- "Tribalism - an old disease of Africa", pp. 232-233.

2. In the course of reading, highlight the main thing in the text, establish relationships and patterns, if necessary, make notes in a notebook.

3. Prepare to present the results of your work to the group.

4. Review Figure 41 on page 224. Answer the questions.

What reasons, in your opinion, most often provoke ethnic conflicts in the modern world? Try to systematize the causes of conflicts by region. Does the level of development of countries matter?

Is it possible to systematize the forms of manifestation by region? Does the level of development of countries matter?

Generalization

For discussion in the classroom, questions are brought up about the possibility of systematizing the factors and forms of manifestation of ethnic conflicts. Options for systematization, arguments are heard.

Possible findings:

1. The factor is largely determined by the age of the population, which depends on the demographic situation in the country, the ethnic mosaic of the territory, the latest political processes taking place in the given territory.

2. In developed countries, forms of manifestation of an ethnic crisis are predominantly "peaceful", while in developing countries - armed confrontation. The question is discussed why in Europe the forms of expression grow from peaceful to armed. (Perhaps this is due to the high number of foreign citizens. Along with the migration of foreigners, forms of expression also "migrate".).

One of the options for systematization

Homework:

Group 1.

Please read carefully the text of Topic 12 “Global Ethnic Crisis”. Compile as complete a vocabulary of concepts and terms as possible. Use additional literature and the possibilities of the Internet.

Group 2.

Compile a catalog of Internet resources on the "hot" spots of the planet. Write a short annotation for the links. Organize your information. Choose the way of organizing yourself.

Group 3.

Make a bibliographic catalog of informational materials (articles, messages) on the topic "Global Ethnic Crisis", confirming the existence of the problem in the world. Provide a short annotation for each bibliographic reference.

Group 4.

Confirm that ethnic conflicts exist on Russian territory. Draw up information messages in the form of a table (define the form and content yourself).

Group 5.

Make a list of ways to resolve ethnic conflicts in the world. Assess their strengths and weaknesses. Fill out the results of the work in a form convenient for work.

Lesson 2

Global ethnic crisis. Presentation of the results of work in groups.

Tasks:

1. Expand knowledge on the topic, using the results of the work of the groups.

2. Develop skills in working with oral information: perception, highlighting the main thing, fixing.

Presentation of the results of the group's work

Message order:

1. Introduce the assignment to the class.

2. Actions to complete the assignment.

3. Results of the task.

The order of presentation of the groups:

1. Dictionary of concepts and terms.

2. Bibliographic list of media information.

3. Catalog of Internet resources.

The results of the work of groups to identify areas of ethnic tension in Russia are discussed in more detail. Each member of the group makes a detailed report. Answers clarifying questions.

Particular attention is paid to the ways of resolving ethnic conflicts, which are not systematized in the textbook. The results of the group's work are being discussed.

Commenting on homework

Each student is invited to consider one of the ethnic conflicts in more detail and enter the information in the table.

Lesson 3

Russia and the global ethnic crisis

Tasks:

1. Expansion of knowledge on the topic through work with additional information.

2. Development of skills in analyzing information, folding it and presenting it to the audience.

3. Bringing students to the awareness of the problem of the ethnic crisis as personally significant.

Here is one of the darkest predictions for the future:

if "whites" and "non-whites" do not learn to live side by side,

humble themselves to recriminations and settling scores,

will not understand the value of mutual understanding, if racial wars enter our lives, then the 21st century will become even more tragic than the past century we lived through. Although, it would seem, is much more tragic.

Apollo Davidson, professor at Moscow State University

Presenting to the class the results of individual work on the leading task.

Message "Islamization of the modern world."

Task: make notes in a notebook during the message. Reasons for the Islamization of the world, centers, ways of spreading, methods of solution. Does this problem concern Russia? What measures needs to be taken by the state?

Organization of work in groups

Groups receive assignments

Group 1.

The assignment of this group is not presented to the class,

Will be checked by the teacher at the end of the lesson.

Group 2.

Group 3.

Check out the information provided. Give arguments for those who think the problem is far-fetched. Suggest measures to preserve the Kaliningrad region within the Russian Federation and educate Kaliningrad residents as loyal citizens of the country.

Group 4.

Consider Figure 42 on page 234 of the tutorial. Determine, using conventional signs, the acuteness of interethnic relations in the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous District of the Irkutsk Region. In your opinion, to what extent the forthcoming referendum on the unification of the two subjects - the Irkutsk region and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug - will help to solve the problem of interethnic relations. Substantiate your point of view. Fill out the results of the work in a convenient form.

Group 5.

On April 16, 2006, a referendum will be held to unite two subjects - the Irkutsk Region and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug. Study the information provided. Imagine what the outcome of the vote will be. Is it possible in the future, in the event of a positive vote, the aggravation of national problems? What measures need to be taken to maintain a stable situation. Fill out the results in a convenient form.

The groups present the results of their work.

Discussion of the results of the work of the groups.

Reflection

Write an essay of 5-7 sentences on the topic “Can the 21st century become for the world and Russia a century of nationalism and separatism? What to do?". State your point of view, try to argue for it.

Group 4

Consider Figure 42 on page 234 of the tutorial.

Determine, using conventional signs, the acuteness of interethnic relations in the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous District of the Irkutsk Region.

In your opinion, to what extent the forthcoming referendum on the unification of the two subjects - the Irkutsk region and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug - will help to solve the problem of interethnic relations.

Substantiate your point of view. Fill out the results of the work in a convenient form.

For reference:

Information about the subjects

Irkutsk region

National composition:

Russians - 88.5%

Buryats - 3.1%

National composition:

Buryats - 39.6%

Russians - 54.4%

Group 1.

You are offered an initial situation (country, group of countries, etc.) where an ethnic conflict can occur. Design the factors that can cause the conflict, suggest forms of manifestation and propose methods of settlement. Fill out the answer in the form of a diagram (there may be several of them in one situation). If possible, give real examples of conflict situations taking place according to your proposed schemes.

Situation 1. A developing country with a multi-ethnic population.

Situation 2. A developed country in the world in which the number of foreigners is growing rapidly.

Situation 3. A country formed as a result of the collapse of a larger power. It has a multinational population and is characterized by bilingualism.

Group 5

On April 16, 2006, a referendum will be held to unite two subjects - the Irkutsk Region and the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous Okrug.

Study the information provided.

Is it possible in the future, in the event of a positive vote, the aggravation of national problems? What measures need to be taken to maintain a stable situation.

Fill out the results in a convenient form.

Information about the subjects

Irkutsk region

The population is 2 million 582 thousand people, including the Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous District.

National composition:

Russians - 88.5%

Buryats - 3.1%

Other nationalities - 8.4%

Of all the Buryats, 66.6% live on the territory of the Ust-Orda Buryat District, the rest are located throughout the region.

The unemployment rate in the Irkutsk region is 15.1% (2002). The average per capita income per person is 1,682 rubles (2002). The poor make up 29.9%.

Ust-Orda Buryat Autonomous District

The population is 135 thousand people.

National composition:

Buryats - 39.6%

Russians - 54.4%

Other nationalities - 6.0%.

The unemployment rate in the Autonomous Okrug is 14.9%. The average per capita income per person is 473 rubles (2002). The poor make up 89.4%.

Group 2.

There is an opinion that the Kaliningrad region may become a territory of an ethnic conflict.

Check out the information provided. Give arguments in favor of those who consider a possible conflict in the Kaliningrad region. Imagine what factor can become a conflict-forming factor. Suggest measures to prevent the escalation of the situation.

Group 3.

There are opposite points of view on the possibility of an ethnic conflict in the Kaliningrad region: some are in favor, others are against.

Check out the information provided. Give arguments for those who think the problem is far-fetched. Suggest measures to preserve the Kaliningrad region within the Russian Federation and educate Kaliningrad residents as loyal citizens of the country.

Introduction to work

The relevance of research. The growing economic and technological interconnectedness of states, the acceleration of the processes of internationalization of social life, politics, culture make the modern world integral and, in a sense, indivisible. At the same time, the growing desire for self-identification of countries, peoples and groups of the population makes it increasingly unstable and unpredictable. The current changes in the political and ethnic geography of the world are becoming so important that they are sometimes compared to the process that began after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which marked a turning point in the formation of modern states. So, only sixty of the current one hundred and ninety states existed on the eve of the 20th century. On the other hand, in the first half of the 1990s alone, the UN admitted more than twenty new states to its membership.

Regardless of the scale of the predicted changes on the political map of the world, promising to become one of the most impressive phenomena of modern history, one thing is clear: in the global sense, the national - ethnic problem can become and is already becoming one of the most painful. Some reputable scientists (S. Amin, V. Barelay, W. Connor, B. Shafer, B, Jordan, etc.) speak of a real global ethnic crisis that has already engulfed the planet. Uncontrollable national emotions, which, depending on specific circumstances, take the form of justified national self-assertion or aggressive nationalism, lead to dramatic collisions on almost all continents, and especially on the periphery of world civilization. Most. the eastern patriarchal society is permeated with conflicts (explicit, latent or potential). Moreover, national-ethnic tension

here it is intensified by strife on religious, clan, patronage and clientele grounds. First of all, this applies to the countries of tropical Africa, where intra-tribal and inter-tribal relations permeate all social life. There is practically no country here where ethno-nationalism would not manifest itself in one form or another.

In recent years, the contradictions on the territory of the former USSR, which were previously successfully suppressed by the union center and uncompromisingly driven inward by it, have become an integral part of the global ethnic crisis. We are talking about national-ethnic strife, confrontation within nations divided by regional or clan lines, territorial disputes, separatism, autonomist movements, etc.

The importance of interdisciplinary scientific understanding of modern national-ethnic processes is quite obvious and does not need special argumentation. But in the growing flow of publications devoted to the problems of the current stage of exacerbation of interethnic rivalry, it is not easy to find works of a geographical nature, as if thousands of the strongest threads do not at all connect an ethnos with a territory - the most important operational basis of geography, with the environment; as if the geographical interpretation of interethnic relations does not at all occupy an important place in the theory of ethnogenesis developed by L.N. Gumilev and "agitated" the scientific community in recent years. One should not be surprised at this, since in Russian geographical science there have been no specific socio-historical studies (referred to in the West as "case studies") of interethnic relations within the framework of the former USSR. In the context of a sharp aggravation of interethnic relations, the collapse of the USSR and the threat of disintegration of Russia itself, the development of ethno- and political-geographical approaches can help predict the dynamically changing

ethno-political differentiation of society, as well as the search for ways to resolve interethnic contradictions.

Subject of study constitute the processes of rivalry in the modern world (including in the post-Soviet geopolitical space), widely known as the "global ethnic crisis" and identified with one of the most acute and intractable problems facing humanity at the end of the 20th century. The subject of research is of a pronounced interdisciplinary nature, which not only allows, but also encourages to apply To to him representatives of geographical science, previously, usually distanced themselves from participation in the scientific understanding of these issues of our time.

Geographic (ethnogeographic. Ethnogeopolitical ") object of research constitutes a hierarchy of social, national-ethnic formations of various ranks; ethnos - polyethnic conglomerate - country (primarily the former USSR) - subregion (continent or part of it) - the world as a whole. Various aspects of the study relate to various levels of this hierarchy. In a number of chapters and sections, the processes of aggravation of national-ethnic relations are considered at smaller taxonomic levels (administrative region, city, etc.).

The theoretical basis of the thesis I the works of world-renowned experts (primarily Russian) on interethnic relations, philosophers, and political leaders were published. The factual material was gleaned from Russian and foreign periodicals, official UN statistical sources, analytical works, or was the result of the dissertation candidate's own observations and reflections.

Scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that for the first time a geographic approach to the study of ethnic crises was formulated: from ethno-, socio- to political-geographical positions, analyzed

і the nature of ethnic contradictions; revealed changes in geographical conditions and factors of interethnic conflicts under the influence of new global-regional economic, social, geo-ecological and political interactions; a comprehensive analysis of the nature of modern shifts in the geopolitical situation within the post-Soviet space is given.

Objectives of the thesis- determination of the place of geography in the system of interdisciplinary attempts to comprehend one of the most important global problems of our time, the search for geospatial connections between ethnic conflicts and the factors that cause them, based on the proposed geographical approach to the study of ethnic crises.

To achieve these goals, it was necessary to solve the following tasks:

Propose and justify a geographical interpretation of ethnic
... processes;

trace the development of scientific ideas about the relationship between ethnic groups and territory (nature);

to summarize available in the literature and to propose their own approaches to the essence of the so-called "provoking" factors of ethno-nationalism and to comprehend them from the standpoint of geographical science;

to analyze the connection between the emerging centers of interethnic enmity with the new geopolitical position of Russia.

Practical significance the work consists in the fact that its results can be used as a theoretical and methodological basis for the deployment of geographical studies of ethnic crises in the territory of the former USSR; in teaching courses on ethnogeography, population geography, political geography, etc.

AP work robotics... The main provisions of the dissertation were reported and discussed at the Hertzhovski readings of the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen (1994, 1995), conference of young scientists of the university (1995), All-Russian scientific conference "Environmental safety and socio-economic development of Russian regions" (Saransk, 1994).

Di structure certification is conditioned by the logic of the goals and objectives set in it and includes an introduction, three chapters (chapter 1 - "Ethnic processes and geography"; chapter II - "Ethnic crises:" provoking "factors and their geographical understanding"; chapter III - "Ethnic crises on the territory of the former USSR: geopolitical aspect "), each of which ends with short conclusions, as well as a conclusion and a bibliographic list. It contains / ^ pages of text, r? drawings, Jb tables. The list of references includes ^? 7 titles in Russian, English and other languages.

The scientific validity of the ideological beginning of globalization is considered in the article as the primary condition for the development of globalization in the direction of the formation of a dynamic global system. The reasons for the crisis currently observed in three subsystems are investigated: political, legal and economic. The thesis is put forward that the main problem lies in the system of norms and basic values ​​of the global system. It also provides the basic principles of relevant activities in the direction of resolving the problem.

The scientific validity of the ideological foundations of globalization is considered in the article as the prime condition of development of globalization in the direction of formation of the dynamic global system. The article explores reasons of the crisis observed in three subsystems nowadays: political, legal and economic. The author introduces the thesis that the main problem consists in the system of norms and basic values ​​of global system. Basic principles of the corresponding activity in solution of the problem are also discussed.

The process of forming a global structure - globalization

The processes of accelerating the pace of convergence of borders, expansion of economic, energy, technological and information ties, called globalization, put political and legal actors responsible for control over systemic processes in front of the need to act in a single system. , it is important not to stay away from this system. The formed global political, legal and economic system creates a favorable opportunity for solving a number of humanitarian global problems (demographic, food, environmental, etc.). In other words, the formation of a global structure or the process of globalization proceeds according to the following pattern: increasing the rate of development of economic, technological and information relations® strengthening the political and legal organization® cultural, humanitarian and environmental globalization.

Global values ​​as the basis of the global structure

The above should not be understood as if globalization, leading to the creation of a global system, is an objective phenomenon that has scientific and technological progress and other economic processes as its origin. Approaching the problem precisely from such positions, some authors consider globalization not a political, but a socio-economic phenomenon (Inozemtsev 2008). At the same time, the objectively conditioned globalization, which politicians are trying to follow in their strategy, is a dangerous, unpredictable, multidirectional phenomenon leading to the creation of non-progressive, uncivilized structures(currently similar structures are found in the international arena). Structuring, an organization, including a political one, striving to control all processes, must necessarily rely on such a socio-philosophical concept that would contain not only political goals and principles, but also moral and spiritual values. It is obvious that, ideally, globalization should not lead to global chaos and crisis, but to an effective, dynamic and stable global structure.

To build the system and ensure its longevity, the political goals and ambitions contained in the idea on which the concept of the global system is based must take into account both modern realities and the laws of historical processes, the potential of international political actors put forward by history itself, periodically realizing the idea of ​​world domination. Otherwise, with the strengthening / weakening of the power of the state in the historically shortest time period (calculated in decades), the system may face a crisis or it may be necessary to replace the still unformed structure with a new one.

On the other hand, in order to ensure the formation of a global system, to concretize its structure, the moral and spiritual criteria contained in the initial concept of the global system must have the ability to socialize in all cultural regions of the world, be in demand by the population of these regions.

The failure of the globalization of democratic values

One of the main reasons for the ineffectiveness of the basic values ​​of the modern global system was an attempt to generalize, to give the principles and procedures of this or that state structure as a kind of humanistic idea of ​​a universal human nature. Even Aristotle pointed out the scientific inconsistency of attempts to apply a universal structure (for example, democracy. - V. G.) to different countries. Another reason should be recognized as attempts to manipulate these idealized principles of statehood, turning them through forceful pressure or concessions into an instrument for ensuring their own interests in interstate relations. In other words, another reason for the ineffectiveness of the basic values ​​of the modern global system is the desire to raise an idea that is incapable of generalization to the level of international legal norms and then use it for the purpose of discrediting.

Democratic values ​​have not become universal. For one or another objective and subjective reasons (the illegitimate nature of power, the desire of an individual or group to forcibly remain in power; ensuring the interests of strong powers in the region by the existing government and, as a response, the defense of this government by international political players [Egypt], etc. .) application of such a system in some countries of Europe and Asia, the Middle East, Latin America is not possible both at this stage and in the future. However, if the people are not the source of power, if the national will is not realized, then there can be no talk of democracy. It is of interest that the states - adherents of the principles of globalization in the name of securing their interests in the region and preserving international relations are forced to come to terms with the current situation. By justifying, in essence, the oblivion of democratic values, these forces endanger the global system based on this idea. On the other hand, in a number of countries, due to their geographical location and regional positions, taking into account demographic indicators and historical problems in relations with neighboring countries, the process of democratization can pose a threat to national security, territorial integrity, internal order and stability. For this reason, the change of government in these countries cannot be viewed as a manifestation of democracy. Thus, these values ​​are potentially incapable of acquiring the status of universal ones.

Visible structure and causes of the crisis

A number of researchers and experts are inclined to view the global crisis as a historical consequence of globalization. In this case, globalization is perceived as a community, unification, blurring of boundaries (economic, cultural, ideological, etc.). However, regardless of the degree of unification of relations, the deepening of interstate relations and the interconnection of different regions of the world, such integrity is not able to ensure the functioning of the global system as a single state, since the heterogeneity and sovereignty of international actors remain. At the same time, the crisis that has arisen in the political, legal and economic structures of the state cannot be explained by its cultural or economic community. If the state is going through a crisis in all its subsystems (political, economic and legal), then it is obvious that the problem lies in the lack of agreement and harmony both in the system of values, norms and rules, and between these three subsystems. By undermining the links between these three subsystems, individual and group interests put the system not only in the face of disintegration, but, most importantly, contribute to the alienation of fundamental values. The same thing happens with the global system. Currently, all these systems are experiencing crisis phenomena. Therefore, it seems impossible to restore the system on the basis of alienated norms and values.

The fall in the authority of priority values ​​and the subsequent fall in the authority of international law (provoked by the dominant political forces, pushing values ​​into the background in order to protect their own strategic, economic, religious-psychological, group and individual interests) ultimately lead to a political, legal and economic crisis ... Economic processes can only unfold on the basis of sustainable and long-term trust. In turn, long-term trust is based not on confrontation, but on current strategic and regional interests and values.

The preservation of the authority and role of the priority value by the dominant forces is associated with the advancement of the problem of its protection, which in turn is possible only in the process of rivalry of this value with other values. If the elimination of the opposite is initially accompanied by a sharp leap in the global economy, the deployment of globalization processes around one value (within 20 years after the end of the Cold War), then later, the value, deprived of its opposite and finding consolidation in law, begins to alienate, to lose its authority. The ideological vacuum poses a threat to the really ongoing processes, becomes a source of a serious and inevitable crisis (it is enough to refer to cases when political forces in a number of countries did not protect values ​​from encroachments, double standards were applied in relation to the basic principles of international law, etc.).

The priority of the current strategic economic interests of large economic structures, oligarchic groupings, to the detriment of ideological and legal principles, leads to an increase in the power of oligarchs both in the economy and in politics, which in turn contributes to the weakening and collapse, along with the norms, of the global structures themselves. The oligarchic group's monopolization of both the economy and politics (it is impossible to ensure the stability of economic power without monopolizing politics) causes apathy along with politics in the economy. Apathy in politics, law and economics leads to a loss of confidence in international organizations, dominant political, legal and economic structures. The need to ensure their interests in the face of a loss of legitimacy compels the use of force (for example, the United States in Iraq).

The global economic crisis is not just an international political and legal crisis, but acts as a continuation of the political and economic crisis within the leading states of the world themselves. And the current economic crisis is also a consequence of the monopolization of the political system by the economic oligarchs of these countries.

If in the political and legal sphere the reason for the crisis was the impossibility of universalizing democratic principles, then in the economic sphere this reason was the liberalization of the economy, which found its expression in the predominance of liberal values ​​in the economy of the last decades.

The growth of virtual finance, not supported by material resources, the decline in the authority of economic values, norms and rules for organizing business, deepening economic differences between segments of the population in the absence of reliance on cultural and intellectual potential, apathy and loss of faith in the principle of economic justice, in the effectiveness of entrepreneurship and business prospects activity, rising unemployment and declining production, the leading role of the same actors in the global economic system, etc. - all this led to a complex manifestation of the global economic crisis.

If both the political system of the state and international political relations turn into a means in the hands of the leading players, and macroeconomic and international economic processes are controlled by oligarchic groups, then this means that the crisis actually originated within the framework of the political system. The monopolistic activity of a certain oligarchic group that does not have a superstructure, and the creation of virtual finance by it, deprived of an appropriate material support, a drop in production and an increase in inflation naturally lead to a crisis.

Probability of disintegration of the global structure

The global political crisis is developing in two directions: 1) Preservation of the existing position of international organizations. Lack of reforms can subsequently lead to the loss of the organization's chances of survival, and the attempt to organize again is fraught with great difficulties. In this case, the world will plunge into chaos; 2) The growing pressure of the great powers, demanding the provision of legally formalized control over the situation in the world, pushing their supporters to the Security Council and other organizations for this purpose, which can bring the rivalry between them to a dangerous level. In light of the above, the new organization should be based on norms and principles on the basis of which it would be possible in the future to keep the processes under control and ensure proper order in the world, even though these principles and order may serve certain political goals.

Of course, one should take into account the proportion of political players involved in this process and determine the share of their participation in it. Otherwise, no rule and no standards will be legally binding. However, this participation must have regulatory support. At the same time, the norms should be selected in such a way that these subjects would undertake only good obligations, would serve peace and order.

Ways out of the global crisis

The fact that the crisis has engulfed the entire global structure, bringing to the fore the problem of norms and principles of each subsystem (political, economic, legal), makes it necessary to create a new philosophical and ideological system with appropriate organizational structures and an international legal framework or to reconstruct an existing one. We are talking about the development of a new ideological system and means of its concretization, based on the synthesis and improvement of the Christian-democratic values ​​of the European Union, Islamic and regional principles that underlie the Organization of the Islamic Conference, and Confucianism, which is the backbone of Chinese statehood. At the same time, the problem of developing a unified philosophical concept is actualized. This goal is served by the scientific research of S. Khalilov, in particular, his search for a "universal human ideal", the desire to develop a philosophical concept "East - West" (Khalilov 2004). The new philosophical system, based on the cultural and spiritual manifestations of Islam, Buddhism and Christianity and characterized by universal human content, should focus on the common values ​​of Islam, Buddhism and Christianity and acquire a spiritual and moral form, possess universal human strength. In the future, on the basis of this philosophy, political principles should be developed, a structure proposed, ways of legal support, and the transformation of values ​​into norms should be found.

The general and highest values ​​should be not democratic principles and procedures, but cultural, spiritual, intellectual criteria, such as humanism, tolerance, universal values, etc. The main criterion for subsystems - states should be civil, legitimate, social and the secular nature of power. The formation of power should be based on the criterion of its progressiveness. The revision of values ​​should not be carried out in the form of a technical procedure that allows for formalism, distortion, falsification and manipulation.

Literature

Inozemtsev, V.L. 2008. Contemporary globalization and its perception in the world. The Age of Globalization 1: 31-44. (Inozemtsev, V. L. 2008. Modern globalization and its understanding in the world. Age of Globalization 1: 31–44).

Khalilov, S. S. 2004. East and West: Towards a Common Human Ideal. Philosophical studies. Baku: Azerbaijan University. (Khalilov, S. S. 2004. East and West: On the way to the universal ideal. Philosophical Essays. Baku: Azerbaijan University).

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY ADMINISTRATION

MUNICIPAL BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

"SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL № 2 named. A.I. ISAEVA "

APPROVED

Director of MBOU "Secondary School No. 2

them. A.I. Isaeva "

Linnik I.A. _________

method council protocol No.

from "______" _________

PROGRAM

"Global Geography"

Elective course for 11th grade students, 17 hours

geography teacher

Ilyicheva G. D. _____________

«____»_________________

Global geography

(35 h)

Explanatory note

The course "Global Geography" is a relatively new and rapidly developing direction in geography; science, studying the spatial manifestation of planetary processes and phenomena. We can say that we are dealing with a special branch of global studies - the doctrine of the global problems of mankind - geographical, including environmental, energy, food, raw materials, demographic and other aspects of the development of nature and society.

Globalistics itself has a pronounced interdisciplinary character and is studied by many sciences: philosophy, sociology, economics, biology, law, etc. mastering knowledge at the border of the science of nature and society. Geography remains the only discipline that synthesizes natural and social trends in science. Global problems are different in nature, but they are all permeated with the idea of ​​the geographical unity of mankind and its survival. If in the past crisis phenomena threatened only certain cultures and territories, then the modern mega-crisis covers the whole world, all the main forms and spheres of human life.

Among the most acute are such global problems as nuclear disarmament and the maintenance of peace on Earth; ecological, associated with the increasing destruction of the natural environment; demographic, generated by the rapid population growth in developing countries, their inability to provide people with normal living conditions; energy and raw materials problems caused by the limited mineral resources of the planet; the food problem associated with chronic malnutrition of millions of people and hunger in developing countries; the appalling poverty of dozens of states, primarily in Africa; problems of the World Ocean, the causes of which are primarily explained by a decrease in biological productivity, pollution of water areas, etc.

"Global geography" is taking an increasingly stable place in the education system in various countries of the world, which is associated with the great cognitive, moral and educational value of this course.

Target: To form a worldview idea about the interconnectedness of the global problems of mankind, about the possibility of their solution only with an integrated approach in the context of international cooperation and mutual assistance.

It is designed to contribute to the solution of the following tasks:

Mastering the system of knowledge about global problems of our time, which is extremely important for a holistic understanding of the planetary community of people, the unity of nature and society.

Understanding of the place of Russia in the world, the specifics of the manifestation of global problems in each country.

The development of students' cognitive interest in problems of a social nature that are gaining more and more importance - interethnic relations, culture and morality, the lack of democracy, etc.

Arming students with special and general educational knowledge, allowing them to independently obtain information of a geographical nature for this course.

Studying the course "Global Geography" in the senior classes allows you to integrate the knowledge gained in other subjects, to make the most of the general educational and cultural potential of geography as an academic subject, to combine linear-step and concentric teaching principles.

Introduction (2 h)

Globalistics and Global Geography: Terminology and Content

Globalistics is the doctrine of the global problems of our time: natural science and social. A "package" of these problems. The interdisciplinary nature of global studies and the main directions in its study: philosophical, economic, sociological, ecological, legal, predictive, geographical, etc. The need to mobilize joint efforts of economists, sociologists, ecologists, lawyers, chemists, physicists, physicians, geographers and other specialists for research global problems.

Global problems posing an immediate threat to humanity. Unresolved problems of space exploration, studies of the internal structure of the Earth, long-term forecasting of weather and climate and their impact on the future of mankind.

The subject of the study of global geography. The initial manifestation of many processes and phenomena of a global nature at lower geographic levels - continental, regional, zonal, national, local. An example of the problem of hunger, practically unknown in Western Europe, the USA or Japan. The parallel between the origin of certain negative planetary processes and the appearance of malignant cells in the human body.

The utopian nature of ideas about a complete solution to all global problems and the relevance of the thesis about the need to mitigate their acuteness.

Systematization of global problems

The meaning of systematization, which makes it possible to form the most vivid idea of ​​the analyzed problems, to more clearly record the existing connections between their various groups. "Old" and "new" global problems, "main" and "non-main", appeared thanks to man and exist independently of him.

Problems of a political and socio-economic nature (the threat of a nuclear war and the preservation of peace on the planet; ensuring expanded reproduction; overcoming backwardness by developing countries; ensuring sustainable development; the problem of controllability by the world community, etc.).

Problems of a predominantly natural and economic nature (environmental; energy; food; raw materials; problems of the World Ocean).

Problems of a predominantly social nature (demographic; interethnic and interreligious relations; crisis of culture, morality and family; lack of democracy; urbanization; health protection, etc.).

Scientific problems (space exploration; study of the internal structure of the Earth; long-term climate forecasting, etc.).

Problems of a mixed nature, the failure of which often leads to massive loss of life (problems of regional conflicts, industrial accidents, crime, natural disasters, suicides, etc.).

Small global problems of a predominantly psychological and autoecological nature (bureaucracy, selfishness, etc.).

One-sidedness of coverage in the literature of global problems of mankind. The constant presence in field 3 of Rhenium of such problems as environmental, demographic, food, energy, raw materials, since it is with them that the Processes are primarily associated with the most powerful impact of the foundations of human existence.

Research methods of global problems.

Demographic problem

Uncontrolled population growth in developing countries and the inability of modern civilization to provide the current and especially the future population with normal living conditions. The theory of Malthus, its supporters and opponents in the past and now.

The ability of the Earth to theoretically feed more than a dozen billion people. Opportunities exist to increase the area of ​​cultivated land and increase the average yield thanks to the Green Revolution. A simultaneous increase in the threat of irreversible environmental pollution, the accumulation of a huge number of people in big cities, an increase in the danger of mass death from hunger and disease in the event of a number of lean years, etc.

The relationship of the demographic problem with the persisting socio-economic conditions in the countries of the "third world". The concept of the theory of "demographic transition" and its applicability to the conditions of underdeveloped countries. Preference for a large family by an agrarian society. (Clarification of this phenomenon requires consideration of the following concepts: 1) children: economic support or burden; 2) guarantees in old age (the absence of social pension systems in developing countries); 3) the position of women in society; 4) religious beliefs, 5) availability of contraception.)

Demographic policy, its direction and ways of activation. Demographic policy of the PRC, India, African and Latin American countries: successes and disappointments. Demographic policy in the former USSR and modern Russia.

The global demographic situation and the complex of socio-economic problems of our time.

The problem of backwardness

The roots of the backwardness of some countries of the modern world. Primitivism of the Marxist point of view, according to which the blame for the backwardness of the underdeveloped countries was entirely placed on colonialism. Historical lag (staged) in the development of socio-economic structures as the main reason for backwardness. The role of colonialism and so-called neo-colonialism in the conservation and overcoming of underdevelopment.

The scale and criteria of backwardness. Poverty, illiteracy of the population, chronic malnutrition and hunger, high mortality, epidemics, etc. as attributes of the underdevelopment of society. UN backwardness criteria. Least developed countries of the world (according to the UN classification), their typical features. Underdeveloped states of Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Growth in the cost of finished industrial products and stagnation in the cost of raw materials and fuel (or a mismatch in the growth rate of cost).

The problem of external debt of developing countries. The concept of the "new international economic order", the prospects for its establishment. The connection between backwardness and other global problems.

Food problem

Food as the most important fund for the livelihood of mankind. Power sources in the past and now. The structure of food rations. Major plant food sources. Meat and fish are the most important sources of protein. Milk and animal fats.

The essence of the food problem in the modern world and its main parameters: production, demand, distribution and consumption. Causes and forms of manifestation of the food crisis in developing countries. Impact of hunger and malnutrition on the reproduction of the labor force. The concept of "hidden hunger".

Differentiation of countries and regions by the severity of the manifestation of the food crisis. Protracted, chronic nature of the food crisis in arid and semi-arid regions of Africa. Modest agro-natural potential, increased fragility and reduced “elasticity” of local ecosystems. Increased natural population growth, significantly outstripping food production. Countries of the Sahel as a "pole" of world hunger.

Poor quality, malnutrition as the most typical form of manifestation of the food problem in certain countries of monsoon Asia. Advances in the Green Revolution and Improvement in the Food Situation in Asia. Food problem in Latin America.

Aggravation of the food situation in the countries - Successors of the former USSR.

Ways to get out of the food impasse. The relationship of the food problem with other global problems of our time. The role of hunger elimination in solving the problem of backwardness.

Providing food for the growing population of the Earth. The role of croplands, meadows, the oceans and artificial products in solving the food problem.

Energy problem

Essence and scale of the energy problem. Growth in the energy intensity of the modern economy. The growing gap between the high rates of development of energy-intensive industries and the reserves of non-renewable energy resources (oil, gas, coal). Negative environmental consequences of energy development while maintaining the traditional structure of the fuel and energy balance.

Energy crisis of the 70s. XX century: its preconditions and consequences. Economic, political and social aspects of the energy crisis. End of the era of cheap energy sources. OPEC countries and their role in shaping energy prices.

Traditional and alternative energy. Provision of hydrocarbon raw materials to countries and regions of the world and the transition to an energy-saving type of economy. Nuclear energy, modern scale of its development, advantages and disadvantages. The problem of NPP technical reliability and radioactive waste disposal. Use of solar energy (solar energy), wind (wind energy), internal heat, waves, currents, etc.

Energy and ecology.

The contours of the energy economy of the future, forecasts and scenarios for the development of energy in the XXI century. Energy production growth limits.

The global energy situation and other global problems.

Raw material problem

The essence of the global commodity problem. Raw material concept. The modern scale of the use of mineral raw materials. Types of raw materials that are more or less close to depletion. Optimistic and pessimistic forecasts of the use of raw materials in the future.

The relative scarcity and irreplaceability of mineral resources as the main component of the global raw material problem. Other components: lagging technology for the development and processing of raw materials, low provision of certain countries with mineral raw materials. Transition to the exploitation of less productive deposits of mineral resources in hard-to-reach areas with difficult or extreme natural conditions. Increase in the cost of production of almost all types of mineral resources.

Waste production - low-waste - non-waste. The purpose and task of low-waste technology is the creation of a production with a minimum amount of waste, harmful effects, which do not exceed the permissible sanitary and hygienic level. The cycle "raw materials - production - consumption - secondary raw materials".

Circulating use of non-renewable resources is one of the ways to save resources. Disposal of household waste (garbage).

Regional aspects of the raw material problem in the modern world. Attempts at a radical solution to the problem of waste in Japan and Western Europe.

Russia and the global commodity crisis. Mineral and raw material nature of Russian exports and the problem of depletion of hydrocarbon deposits. Insufficient use of secondary resources. Low efficiency of resource conservation policy.

The global raw materials situation and its relationship with other global problems.

World Ocean Problems

The apparent artificiality of the formulation of these problems arising from the undesirable opposition of the land area to the ocean area. The specifics of the development and ecology of the ocean, allowing us to speak about the well-known independence of these problems.

The oceans are the cradle of all life on the planet. Oceanic protection of nascent life from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation. The role of the oceans in ensuring life on Earth.

The World Ocean as a resource base. The structure of marine resources. Marine economy. Biological resources. World fishery, its current scale and possible limits. Mariculture. Marine mining industry. "Lean Ore". Resources and production of oil and gas. Solid minerals with the bottom of the ocean. The ocean as a source of fresh water.

Problems of using the energy of the ocean. The problem of the development of sea transport. World shipping. Marine fleet. Ports, channels. Non-traditional types of sea transport.

The problem of sea transport.

Ecology of the World Ocean.

The ocean is the common heritage of mankind. |

Problems of the World Ocean and their relationship with other global problems.

Global ethnic crisis

The growing economic and technical interdependence of states and the acceleration of the processes of internationalization of social life. In parallel, the striving of individual countries and ethnic groups towards self-identification is manifested. The manifestation of uncontrollable national emotions in various regions of the world, taking the form of justified national self-assertion or aggressive nationalism.

Conflicting factors and their geographical interpretation: 1) upholding the principle of identity of state and ethnic boundaries; 2) the movement of nations towards self-determination; 3) the desire of nations to form supernations; 4) the economic struggle for land, housing, jointly acquired fixed assets, etc .; 5) uncontrolled demographic development in underdeveloped countries; 6) assimilation processes and depopulation of ethnic minorities; 7) "aging" of nations in advanced economies; 8) environmental factor; 9) psychological attitudes towards the protection of the cultural and moral traditions of the ethnos, belief in its special relationship with the supreme deity, etc.

Pronounced geographic specificity of such factors as uncontrolled demographic development, “aging” of nations, assimilation processes, ecological factor.

Geography of interethnic conflicts in the modern world. Tribal strife (tribalism) is an old disease in Africa, where archaic institutions and organizations associated with the tribal system are still preserved. Interethnic and Interreligious Tensions in South Asia and Latin America.

Russia and the global ethnic crisis. Interethnic conflicts in the countries of the former USSR. The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, conflicts on the territory of Georgia, the Transnistrian crisis, etc.

The global ethnic crisis and its relationship with other global problems.

Human health and longevity problems

Human health as a synthetic category, which includes, in addition to physiological, moral, intellectual and mental components. One of the oldest global problems of humanity. Life expectancy of the population as one of the most important criteria for the civilization of any country (along with the development of the latest sectors of the economy, the level of national income per capita, etc.).

The concept of medical geography, which studies the spread of diseases and pathological conditions of a person; the reasons for this spread and the impact of the geographic environment on human health.

Geography of infectious diseases (epidemiological geography). E. N. Pavlovsky's doctrine of the natural focus of the so-called vector-borne diseases. Predicting the likelihood of a particular disease, depending on the confinement of its natural foci to a specific geographical landscape (plague, tick-borne encephalitis, etc.). Malaria, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis (or "sleeping sickness") are typical infectious diseases of the African tropics. Other epidemiological diseases: influenza, tuberculosis, cholera, etc.

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is a deadly new global disease. The rapid spread of the AIDS epidemic affecting

countries of the world, primarily African, Asian, American. Immorality (sexual promiscuity and drug addiction) and lack of spirituality as primary factors \ the spread of the disease. The role of medicine in expanding the geography of AIDS. AIDS in Russia.

The spread of malignant neoplasms and their relationship with geographic factors. The dependence of human health on the regime and quality of food (kwashiorkor, beriberi, diabetes, etc.).

"Internationality" of cardiovascular, mental and some other diseases.

The global significance of the question of increasing the average life expectancy of a person. Gerontological science.

The relationship of the problem of human health and longevity with other global problems.

The problem of natural phenomena

The role of tragedies caused by the forces of nature in the history of mankind. Systematization of natural phenomena (PCP) according to the conditions of occurrence (space, meteorological-climatic, hydrological and geological, geological-tectonic, glacial-hydrological, etc.). Types of natural and destructive phenomena (falling of meteorites and asteroids, flooding, tsunami, volcanic eruption, earthquake, mudflow, landslide, tornado, heat, drought, dry wind, dust storm, blizzard, blizzard, lightning, tornado, frost, downpour, hail, fog and etc.).

The evolution of human behavior in relation to PCOS: 1) "escape" from PCOS; 2) search for ways of protection from natural disasters, allowing to deal with at least some of them; 3) development of a mechanism to prevent some of the PCOS based on scientific discoveries.

The increase in the number of human victims and material damage from PCOS due to the intensive growth of the population, its concentration in the areas affected by the most destructive PCOS. The greatest vulnerability to natural disasters in developing countries (Bangladesh, monsoon Asia, Andean countries, Sahel states, etc.).

The geographic nature of the PCOS problem. The role of geographers in the development of PCOS prevention measures.

The problem of technological accidents

The "chain reaction" of industrial disasters in recent decades as a confirmation of the global nature of the problem (an explosion at a chemical plant in Bhopal in India, the sinking of the American Challenger spacecraft, the tragic sinking of the Soviet submarine "Komsomolets", the sinking of the "Estonia" ferry, the most severe disaster of the latter time - Chernobyl and many others).

Systematization of technological accidents depending on the nature of the branches of material production. The role of road, sea and air transport in the statistics of fatalities. The role of the world's coal mining industry in the death of workers. Geography of coal mines (basins) with increased methane abundance.

The mathematical theory of catastrophes, which helps to calculate the parameters at which an unstable state of the system occurs. "Protection from fools", that is, control of the technological process by the automation system, which itself protects production from failures, erroneous decisions, turns off the process in case of possible danger.

Geographic aspects of the problem of technological accidents.

The problem of the lack of democracy and freedom

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the most important international document is a concentrated expression of the democratic experience of mankind. Human rights are our natural, inalienable heritage, not a gift of the state, for which we should thank its leaders.

Analysis of the ranking of states by groups - "free", "partially free", "not free", "reactionary" - regimes that refuse to provide their citizens with basic political and social rights. The difference between the concepts of "authoritarianism" and "totalitarianism".

Situation with human rights in the USSR, Russia and countries that emerged after the collapse of the USSR.

Other global problems of our time (4 hours)

Register of global problems of mankind. The problem of crime is inherent in all states without exception. Classification of violations of law and order: crimes against the person (murder, bodily harm, rape, etc.); crimes against personal property of citizens (robbery, robbery, theft, fraud, extortion, etc.); state crimes (treason, espionage, political terror, sabotage, etc.); air terrorism, or "hijacking", etc. Variations in forms of crime from country to country, from region to region. The concept of "geocriminogenic environment" and the role of geography in the study of crime.

The crisis of culture, morality, family (the problem of the “ecology of the soul”) is a specific global problem. Any people as a living organism of a special, higher order. The fruits of centuries of spiritual selection and great social upheavals, wars, etc.

Global scientific problems associated with space exploration, the internal structure of the Earth, long-term weather forecasting, etc.

The problem of urbanization of the world, creating a very complex Knot of contradictions, the totality of which serves as a weighty argument for considering it from a global perspective.

Analysis of other global problems (see the classification of global problems).

EDUCATIONAL AND THEMATIC PLAN

Number of hours

Global problems: concept and classification

Classification of global problems

Systematization of global problems

Demographic problem

Population explosion: causes and consequences. The theory of demographic transition. Developed and Developing Countries: Reasons for Demographic Differences. Demographic policy. Demographic situation in Russia.

The problem of backwardness

The roots of backwardness. Backwardness parameters. Geography of backwardness.

Practical work. Characteristics of backward countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Food problem

Power sources in the past and now. The quality of the food. The geography of hunger. Regional types of food. The causes of hunger

Energy problem

Oil security and the transition to an energy-saving economy. Natural gas. Hydropower. Alternative energy sources. Atomic Energy. Energy problems of Russia.

Practical work. Determination of the most optimal territories and water areas of the planet for the construction of power plants operating on alternative energy sources, and their designation on a contour map.

Raw material problem

Depletion of the earth's interior. Dispersion of deposits. The role of forest resources. Secondary resources. Garbage disposal. Russia and the global commodity crisis.

Practical work. Characteristics of the manifestations of the global raw material problem in different countries.

World Ocean Problems

Accumulation of knowledge about the Ocean. The problem of the development of biological resources. The problem of the development of mineral resources. The problem of using the energy of the Ocean. Other Ocean Problems.

Global ethnic crisis

Conflicting factors and their geographical interpretation. The movement of nations towards self-determination and the pursuit of the formation of supernations. "Aging" of nations and destabilization of interethnic relations. Assimilation and depopulation of ethnic minorities. Ecology and ethnic strife. Tribalism is a disease of Africa. Russia and the global ethnic crisis.

Human health problem

Nosogeography. Epidemiological geography. Spatial expansion of AIDS. The spread of malignant neoplasms. Health and longevity

The problem of terrorism and regional conflicts

The emergence of the problem of terrorism. The spread of terrorism. Geography of regional conflicts.

Urbanization problem

The essence of urbanization. Urbanization. Agglomerations and megacities. Environmental, economic and social problems of cities. "Slum" urbanization.

The problem of natural phenomena

Classification of natural phenomena. Geography of natural phenomena.

The problem of technological accidents

Dangerous professions. Catastrophe theory.

The problem of space and the study of the internal structure of the Earth

The urgency of the problem of space exploration. Clogging of the near-earth space. The problem of studying the internal structure of the Earth.

Discussion

Generalization of students' knowledge

Generalizing lesson

Generalization and control of students' knowledge, protection of projects, presentations.

Literature:

Alekseev N.A. Natural phenomena in nature. M., 2004.

Internationalization of economic life and global problems of mankind. M, 2001.

Gladkiy Yu.N., Lavrov S.B. Global geography. M., Education, 2010.

Kondratyev K.Ya. Key problems of global ecology. M., 2000.

Developing countries in the struggle to overcome backwardness. M, 2007.

Reimers N.F. Nature management: Dictionary-reference. M., 2001.

Skinner B. Will Earth's Resources Enough? M., 2003.

Slevich S.B. Ocean: resources and economy. L., 2001.

Gladkiy Yu.A., Lavrov S.B. Economic and social geography of the world. 10 cl. M., Education, 2010.

Historical and geographical encyclopedias

Countries of the World: Statistical Handbook. The whole world, 2011.

ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Conflicts associated with the aggravation of interethnic relations have become an indispensable attribute of the modern world. They break out on all continents of our planet: in both developed and developing countries, in the areas of spreading any religious teachings, in areas with different levels of wealth and education.

Numerous hotbeds of ethnic conflicts - from global (Kurdish, Palestinian, Kosovo, Chechen) to local and pinpoint (everyday contradictions between people of different nationalities within a city, town, village) - give rise to instability, which is increasingly difficult to contain within state borders. In the confrontation between ethnic groups, neighboring ethnic groups are almost always involved to one degree or another, and often also distant centers of power, including such large-scale geopolitical players as the United States, Russia, Great Britain, India, and China.

Concept conflict translated from Latin means "collision". Signs of a conflict are manifested in a clash of forces, parties, interests. The object of the conflict can be both a fragment of material, socio-political or spiritual reality, and the territory, its bowels, social status, distribution of power, language and cultural values. In the first case, social conflict, in the second - territorial. An ethnic conflict between ethnic groups - groups of people who have a common historical and cultural foundation and occupy a certain spatial area - is a territorial conflict.

The whole complex of related problems studies geographic conflictology - a scientific direction that investigates the nature, essence, causes of conflicts, the patterns of their course and development based on interaction with spatial (geographical) factors. Geographic conflictology uses knowledge of philosophy, history, sociology, jurisprudence, political science, psychology, ethnology, biology, economics, political geography and geopolitics, physical and social geography.

Any conflict is characterized by uneven development over time. Periods latent(hidden) its development is replaced by segments of open confrontation between the parties to the conflict; at this time it happens actualization, when the activity of the opposing sides sharply increases, the number of political actions increases many times over, and there is a transition to hostilities.

According to a Russian conflict researcher V. Avksentieva, the transition of the latent period to the actualized one usually begins with the statements of one of the parties about dissatisfaction with their position and the intention to change it. The announcement of dissatisfaction is the first phase of the actualized conflict. It is followed by the phase of refusal, that is, denial by at least one of the parties to the conflict of the very existence of the problem, the phase of escalating the conflict, the phase of the meeting (recognition of its existence by both parties, the beginning of consultations and negotiations) and the phase of conflict resolution. The last phases can be recorded only in fading conflicts that have reduced their destructive potential.

Like any other socio-political phenomenon, ethnic conflict develops according to certain laws and is initiated by specific factors among which can be distinguished objective and subjective. The group of objective factors includes those factors that exist relatively independently of public consciousness. The most striking example of this kind is natural factor.

Everything that contributes to the development of the conflict is linked into a single complex. The active manifestation of one or two factors without the support of the rest is not capable of forming any serious ethnic conflict.

An important and often decisive role in the processes of the emergence of conflicts is played by ethno-confessional factor... The main component of any ethnic conflict is the crisis of ethnic identity (political scientists and conflictologists call it an identity crisis). It manifests itself in a change in the ethnic, confessional (religious) and political self-identification of people, in the strengthening of the influence of nationalist groups and associations, in the growth of their political activity.

Many states of the world are interested in creating a single supranational nationwide identity, which, on the basis of a single language, common symbols and traditions, could consolidate all ethnic, confessional and social groups of the country. In mono-ethnic (mono-ethnic) states, such as Japan, Norway or Portugal, this problem has already been practically resolved. The named countries have been around since the end of the 19th century. are at such a level of ethnic consolidation, which in the West has received the name "nation-state", that is, they have an almost complete coincidence of ethnic and state (civil) self-identification.

The term "nation state" was first used at the end of the 18th century. applied to France. The essence of this concept is that the entire population of a country is defined as a single nation that does not have ethnic differences within a single state. The slogan under which this process is taking place reads: “Every nation has a state. Each state has a national essence ”. It should be noted, however, that this idea is far from widespread implementation. As many researchers rightly point out, an ethnically homogeneous nation state is an ideal idea, since in reality almost every state has more or less pronounced minorities and in the modern ethnically mixed world the task of building a textbook model of a nation state can be called utopian.

The life situation shows that today ethnic groups are artificially divided into two groups. The smallest part of them is an elite club identified with the international community and all its institutions. Representatives of another, larger group of ethnic groups exist as ethnic minorities in multinational states and are limited in their ability to directly participate in the activities of the international community. The existence of several international organizations of ethnic minorities, like the Association of the Peoples of the North or the Organization of Unrepresented Nations and Peoples (it includes 52 members, including Abkhazia, Bashkortostan, Buryatia, Gagauzia, Kosovo, Iraqi Kurdistan, Taiwan), is perceived as a weak consolation for the peoples unrepresented in the foreign policy arena.

The greatest complexity of interethnic relations is in multinational (polyethnic) states. In some - centralized some ethnic groups are so large that they constantly stay at the center of social and political life, dictate their interests, put forward a standardized culture built on their national and cultural foundation, and try to assimilate minorities. It is in such states that the greatest potential for conflicts develops, since the dominant group makes claims to exclusive control of state institutions, which provokes a response from national minorities.

This model of interethnic relations dominates in Iran, Indonesia, Myanmar and a number of other countries. In some of them, the desire to consolidate the entire population of the country into a single nation on the basis of a dominant ethnic group casts doubt on the very existence of other ethnic groups (For example, in Turkey, the Kurds are officially called "mountain Turks").

At dispersed a type of multiethnic state, the population consists of a small number of ethnic groups, each of which is too weak or small in number to dominate. As a result, the only option acceptable to all is the achievement of interethnic accord (albeit sometimes rather fragile and often violated). Such a system has formed, for example, in many African countries, where an extremely heterogeneous ethnic composition is the legacy of colonial borders (Nigeria, Tanzania, Guinea, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, etc.).

Discrimination against national minorities can take various forms: restriction or even prohibition of the national language and culture, economic pressure, resettlement from an ethnic territory, reduction of quotas of representation in the administrative structures of the state, etc. In almost all countries of the East, the share of representatives of different ethnic groups in the power system is far from corresponds to the specific weight of this ethnic group among the entire population. As a rule, numerically dominant ethnic groups (Persians in Iran, Punjabis in Pakistan, Sinhalese in Sri Lanka, Malays in Malaysia, Burmese in Myanmar, etc.) at all levels of government have a disproportionately high representation, and most other ethnic groups are disproportionately low. ...

The main requirements of most of the national movements involved in ethnic conflicts are reduced to three areas:

1) cultural revival (creation of broad cultural autonomy with the use of the native language in local government and education);

2) economic independence (the right to dispose of natural resources and economic potential localized within an ethnic territory);

3) political self-government (institution of national self-government within the boundaries of an ethnic territory or part of it).

The range of demands of these movements is determined by the degree of development and complexity of the structure of the ethnos, its internal social differentiation. Leaders of "simpler" ethnic communities that preserve remnants of tribal relations usually come out with unequivocal demands for independence and / or the expulsion of all "outsiders" (for example, the leaders of the national movement in Assam). For larger and more developed ethnic groups, the range of demands put forward is much wider: they are dominated by the requirements of cultural and national-territorial autonomy, the provision of economic independence and political self-government, which is confirmed, for example, by the situation in Catalonia.

A number of ethnic groups demand the expansion of rights up to the formation of their own statehood. However, if in practice we are guided by the principle of complete self-determination (up to secession) for each ethnic group, then this implies a low-optimistic prospect of the gradual disintegration of all the multinational states of the world until every ethnic group on the planet (and there are 3-4 thousand of them) has their state. According to an American scientist S. Cohen, in 25 - 30 years the number of states may increase by one and a half times. As a result, there will be more than 300 sovereign states on the world map.

The difference between the confessional form of conflict formation from the ethnic one lies in the fact that it is not ethnic self-consciousness that comes to the fore, but religious one. Often, opponents in a conflict even belong to the same ethnic group. For example, adherents of Sikhism ethnically are Punjabis. They clash with Hindu Punjabis (in India) and Muslim Punjabis (in Pakistan).

Religion has a significant impact on the entire culture of an ethnic group. Sometimes confessional differences play a decisive role in ethnogenesis. For example, the Bosnians, Serbs and Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the same language even before the ethnic cleansing of the first half of the 1990s. they lived in stripes within a single area. It is not excluded that the Punjabi ethnos, which still maintains unity, will split in a short time on religious grounds. At least now, Punjabis practicing Sikhism speak Punjabi, Punjabis Hindus speak Hindi, and Muslim Punjabis speak Urdu.

The classic hotbeds of ethnic conflicts with a pronounced dominant role of the religious factor are Palestine, Punjab, Kashmir, and the Southern Philippines (areas where Moro Muslims live). The religious component of the conflict is mixed with the ethnic one in Cyprus (Muslim Turkish Cypriots versus Christian Greek Cypriots), Sri Lanka (Tamil Hindus versus Sinhalese Buddhists), Northern Ireland (Irish Catholics versus Protestants from England and Scotland) , in the Indian state of Nagaland (Naga Christians against the main population of India - Hindus), etc. There are, however, many hotbeds of conflict where the opposing sides are co-religionists: Catalonia, Transnistria, Baluchistan, etc.

Cooperates closely with ethno-confessional socio-economic factor. In its pure form, it is not capable of leading to the emergence of a serious ethnic conflict, otherwise any area that is economically different would be a hotbed of interethnic confrontation.

The dependence of the intensity of the conflict on the level of economic development cannot be determined unambiguously. There are centers of ethnic conflicts in the world, both relatively economically developed (Catalonia, Quebec, Transnistria) and economically depressive (Chechnya, Kosovo, Kurdistan, Chiapas, Corsica).

The motivation for dissatisfaction with its economic situation expressed by an ethnic group can be different. Ethnic groups living in relative prosperity and well-being often show dissatisfaction with the established practice of unjustifiably high deductions from their region to the national budget. According to the leaders of these national movements, under the guise of declarations on the harmonious and balanced economic development of the country, the region is being robbed. At the same time, the more noticeable the economic disproportions between the most and the least developed regions of the country, the larger amounts are withdrawn from economically prosperous regions, which causes a sharp rejection by them of "freeloader regions".

Ethnic groups inhabiting economically lagging areas complain that governing structures or international organizations do not take into account the deplorable situation in their economy, do not give loans for its development, do not see the needs of the common population. Raising the bar for economic demands, which at times turns into direct economic blackmail, according to the calculations of the leaders of the conflicting ethnic group, can lead to a more profitable redistribution of budgetary funds, international aid, and a more equitable tax policy. Sometimes the parties to the conflict rely on non-traditional economic sources, such as income from the smuggling of various types of goods, including weapons and drugs, hostage-taking for the purpose of ransom, extortion from fellow tribesmen who have achieved success in business.

The socio-economic factor plays an important role in the formation and development of the Basque conflict knot, it is clearly expressed in the Indian Assam and Indonesian Irian Jai.

In the processes of the origin and evolution of ethnic conflicts, it is of no small importance natural factor. Basically, its action is manifested in the form of natural boundaries, which often serve as barriers between neighboring ethnic groups, the boundaries of interethnic clashes and wars. Mountain ranges, large rivers, sea straits, and rugged land areas (deserts, swamps, forests) can act as such natural boundaries.

On the one hand, natural boundaries minimize contacts between warring ethnic groups, which reduces the conflict of relations, on the other hand, they contribute to the psychological alienation of ethnic groups living on opposite sides of the barrier. Natural boundaries were previously one of the main factors that laid the direction of ethnic boundaries, thereby determining the ethnic map of the region. The natural accessibility of the territory determines the level of economic development. If the state does not have the level of welfare of Switzerland, within which, by the way, there are a lot of various natural boundaries, then natural boundaries will lead to certain difficulties in contacts with some territories, which will negatively affect their economic development.

Compared to other conflict-generating factors, natural boundaries are the least plastic and practically unchanged. ”In reality, it is only possible to slightly improve connections between opposite sides of the natural boundary (construction of mountain and sea tunnels, construction of bridges, creation of sea and air routes, transformation of deserts and tropical jungles, etc. ), however, it is hardly possible to completely eliminate the differences in economic and geopolitical positions.

In the formation of large hotbeds of ethnic conflicts, the role of geopolitical factor. The main form of its manifestation is geopolitical faults between extended civilizational-historical and military-political massifs. The concepts of geopolitical faults of various directions and configurations have recently become popular in the scientific community. The most famous is the American model S. Huntington. Fault zones are characterized by political instability, opposition to the strategic interests of the largest geopolitical forces, and conflicts often arise here.

A vivid example of this factor is the Balkan mega-conflict and its components - ethnic conflicts in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Western Macedonia, Montenegro. The uniqueness of the Balkan knot lies in the fact that three geopolitical faults pass through it at once: between the Orthodox-Slavic and Islamic civilizations (currently the most conflict-prone), between the Orthodox-Slavic and European-Catholic civilizations and between the European-Catholic and Islamic civilizations. Each of the three sides of the conflict node is experiencing strong interference from external forces. The United States, Great Britain, Germany and other NATO countries support the Croats and Muslim peoples (Kosovar Albanians and Bosnians). The Orthodox Serbs actually found themselves in isolation, since their traditional foreign policy patrons (including Russia) less persistently and consistently defend their interests in the international arena.

In every major ethnic conflict, the opposing sides observe collective interests, the development of which is possible only if there is organizing and managing entity. Such a subject can be the national elite, a more or less large public organization, armed formations, a political party, etc.

Such closely involved political organizations exist in many countries of the world. This, for example. The Kurdish Workers' Party in Turkish Kurdistan, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in the Tamil north of Sri Lanka, the Kosovo Liberation Army, the Palestine Liberation Organization, etc.

In countries with developed parliamentary democracies, national movements operate openly, freely participating in elections at various levels. However, some of the most odious and extremist organizations in respect of which their involvement in bloody crimes has been proven are prohibited. Nevertheless, even in these cases, national groups have the opportunity to openly express their interests.

Nationalist public organizations reflect the interests and sentiments of the peripheral elites seeking to expand their influence. Such ethnocratic elites are formed mainly in three ways. First, the state and administrative nomenclature that existed under the previous regime can transform into a new national elite (examples:

most of the CIS countries, the countries of the former Yugoslavia). Secondly, such an elite can be represented by a new nationalist intelligentsia (teachers, writers, journalists, etc.), which did not previously possess power, but at a certain moment felt the possibility of acquiring it (the Baltic countries, Georgia). Third, the ethnocratic elite can be formed from a conglomerate of warlords and mafia leaders fighting for national independence, as happened in Chechnya, Somalia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Myanmar.

Sooner or later, a charismatic leader of the national movement appears among the ethnocratic elite, such as, for example, Ya. Arafat for Palestine or A. Ocalan for Kurdistan, concentrating in his hands all the forces involved in fulfilling the intended goals. The leader represents the interests of his movement at various levels, leads negotiations with the opposing side, and achieves international recognition.

The leader of the national movement is the potential head of the newly formed state. The role of such a person in the conflict is sometimes very great. In some countries, separatist movements are held rather not under the flags of certain ethnic or confessional groups, but under the military standards of one or another famous name.

It is wrong, however, to absolutize the role of the leader in the process of the territory's struggle for sovereignty. Without a wide circle of like-minded people, a clear hierarchical party structure, and the support of the national elite, the leader remains a lone rebel.

Among the factors contributing to the development of separatism, one cannot fail to mention historical factor. If an ethnic group that puts forward demands for self-determination or autonomy previously had its own statehood or self-governing institutions, then it has much more moral reason to revive them. In many respects, it is for this reason that the Baltic republics of the former USSR have been the region of the most clearly defined nationalist processes throughout their existence. Similar problems can now face the Russian Federation, a number of subjects of which, for example, Tatarstan, Tyva, Dagestan (the latter in the form of fragmented feudal possessions), previously had their own statehood.

None of the factors of separatism is of such decisive importance for the transition of a conflict from a latent to an actualized form, as factor of public mobilization. Without active participation of the population, any area of ​​manifestation of disintegration tendencies is unlikely to have grounds to become a hotbed of separatism. Mobilization of the population is understood as the ability of certain political groups to take active steps to achieve their economic, political and national interests. The higher the political consciousness in a society, the higher its mobilization. The growth of mobilization also entails an increase in the political activity of the population, the indicators of which are an increase in the number of demonstrations, rallies, strikes, picketing and other political actions. As a result, high mobilization of the population can lead to destabilization of political life and even to outbreaks of violence.

The level of mobilization in different social groups usually differs. Particularly irreconcilable positions on ways to resolve the conflict - extremism - dominate the marginalized strata of the population. It is in them that the lack of culture and education is felt; first of all, these social groups are most susceptible to partial or complete unemployment.

As the conflict develops, the field of action for social mobilization expands. At the moment of its emergence, the most mobilized group is the national intelligentsia, which by influencing broad layers of the population through the media increases the mobilization of the entire ethnocultural community. Interestingly, in such situations, a particularly strong destabilizing role is played by the ethnic revival-oriented humanitarian intelligentsia, while the technical one most often acts as a stabilizing factor.

Of great importance in the study of the centers of instability is the concept of "threshold critical level of mobilization", exceeding which is followed by the open phase of the conflict. In general, this threshold is higher in more developed regions of the planet (Europe, America) and decreases in less developed regions (Africa, Asia). Thus, ethnic and cultural discrimination against Tamils ​​in Sri Lanka led to a major armed conflict, and such actions carried out by the Estonian government against the Russian-speaking population did not generate even a reaction that was close in intensity.

The mobilization of a certain group of the population usually depends on the amount of resources under public control (mainly labor) and on the political organization. The forms of organization of groups are diverse and include both political parties and other social structures: national-cultural movements, liberation fronts, etc. In any case, for each social group capable of increasing its mobilization, the following conditions must be met:

1) general identification of the group;

2) a common self-name, well known to both members and non-members of the group;

3) certain symbols of the group: emblems, slogans, songs, uniforms, national clothes, etc.;

4) the presence in the group of a certain circle of persons whose authority is recognized by all members of the group;

5) the group's own controlled space;

6) the presence of common property (money, weapons and other means of struggle);

7) exercise by the top of the group of control over the activities of all members of the group.

All hotbeds of ethnic conflicts in the world were formed as a result of the combination of the above factors.