What states were formed on the site of the Golden Horde. Golden Horde

History of the Golden Horde.

Education of the Golden Horde.

Golden Horde It began as a separate state in 1224, when Batu Khan came to power, and in 1266 it finally left the Mongol Empire.

It is worth noting that the term “Golden Horde” was coined by the Russians, many years after the Khanate collapsed - in the middle of the 16th century. Three centuries earlier, these territories were called differently, and there was no single name for them.

Lands of the Golden Horde.

Genghis Khan, Batu’s grandfather, divided his empire equally between his sons - and in general its lands occupied almost the entire continent. Suffice it to say that in 1279 the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, from the Baltic to the borders of present-day India. And these conquests took only about 50 years - and a considerable part of them belonged to Batu.

Dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde.

In the 13th century, Rus' surrendered under the pressure of the Golden Horde.. True, it was not easy to cope with the conquered country; the princes sought independence, so from time to time the khans made new campaigns, ravaging cities and punishing the disobedient. This went on for almost 300 years - until 1480 Tatar-Mongol yoke was not completely reset.

Capital of the Golden Horde.

The internal structure of the Horde was not very different from the feudal system of other countries. The empire was divided into many principalities, or uluses, ruled by minor khans, who were subordinate to one great khan.

Capital of the Golden Horde during the time of Batu it was in the city Saray-Batu, and in the 14th century it was moved to Saray-Berke.

Khans of the Golden Horde.

The most famous Khans of the Golden Horde- these are those from whom Rus' suffered the most damage and ruin, among them:

• Batu, from which the Tatar-Mongol name began
• Mamai, defeated on the Kulikovo field
• Tokhtamysh, who went on a campaign to Rus' after Mamai to punish the rebels.
• Edigei, who made a devastating raid in 1408, shortly before the yoke was finally thrown off.

Golden Horde and Rus': the fall of the Golden Horde.

Like many feudal states, the Golden Horde eventually collapsed and ceased to exist due to internal turmoil.

The process began in the middle of the 14th century, when Astrakhan and Khorezm separated from the Horde. In 1380, Rus' began to rise, having defeated Mamai on the Kulikovo Field. But the biggest mistake of the Horde was the campaign against the empire of Tamerlane, who dealt a mortal blow to the Mongols.

In the 15th century, the Golden Horde, once strong, split into the Siberian, Crimean and Kazan khanates. Over time, these territories were subject to the Horde less and less, in 1480 Rus' finally emerged from under oppression.

Thus, years of existence of the Golden Horde: 1224-1481. In 1481, Khan Akhmat was killed. This year is considered to be the end of the existence of the Golden Horde. However, it completely collapsed during the reign of his children, at the beginning of the 16th century.

The Golden Horde was one of the most powerful states, under whose control were vast territories. And yet, by the beginning of the 15th century, the country began to lose its power, and sooner or later, all crises of power had to end with the collapse of the state.

Scientists are still carefully studying the reasons for such a rapid disintegration of the state system of the Golden Horde and the consequences of this event for Ancient Rus'. Before compiling a historical essay about the process of decomposition of the Mongol state, it is necessary to talk about the reasons for the future collapse of the Golden Horde.

In fact, the crisis in the country has been observed since the middle of the 14th century. It was then that regular wars for the throne began, and numerous heirs of Khan Janibek argued over power. What reasons influenced the future destruction of the state system?

• The absence of a strong ruler (with the exception of Tokhtamysh) capable of keeping the country from internal crises.
• From the endXIV century, the state was decomposing, and many khans hastened to form their own independent uluses.
• The territories subject to the Mongols also began to rebel, sensing the weakening of the Golden Horde.
• Regular internecine wars led to the country experiencing a very serious economic crisis.

After Tokhtamysh handed over the throne to his heirs, the dynastic crisis resumed in the country. The contenders for the throne could not decide which of them was obliged to lead the state. If, however, the throne was still occupied by one of the heirs, he could not guarantee the literacy of the political and economic reforms being carried out. All this influenced the state of the state.

The process of destruction of the Golden Horde

Historians are confident that for early feudalism, the process of collapse is an inevitable reality. Such a collapse also occurred with Ancient Russia, and in the 15th century it began to clearly manifest itself in the example of the Golden Horde. The khans and their heirs have long been looking for ways to isolate and praise their own power. That is why, from the beginning of the 1400s, many territories that belonged to the Golden Horde achieved independence. What khanates appeared during this period?

• Siberian and Uzbek Khanate (1420s).
• Nogai Horde (1440s)
• Kazan and Crimean Khanates (1438 and 1441, respectively).
• Kazakh Khanate (1465).

Of course, each khanate strove for complete independence, wanting to achieve its rights and freedoms. In addition, the economic issue of dividing the tribute coming from Ancient Rus' became important.

The last full-fledged ruler of the Golden Horde is considered to be Kichi-Muhammad. After his death, the state virtually ceased to exist. For a long time The Great Horde was considered the dominant state, but it also ceased to exist in the 16th century.

Consequences of the collapse of the Golden Horde for Ancient Rus'

Of course, the princes of Ancient Rus' had long dreamed of becoming independent from the Golden Horde. When the country was going through a period of great turmoil, the Russian princes had an excellent chance to achieve independence.

During that period, Dmitry Donskoy was able to defend the rights of Russian princes on the Kulikovo field and achieve independence. In the period from 1380 to 1382, the Russian princes did not pay tribute, but with the invasion of Tokhtamysh, humiliating payments resumed.

After the death of Tokhtamysh, the Golden Horde again began to experience a crisis, and Ancient Rus' perked up. The size of the tribute began to decrease slightly, and the princes themselves did not strive to pay it as diligently as before.

The final blow for the Horde was that a prince appeared in the Russian lands, capable of uniting all the troops under his banner. Ivan III became such a prince. Immediately after gaining power, Ivan III refused to pay tribute.

And if the Golden Horde was just experiencing the crisis of early feudalism, then Ancient Rus' was already emerging from this stage of development. Gradually separate territories united under common banners, realizing the power of their strength together, and not apart. In fact, it took Ancient Rus' exactly 100 years (1380-1480) to gain final independence. All this time, the Golden Horde was in a great fever, which led to its final weakening

Of course, Khan Akhmat tried to return the territories under his control, but in 1480 Ancient Rus' gained its long-awaited independence, which was the final blow for the once powerful state.

Of course, not every country is able to withstand an economic and internal political crisis. Golden Horde due to internal conflicts lost its former power, and soon ceased to exist altogether. However, this state had a huge influence on the course international history, and on the course of the history of Ancient Rus' in particular.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a medieval state in Eurasia.

The beginning of the Golden Horde era

The formation and formation of the Golden Horde begins in 1224. The state was founded by the Mongol Khan Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, and until 1266 it was part of the Mongol Empire, after which it became independent, retaining only formal subordination to the Empire. The majority of the state's population were Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, and Mari. In 1312, the Golden Horde became an Islamic state. In the 15th century. the unified state broke up into several khanates, the main one among which was the Great Horde. The Great Horde existed until the mid-16th century, but the other khanates collapsed much earlier.

The name “Golden Horde” was first used by the Russians after the fall of the state, in 1556, in one of historical works. Before this, the state was designated differently in different chronicles.

Territories of the Golden Horde

The Mongol Empire, from which the Golden Horde emerged, occupied territories from the Danube to the Sea of ​​Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, and one of the parts went to Jochi. A few years later, Jochi’s son, Batu, undertook several military campaigns and expanded the territory of his khanate to the west; the Lower Volga region became the new center. From that moment on, the Golden Horde began to constantly capture new territories. As a result, most of the modern Russia(except for the Far East, Siberia and Far North), Kazakhstan, Ukraine, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

In the 13th century. The Mongol Empire, which had seized power in Rus' (), was on the verge of collapse, and Rus' came under the rule of the Golden Horde. However, the Russian principalities were not ruled directly by the khans of the Golden Horde. The princes were only forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde officials, and soon this function came under the control of the princes themselves. However, the Horde did not intend to lose the conquered territories, so its troops regularly carried out punitive campaigns against Rus' to keep the princes in obedience. Rus' remained subject to the Golden Horde almost until the collapse of the Horde.

State structure and management system of the Golden Horde

Since the Golden Horde left the Mongol Empire, the descendants of Genghis Khan were at the head of the state. The territory of the Horde was divided into allotments (uluses), each of which had its own khan, but smaller uluses were subordinate to one main one, where the supreme khan ruled. The ulus division was initially unstable and the boundaries of the uluses were constantly changing.

As a result of the administrative-territorial reform at the beginning of the 14th century. the territories of the main uluses were allocated and assigned, and the positions of ulus managers - ulusbeks - were introduced, to whom smaller officials - viziers - were subordinate. In addition to the khans and ulusbeks, there were national assembly- kurultai, which was convened only in emergency cases.

The Golden Horde was a paramilitary state, so administrative and military positions were often combined. The most important positions were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty, who were related to the khan and owned lands; smaller administrative positions could be held by feudal lords mediocre, and the army was recruited from the people.

The capitals of the Horde were:

• Saray-Batu (near Astrakhan) - under the reign of Batu;
• Sarai-Berke (near Volgograd) - from the first half of the 14th century.

In general, the Golden Horde was a multi-structured and multinational state, therefore, in addition to the capitals, there were several major centers in each of the areas. The Horde also had trading colonies on the Sea of ​​Azov.

Trade and economy of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a trading state, actively engaged in buying and selling, and also had multiple trading colonies. The main goods were: fabrics, linen canvases, weapons, jewelry and other jewelry, furs, leather, honey, timber, grain, fish, caviar, olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, Central Asia, China and India began from the territories that belonged to the Golden Horde.

In addition, the Horde received a significant part of its income from military campaigns (robberies), collection of tribute (yoke in Rus') and the conquest of new territories.

The end of the era of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde consisted of several uluses, subordinate to the authority of the Supreme Khan. After the death of Khan Janibek in 1357, the first unrest began, caused by the absence of a single heir and the desire of the khans to compete for power. The struggle for power became the main reason for the further collapse of the Golden Horde.

In the 1360s. Khorezm separated from the state.

In 1362, Astrakhan separated, the lands on the Dnieper were captured by the Lithuanian prince.

In 1380, the Tatars were defeated by the Russians during an attempt to attack Rus'.

In 1380-1395 the unrest ceased and power was again subordinated to the Great Khan. During this period, successful Tatar campaigns against Moscow were made.

However, at the end of the 1380s. The Horde attempted to attack Tamerlane's territory, but were unsuccessful. Tamerlane defeated the Horde troops and ravaged the Volga cities. The Golden Horde received a blow, which marked the beginning of the collapse of the empire.

At the beginning of the 15th century. New khanates were formed from the Golden Horde (Siberian, Kazan, Crimean, etc.). The khanates were ruled by the Great Horde, but the dependence of new territories on it gradually weakened, and the power of the Golden Horde over Russia also weakened.

In 1480, Rus' was finally freed from the oppression of the Mongol-Tatars.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The Great Horde, left without small khanates, ceased to exist.

The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.

As a result of the aggressive campaigns, the Mongol Empire founded by Genghis Khan created its three western uluses, which for some time depended on the Great Khan of the Mongols in Karakorum, and then became independent states. The very separation within the composition created by Genghis Khan Mongol Empire three western uluses was already the beginning of its collapse.
The ulus of Chagatai, the second son of Genghis Khan, included Semirechye and Transoxiana in Central Asia. The ulus of Hulagu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, became the lands of modern Turkmenistan, Iran, Transcaucasia and the Middle Eastern lands to the Euphrates. The separation of the Hulagu ulus into an independent state occurred in 1265.
The largest western ulus of the Mongols was the ulus of the descendants of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan), which included Western Siberia (from the Irtysh), Northern Khorezm in Central Asia, the Urals, the Middle and Lower Volga region, the North Caucasus, Crimea, the lands of the Polovtsians and other Turkic nomadic peoples in the steppe spaces from the Irtysh to the mouth of the Danube. Eastern part of the Jochi ulus ( Western Siberia) became the yurt (destiny) of Jochi's eldest son - Horde-Ichen - and later received the name of the Blue Horde. The western part of the ulus became the yurt of his second son, Batu, known in Russian chronicles as the Golden Horde or simply “Horde”.
The main territory of these states was the countries conquered by the Mongols, where there were favorable natural conditions for nomadic cattle breeding (lands in Central Asia, the Caspian region and the Northern Black Sea region), which led to their long-term economic and cultural stagnation, to the replacement of developed agriculture with nomadic cattle breeding, and at the same time to a return to more archaic forms of socio-political and state system .

Socio-political system of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was founded in 1243 upon the return of Batu Khan from his campaign in Europe. Its original capital was the city of Sarai-Batu on the Volga, built in 1254. The transformation of the Golden Horde into an independent state found its expression under the third khan Mengu-Timur (1266 - 1282) in the minting of coins with the name of the khan. After his death, a feudal war broke out in the Golden Horde, during which one of the representatives of the nomadic aristocracy, Nogai, rose to prominence. As a result of this feudal war, that part of the Golden Horde aristocracy that adhered to Islam and was associated with the urban trading strata gained the upper hand. She nominated her grandson Mengu-Timur Uzbek (1312 - 1342) to the khan's throne.
Under Uzbek, the Golden Horde became one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. During his 30-year reign, Uzbek firmly held all power in his hands, brutally suppressing any manifestation of independence of his vassals. The princes of numerous uluses from the descendants of Jochi, including the rulers of the Blue Horde, unquestioningly fulfilled all the demands of Uzbek. The military forces of Uzbekistan numbered up to 300 thousand soldiers. A series of raids of the Golden Horde on Lithuania in the 20s of the 14th century. temporarily stopped the Lithuanian advance to the east. Under Uzbek, the power of the Golden Horde over Russia strengthened even more.
Political system The Golden Horde during its formation was of a primitive nature. It was divided into semi-independent uluses led by Batu's brothers or representatives of local dynasties. These vassal uluses had little connection with the khan's administration. The unity of the Golden Horde was based on a system of brutal terror. The Mongols, who formed the core of the conquerors, soon found themselves surrounded by the overwhelming majority of the Turkic-speaking population they conquered, primarily the Cumans (Kypchaks). By the end of the 13th century. The Mongolian nomadic aristocracy, and even more so the ordinary mass of Mongols, became so Turkicized that the Mongolian language was almost supplanted from official documentation by the Kipchak language.
Governance of the state was concentrated in the hands of the Divan, which consisted of four emirs. Local government was in the hands of regional rulers directly subordinate to the Divan.
The Mongolian nomadic aristocracy, as a result of the harsh exploitation of serfs, nomads and slaves, turned into owners of enormous land wealth, livestock and other valuables (their incomes of Ibn Battuta, an Arab writer of the 14th century, were determined to be up to 200 thousand dinars, i.e. up to 100 thousand rubles), the feudal aristocracy, by the end of Uzbek rule, again began to exert enormous influence on all sides government controlled and after the death of Uzbek, she took an active part in the court struggle for power between his sons - Tinibek and Janibek. Tinibek ruled for only about a year and a half and was killed, and the khan's throne passed to Janibek, who was more acceptable as a khan for the nomadic aristocracy. As a result of court conspiracies and unrest in the late 50s, many princes from the Uzbek family were killed.

Decline of the Golden Horde and its collapse

In the 70s of the XIV century. As a result of the process of feudal fragmentation, the Golden Horde was actually divided into two parts: in the regions west of the Volga, Temnik Mamai ruled, and in the eastern regions - Urus Khan. A temporary restoration of the unity of the Golden Horde occurred under Khan Tokhtamysh in the 80s and 90s, but this unity was illusory in nature, since in fact Tokhtamysh found himself dependent on Timur and his plans of conquest. Timur's defeat of Tokhtamysh's troops in 1391 and 1395, the plunder of Sarai finally put an end to political unity Golden Horde.
Complex processes of feudal fragmentation led in the second half of the 15th century. to the final collapse of the Golden Horde into the Kazan Khanate. The Astrakhan Khanate, the Great Horde itself and the Crimean Khanate, which became a vassal of the Sultan's Turkey in 1475.
The collapse of the Golden Horde and the formation of the Russian centralized state created all the conditions for the complete elimination of the severe Mongol-Tatar yoke and its consequences.

B.A. Rybakov - “History of the USSR from ancient times to late XVIII century." - M., “ graduate School", 1975.