Tariff and non-tariff restrictions on foreign trade. Tariff regulation methods
Under customs tariff is understood:
♦ systematic list of rates customs duties;
♦ trade policy instrument and government regulation domestic market;
♦ the rate of customs duty payable when importing/exporting a certain product into the customs territory of the country (coincides with the concept of customs duty).
Customs duty- tax on imported or exported goods when they cross the customs border of the state. Main functions customs duties:
♦ fiscal, applies to both import and export duties;
♦ protective, refers to import duties, since the state uses them to protect domestic producers from foreign ones;
♦ balancing, refers to export duties, prevents unwanted exports.
All customs tariffs can be classified into five groups (see, Fig. 7.2.1).
1. Classification of tariffs in the direction of movement of goods:
♦ export tariff - a duty imposed on exported goods. It is used to prevent the mass export of scarce goods abroad when there is a large difference in prices on the domestic and world markets. certain types export goods, as well as budget replenishment. Rarely used;
♦ import tariff - a duty imposed on imported goods. Used to protect the domestic market from foreign competition;
♦ transit tariff - a duty imposed on goods transported through the territory of a given country. The purpose of these duties is
provide additional budget revenues.
Rice. 7.2.1. Classification of customs tariffs
2. Classification of tariffs according to the method of establishment:
♦ ad valorem tariff- duty calculated as a percentage of the customs value of the goods (for example, 10% of the customs value). It is mainly used for goods that have different quality characteristics within the same product group;
♦ specific tariff- customs duty rate levied per unit of weight, volume, length, etc. (for example, $20 per 1 ton). Mainly used for standardized goods (eg raw materials);
♦ combined tariff- simultaneously levied ad valorem and specific rates (for example, 10% of the customs value, but not more than $20 per 1 ton);
♦ alternative tariff- an ad valorem or specific rate is applied according to the decision of the customs authorities, usually the one that ensures the collection of the largest absolute amount for each specific case is selected.
3. Classification of tariffs (by value) depending from the country of origin of the goods:
♦ maximum tariff is established for all countries on the basis of state legislative acts, without coordination with other states;
♦ minimum tariff granted to those countries that receive most favored nation status. This rate is established as a result of mutual agreements. A country that grants most favored nation status to another country undertakes not to exceed the tariff rates that it imposes in relation to other countries, i.e. countries agreeing on this status provide each other with benefits that other states are deprived of;
♦ preferential tariff applies to certain countries or groups of countries. Its value is usually less than the minimum. There is an international agreement called the Generalized System of Preferences, under which industrialized countries provide benefits to developing countries. These benefits are expressed in lower customs tariffs.
Target- to encourage the purchase of goods exported by developing countries, and, on the other hand, to stimulate developing countries imports from more developed ones.
4. Classification of tariffs by nature of origin:
♦ stand-alone tariff established by the country independently of other subjects of world trade;
♦ conventional (negotiated) tariff is established by the country in accordance with the obligations assumed under international agreements.
5. Classification of tariffs by area of effect:
· preferential tariff established for the purpose of providing a benefit to a country or group of countries;
· seasonal rate installed for regulation international trade seasonal products, primarily agricultural;
· discriminatory tariff established with the aim of complicating and limiting the export or import of goods from a particular country.
Discriminatory tariffs are divided into:
· retaliatory (to unfriendly trade policies);
· compensatory is used to equalize the prices of similar nationally produced goods and imported ones that benefit from subsidies, by including a higher import duty in the price of the latter;
· anti-dumping, as a response measure to protect a national manufacturer, if the fact of dumping by foreign competitors is established and the import of goods causes or threatens to cause material damage to domestic producers or prevents the expansion of production of similar goods in the domestic market.
Dumping– selling goods at unreasonably low prices. In this situation, the exporting firm sells its goods in one foreign market cheaper than in another.
7.5. Non-tariff methods of regulating foreign trade
Non-tariff measures to regulate foreign trade have more high degree impact on foreign economic activity, since the establishment of strict control over foreign trade of certain goods in many cases turns out to be more effective than the economic levers of foreign trade regulation.
Non-tariff methods of regulation have a number of advantages compared to tariff methods. The basis of the advantage is limited opportunity tariff regulation, the monotony of this system. The system of non-tariff barriers is quite ramified, thanks to which greater efficiency is achieved.
There are several types non-tariff restrictions:
I. Quantitative restrictions on imports and exports.
1. Provisioning (quotas)- regulation of foreign economic activity by limiting the import/export of foreign or domestic goods to a certain quantity or amount for a specified period of time.
Embargo- a complete ban on the import of foreign goods into the domestic market. In world practice, a ban on quotas for industrial products is established. Quotas are allowed on agricultural products and some other goods (for example, textiles, sometimes finished goods; if the unrestricted import of foreign goods would harm national industries). Quotas are divided into:
♦ global- for a certain period of time, a limit is set on the quantity or value of goods that can be imported/exported, regardless of the country of the importer/exporter. Rarely used because there is a risk of losing importer markets;
♦ individual - set within the global quota; there is an allocation taking into account importers' shares in the previous year or an obligation to buy a certain quantity of goods (based on bilateral agreements). Most often, individual quotas are seasonal in nature, i.e. they are introduced for a certain period of time (for example, in autumn periods when the products of the new harvest are sold). Economic consequences - limitation of supply, increase in income growth of the national producer.
Let's imagine the following situation (Fig. 7.5.1). The domestic supply of a product on the market is S d and demand - Dd, then domestic production will be - Q 0 If the supply of the same product from abroad is unlimited and amounts to S w(By world price - Pw), then the production of goods on the domestic market will be Q 1, consumption - Q2, import of goods - Q 2 Q 1 The country decides to limit imports and introduces an import quota of Q 4 Q 3 As a result, domestic prices rise to P 1 domestic production increases to Q 3, domestic demand will decline to Q4.
Rice. 7.5.1. Import quota
2. Licensing maybe like integral part quotas and an independent regulatory instrument. Then in the first case, it is just a document that confirms the right to import/export goods within the limits of receiving any quota; in the second case there is a certain series licensing forms:
♦ individual license- one-time permission to import/export goods. Issued by government authority importer/exporter, is nominal (specified entity);
♦ open individual license - permission to import/export goods without quantity restrictions;
♦ general license - a permanent permit to import/export goods without restrictions on both quantity and time; the license is impersonal;
♦ automatic license- permission issued immediately after an application for import/export of goods (a simplified form of obtaining a license).
Quota rent- specific income when a quota is introduced, resulting from an artificial increase in price. It is received by the holder of the right to import goods into the domestic market (on the foreign market, goods are purchased at Pw, and are sold domestically P 1,). Its recipients can be various entities depending on the procedure for granting the license:
♦ auction- sale of licenses on a competitive basis (the price, as a rule, is equal to the quota rent, goes to the state);
♦ free transfer - the rent goes to the national entity - the importer;
♦ transfer of license to the manufacturing country- a voluntary quantitative restriction on exports adopted within the framework of a formal intergovernmental or informal agreement on the establishment of benefits.
Similarities in the application of quotas and tariffs is that:
♦ the price of imported goods increases;
♦ incomes of national producers increase.
Difference - If a tariff is introduced, the importer is not limited by the quantity of imported goods, i.e., the measure for him is the economic feasibility of importing goods.
II. Government subsidies and financial benefits.
Subsidies - cash payments by the government to national producers to support them and discriminate against imports. Subsidies by nature of payments are divided into:
♦ straight- direct payments to the exporter after he completes the transaction in the amount of the difference in costs and the income he receives (subsidies to the manufacturer when entering the foreign market). Prohibited by the WTO because their use is quite obvious to trading partners and may cause retaliatory measures;
♦ indirect(hidden) - providing exporters with tax benefits, refund of import duties, preferential insurance conditions, assistance in structural adjustment, etc.
Subsidies are provided both to producers of goods that compete with imports and to producers of export goods. Export subsidies- a non-tariff method of regulation that represents budgetary payments to exporters, giving them the opportunity to sell goods on the foreign market at a lower price than on the domestic market.
III. Import deposit- a kind of cash deposit that the importer must pay to the bank before purchasing a consignment of foreign goods. The size of this pledge, term, currency are fixed in each state by law. This is a kind of loan that the importer gives to the state, but does not receive interest on it; After some time, the funds are returned to the importer, and as a result, the importer’s costs increase.
IV. State system placing orders- purchase by state enterprises of goods produced by national producers, even though these goods may be more expensive than imported ones.
V. Currency regulation:
♦ external exchange restrictions (for example, clearing- trade between countries on the basis of mutual offsets);
♦ restrictions related to the acquisition and sale of currency;
♦ mechanism for differentiating currency ratios (establishing different exchange rates for certain trade transactions);
♦ devaluation - depreciation of the national currency;
♦ revaluation - an increase in the exchange rate of the national currency.
VI. Technical barriers- restrictions that arise due to the fact that national technical, administrative and other rules and regulations are structured in such a way as to create a barrier to foreign goods (for example, standards, certification, quality control of goods, etc.).
Instruments of government regulation are divided into: tariff (those based on the use of customs tariffs) and non-tariff (all other methods).
A customs tariff is 1) an instrument of trade policy and government regulation of the country’s foreign market in its interaction with the world market; 2) a set of rates of customs duties applied to goods transported across the customs border.
Customs duty is a mandatory fee collected by customs authorities when importing or exporting goods and is a condition for import and export.
Non-tariff methods of regulating international trade: quantitative, hidden, financial.
18.Types of customs tariffs and their classifications.
Functions of customs duties: fiscal, protectionist (protective), balancing.
Classification of customs duties:
Ad valorem (charged as a percentage of the value of taxable goods)
Special (charged in the established amount per unit of taxable goods)
Combined (combine both types)
Alternative (applied according to the decision of the local authorities. The ad valorem and special rate is usually chosen to be the one that ensures the collection of the most absolute amount for each specific case.
Customs cost of goods - price of goods, warehouse. on an open market between independent seller and buyer by which it can be sold in the country of destination at the time of filing there. declarations.
By object of taxation: import, export, import, transit.
By bet type: constant (there are tariffs, the rates of which are established at a time by government bodies and cannot be changed depending on the circumstances), variable (there are tariff rates of which can change in cases established by government bodies)
By calculation method: nominal (tariff rates specified in the customs tariff), effective (real level of local duties on final goods, calculated taking into account the level of duties imposed on imported components and parts of these goods)
By origin: autonomous, conventional (contractual), preferential.
19. Non-tariff methods of regulation. Foreign trade.
Quantitative restrictions are an administrative form of non-tariff. state Product regulation. turnover, which determines the quantity and range of goods allowed for export and import.
Quotas are a restriction in quantitative or value terms on the volume of products allowed to be imported into the country (imported) or exported from the country (exported) beyond a certain point. period.
According to the direction of action, quotas are divided: export and import
By scope of action: global individual
Licensing – regulation of foreign economics. activities through a permit issued by the state. authorities for the export or import of goods.
License forms:
One-time license
General
Global
Automatic.
“Voluntary” export restriction is a quantitative restriction on exports based on the obligation of one of the trading partners to limit or at least not expand the volume of exports, adopted within the official framework. agreements.
Methods of hidden protectionism:
Technical barriers
Domestic taxes and fees
Politics within the state procurement
Local content requirements
Financial methods of foreign trade. politicians:
Subsidies - money. payment aimed at supporting the national Manufacturers. There are: direct and indirect.
A trade embargo is a state prohibition of the import into or export of goods from any country.
Tariff barriers include customs tariff (customstariff) – this is a systematic list of customs duties that are imposed on goods when crossing the state border.
Customs tariff means:
a systematic list of customs duty rates;
an instrument of trade policy and government regulation of the domestic market;
the rate of customs duty payable upon import/export of a certain product into the customs territory of a country (coincides with the concept of customs duty).
Distinguish single-column tariff – one duty rate is imposed on all imported goods. It implies that, regardless of the country of origin, a single rate is established for each imported product of a certain range. Tariff development occurs by increasing the range of goods.
Multi-column tariff – sets two or more bids for each product group. The most complex tariffs exist in Congo, Venezuela, Mali (up to 17 columns).
The tariff structure of many countries primarily protects domestic producers of finished products, especially without preventing the import of raw materials and semi-finished products. Tariff escalation(tariff escalation) - an increase in the level of customs taxation of goods according to the degree of their processing.
Currently, customs tariffs are structured in such a way that the level of taxation increases simultaneously with the increase in the degree of processing of the goods (keeping developing countries in a monoculture).
Source: Akopova E.S., Voronkova O.N., Gavrilko N.N. World economy and international economic relations. Series "Textbooks and teaching aids". Rostov-on-Don: “Phoenix”, 2001. – 237 p.
Customs tariffs are based on commodity classifiers, of which there are four in world practice. Customs duty (customsduty) – state monetary fee (tax) levied by customs authorities on goods, valuables and property transported across the country’s border. A tax on imported or exported goods when they cross the customs border of a state.
Main functions customs duties:
fiscal , applies to both import and export duties, since they are one of the revenue items of the state budget;
protectionist (protective), refers to import duties, since with their help the state protects domestic producers from unwanted foreign competition;
balancing , refers to export duties, prevents unwanted exports of goods for which domestic prices for one reason or another are lower than world prices.
All customs tariffs can be classified into groups:
In the direction of movement of goods (according to the object of taxation):
export tariff - a duty imposed on exported goods. It is used to prevent the mass export of scarce goods abroad when there is a large difference in prices on the domestic and world markets for certain types of export goods, as well as to replenish the budget. Rarely used;
import tariff - a duty imposed on imported goods. Used to protect the domestic market from foreign competition;
transit tariff - a duty imposed on goods transported through the territory of a given country. The purpose of these duties is to provide additional revenue to the budget.
By method of establishment (collection):
ad valorem tariffs – customs duty, established as a percentage of the customs value of the goods. It is mainly used for goods that have different quality characteristics within the same product group. In world practice, ad valorem duties are most widespread, which now account for about 80% of all customs duties. Average level ad valorem duty rates are about 4–6%;
specific tariff – the customs duty rate is set in absolute terms per unit of measurement: weight, volume, length, area, etc. Specific duties are most often export duties, especially when exporting raw materials;
combined (mixed) tariff – includes both methods of establishing the amount of duties discussed above;
alternative tariff – applied according to the decision of the customs authorities. The ad valorem or specific rate is usually chosen to be the one that provides the largest absolute amount charged for each particular case.
By nature of origin (depending on the country of origin of the product):
stand-alone tariff established by the country independently of other subjects of world trade;
conventional (negotiable tariff) is established by the country in accordance with the obligations assumed under international agreements;
preferential – duties at lower rates than the customs tariff generally in effect, which are imposed on the basis of multilateral agreements on goods originating in developing countries.
The amount of customs rates depends on the trade regime provided to that country. In international practice there is a distinction three types of trading modes: R most favored nation status; preferential (preferential) regime; duty free regime. First used in trade with countries with which there are no trade agreements; second– in cases where there are trade agreements on the introduction of most favored nation treatment; third– usually used when importing goods from developing countries.
Classification of tariffs by area of effect:
seasonal rate established to regulate international trade in seasonal products, primarily agricultural;
preferential tariff is established with the aim of providing a benefit to any country or group of countries, i.e. facilitate the export or import of goods from that country;
discriminatory tariff established with the aim of hindering or restricting the export or import of goods from a particular country. Discriminatory tariffs are divided into: retaliatory, compensatory, anti-dumping.
In a number of cases, international practice uses the so-called tariff quotas. They make it possible to apply established reduced rates if the total volume of imports does not exceed the restrictions - quotas, and an increased rate when the volume exceeds it. A variant of tariff quotas is the provision of preferential treatment for the import of a certain amount of goods at a preferential duty rate. Tariff quotas are a trade and political instrument of a combined nature, combining elements of economic and administrative influence. It is actively used, for example, in the EU, and is also provided for by the Agreement on Agriculture under the GATT/WTO.
Under non-tariff regulation measures refers to a system of methods used by the state to regulate foreign economic activity, but not related to tariff instruments. Despite the fact that customs tariffs continue to be a key tool, their role is weakening. Non-tariff measures are less open and therefore give the government more possibilities for voluntary actions.
Why are non-tariff measures introduced?
The possibility of integrating non-tariff measures is provided for by a number of international agreements if there is a need for:
- Restrictions on the import or export of a particular product that can harm the health of citizens or the environment.
- Import restrictions to support domestically produced goods.
- Protection of the cultural values of the state, as well as generally accepted morality.
- Ensuring internal security.
- Introduction of anti-dumping measures (imported goods have a much lower market value, which threatens to undermine competition and result in an industry monopoly).
Classification of non-tariff measures
The UN classification is generally accepted, which provides for the division of all methods of non-tariff regulation into 3 groups:
Let's look at each of the groups.
Direct restriction measures
Direct restriction measures include:
- . Quotas are the most common non-tariff regulatory measure. Under quota refers to a restriction in the value or quantity of goods imported and exported from the country. In Russia, such a measure is used - it is established every year by the Government of the Russian Federation.
There are several types of quotas:
- Global. Used in 60% of cases. Limits the amount of imports for a certain period, while the quota is not broken down by importing countries.
- Individual. This quota provides a restriction for a specific product or a specific importer. As a rule, individual quotas are negotiable and bilateral.
- Seasonal. They provide for import limits at certain times of the year. The object of seasonal quotas is most often agricultural products.
- Tariffs. With such a quota, a certain volume of products can be introduced duty-free or with a minimum fee - a standard tariff is applied to goods in excess of the established volume.
Quotas have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of quotas include the support provided to local enterprises through the distribution of quotas, while the disadvantages include the promotion of the formation of a monopoly in the industry.
- Licensing- this is the regulation of the quantity of imported and exported goods with the help of special permits issued by the competent government authorities - licenses. Lack of a license is grounds for prohibiting the import of products. There are 3 types of licenses:
- One-time, the validity period of which does not exceed a year. Such a license is issued for a specific foreign trade transaction.
- General provided to the importer for each type of imported product. The validity period of this license is also one year.
- Exceptional- gives the owner an exceptional experience. The validity period of this license is not established by law and is determined on an individual basis.
Special measures of non-tariff regulation
The group of special non-tariff regulation measures includes: 
- Special duties . The application of special duties is due to the threat of damage to the industry in the event of import or export of a particular product. Special duties are imposed only after investigation by the competent authorities. The duration of the measure is established by the state (until the damage is completely eliminated), however, it cannot exceed 4 years.
- Anti-dumping duties. If an imported product poses a threat to the industry because the price is too low, it is subject to additional duty. The duration of anti-dumping duties is limited to 5 years.
- Countervailing duties. If a manufacturer is subsidized by the state, then the importer applies countervailing duties to the products he exports, designed to neutralize subsidies in order to equalize the rights of exporters. The period for introducing such duties is a maximum of 5 years.
Administrative measures
Administrative measures of non-tariff regulation include:
- Import taxes. This type of fee should not be confused with import duties. Such fees include, for example, border duties (paid when goods cross the border), port and statistical collections. One of the specific forms of import tax is considered import deposit– according to this measure, before importing products, you must deposit authorized bank a certain amount, set depending on the cost of delivery.
- Certification. A certificate is issued to a product only if it meets all technical, sanitary and environmental requirements established in the territory of the importing country. If there is no certificate, the delivery will simply not be allowed through.
- Pre-shipment inspection. In order to protect itself from the risk of distortion by the exporter of data about the goods imported into the country (primarily about the cost), the state has the right to conduct a pre-shipment inspection. Upon successful completion, the exporter is issued a certificate.
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| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | Tariff methods |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Sport |
Tariff methods involve establishing a customs tariff (duty). This is the most traditional method, an actively used means of state regulation of export-import operations.
customs tariff- ϶ᴛᴏ a systematic list of duties that the government imposes on certain goods imported into or exported from the country.
Customs duties- ϶ᴛᴏ taxes levied by the state for transporting goods, property, and valuables across the country’s borders.
The beginning of the formation of the customs tariff – III – II millennium BC. The term “tariff” originates from the southern Spanish city of Tarif, in which a table was first compiled where the names of goods, measures of measurement and the amount of duties for transporting goods through the Strait of Gibraltar were entered.
The customs tariff performs the following functions:
1) fiscal (replenishment of budget revenues);
2) protective (protection of domestic producers from competition);
3) regulatory (regulates the import and export of goods);
4) trade and political.
There are different duties:
Imported (they are assessed on goods imported into the country);
Export (they are taxed on exported goods);
Transit (levied on goods crossing national territory transit).
Import duties are divided into fiscal and protectionist. Fiscal duties apply to goods that are not produced domestically. Protectionist tariffs are intended to protect local producers from foreign competitors.
Import duties are used either as a means of financial revenue (more often in developing countries) or as a means of carrying out certain trade and economic policies. The owner of the imported product will increase the price after paying the duty. The tariff, by limiting imports, leads to a deterioration in consumer opportunities. But it is beneficial to the state and domestic producers.
Export duties increase the cost of goods on the world market; therefore, they are used in cases where the state seeks to limit the export of a given product. The purpose of export duties levied by countries with monopoly natural advantages is to limit the supply of raw materials to the world market, increase prices and increase revenues for the state and producers.
IN developed countries export duties are practically not used. The US Constitution even prohibits their use.
Transit duties hinder the flow of goods and are seen as highly undesirable and disruptive to normal operations. international relations. Today they are practically not used.
There are two main methods for establishing the level of customs duties:
1. The amount of duty is determined as a fixed amount per unit of measurement (weight, area, volume, etc.). This duty is usually called specific. It is especially effective in conditions of falling prices for goods - during periods of depression and crisis.
2. The duty is set as a percentage of the value of the goods declared by the seller. Called ad valorem.
The domestic price of an imported good (P d) after imposition of a specific tariff will be equal to:
P d = P im + T s ,
where: P im is the price at which the product is imported ( customs value goods);
T s - specific tariff rate.
When applying an ad valorem tariff, the domestic price of an imported product will be:
P d = P im * (1 + T av),
where: T av – ad valorem tariff rate.
There is also an intermediate method, which consists in the fact that customs gets the right to independently choose between specific and ad valorem duties based on which one is higher. Similar duty - alternative.
Trading countries may be in various contractual and political relations: be members of a customs or economic union, have a signed agreement granting them most favored nation treatment.
Taking into account the dependence of the regime, duties levied on the supplied goods are established:
Preferential (especially preferential);
Negotiable (minimum);
General (autonomous), that is, maximum.
Rates preferential duties below minimum and often equal to zero. The right to use preferential duties is granted to countries included in economic integration groups: free trade zones, customs and economic unions etc. For example, countries European Union provide each other with preferential duties (equal to zero) on the import of goods, which do not apply to other countries.
General (maximum) duty two to three times higher than all others, and its application actually discriminates against goods imported from a particular country. For example, the collection when importing goods from the USSR to the USA during the Cold War.
When a customs tariff is introduced, the price of imported goods increases. This contributes to rising prices for goods domestic production. The supply of goods on the domestic market is increasing, but demand is decreasing. As a consequence, there is a decrease in imports.
The impact of the tariff is different for economic entities. So consumers:
1) pay income from the tariff;
2) pay profits to firms;
3) pay for excess costs of domestic production;
4) lose consumer surplus.
The state benefits from the introduction of a customs tariff, as budget revenues increase. In essence, this is a transfer from consumers to the state.
Domestic producers receive additional profits. This profit is a transfer of income from consumers to producers.
Society incurs a social cost because the resources that flow into the industry protected by the tariff could be used more efficiently in other sectors of the economy.
In the EU, import duties on rice are 231%, dairy products - 205%, sugar - 279%. In Japan, the duty on rice is 444%, on wheat – 193%. In the USA, the duty on dairy products is 93%, on sugar – 91%.
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