Problem situation, its characteristics; types of problem situations; creation methods. Correlation of problem situation, task, question

Decision making occurs over time, so the concept of the decision-making process is introduced. This process consists of a sequence of stages and procedures and is aimed at resolving a problem situation.

As noted earlier, decision making is a science and an art. Often the decision maker is not able to analyze and clearly comprehend the decision being made. Intuition plays a big role when making decisions. The logical diagram of the decision-making process discussed below helps him do this, including the decision-maker in the decision-making loop.

The presentation of the decision-making process as a logically ordered set of informal and formal procedures is a description of the technological scheme for performing this process. Such a description makes it possible to structurally streamline the decision-making process and select methods on the basis of which the search for and adoption of the best decision is rationally carried out.

Streamlining the decision-making process to some extent compensates for the shortcomings caused by the inability to solve the problem only with the help of quantitative methods of analysis based on the use of clear, unambiguous algorithms. Consideration of the problems that have arisen in a strict logical sequence makes it possible to fruitfully combine formal and heuristic methods in the process of preparing and making a decision and achieving higher quality.

Depending on what aspects are emphasized when considering the decision process, this process can be structured into separate stages, guided by different principles. In this article, we are interested in the sequence of actions for the purposeful selection of the best solution option from the identified set of solutions and the role of the manager in this process. Taking into account the above, the following diagram of the decision-making process is proposed (Fig. 1.2).

Rice. 1.2. Decision making process

In Fig. 1.2 stages and procedures have direct and feedback connections among themselves. Feedbacks reflect the iterative, cyclical nature of the dependency between steps and procedures. Iterations in the decision-making process are due to the need to clarify and adjust data after performing certain procedures and returning to work at any previous stage.

Let us briefly describe only those stages of the decision-making process that have not been discussed previously. A description of methods for implementing individual stages of decision-making will be given in subsequent articles of the series.

Identification and description of the problem situation

The activities of organizations are aimed at achieving goals in conditions of limited resources of all types. Continuously emerging changes in the organization and its environment lead to the emergence of a problematic situation. To solve these problem situations, a decision-making system is built.

A problematic situation is characterized, as noted above, by a combination of the problem and the specific conditions in which it arose and, most importantly, will be solved.

A problem (translated from Greek as a task) in a broad sense is a complex theoretical or practical issue that requires study and resolution. In this work, as in most publications on decision-making, a problem is understood as a discrepancy between the desired (normative) and actual levels of goal achievement. For example, when we formulate the problem of low labor productivity, we compare the achieved value of this indicator and its value for leading enterprises. If this comparison is not in our favor, then we state that there is a problem of low labor productivity.

It is obvious that the severity of the problem and the possibilities for its effective solution depend on the specific conditions in which it arose and will be solved. A situation is a combination of conditions and circumstances in which a problem arose. For example, the problem associated with the need to update the range of products sounds differently for technologically advanced and technologically backward enterprises; its solution depends on the possibility of attracting and using the necessary resources, etc. A problem situation is characterized by urgency, the urgency of making a decision, the place in the organization and the person who must make the decision.

Identifying and describing a problem situation provides initial information to estimate time, available to make a decision, and amount of resources, necessary for this. An assessment of the amount of resources required to implement the decision made is carried out at subsequent stages of the decision-making process.

The end result of decision-making at this stage is the compilation of a general list of problems that require solutions and a brief description of the problem situation for individual problems.

Thus, the problem formulation stage should provide answers to the questions: what problem and under what conditions needs to be solved; when to solve it; What forces and means will solve the problem?

From an information point of view, uncertainty is reduced in the decision-making process. The formulation of the problem situation predetermines the sequential implementation of subsequent procedures, leading to the search for answers to the questions of what and how to do?

Problem analysis, more deep description conditions of their occurrence and development are carried out at the stage of analyzing the problem situation.

An important aspect of analyzing a problem situation is the classification of problems into internal and external. It is obvious that the leaders of this organization cannot solve external problems directly. You cannot order a competitor to leave the market or the state to change import duties in a favorable direction. However, there may be indirect methods of possible influence on the solution of such problems, including through the internal capabilities of the organization. For example, expanding the activities of a competitor can improve the quality of products, reduce prices, etc. The following procedural diagram addresses only internal issues.

The end result of work at this stage of developing a solution is the identification of the so-called basic, cardinal problems, the solution of which must be tackled first, and the ranking of these problems with a detailed description of the conditions for their occurrence and development.

At the stage of developing assumptions (hypotheses) Scenarios for the development of the situation are being developed. A scenario is understood as a verbal-analytical description of the existing and predicted states of the object of study, options for the development of a problem situation. Opportunities are identified and analyzed, as well as threats lurking in the external environment, internal conditions and possibilities for solving problems that have arisen.

The state of the financial, socio-economic, legal and other components of the external environment, the market situation, the possibility of attracting investments, solving personnel, production and technical problems within the organization and much more in many cases make it impossible to formulate clearly unambiguous assumptions about the development of the situation in the future. Different experts, even having the same information on this issue, may have different judgments. The formation of optimistic, pessimistic and most probable scenarios for the development of the situation in the future has become quite widespread.

The end result of the work at this stage is the formation of scenario options for the development of the problem situation in the future and the selection of the most probable of them, according to which goals are set.

The iterative nature of the decision-making process, in particular, lies in the need to revise the goals and other elements of the decision-making process in the event of a change in the problem situation to another version of its development.

At the stage of defining goals goals for solving basic, fundamental problems are formulated. In practice, a fairly wide range of methods for setting goals is used: from a simple list of them to constructing a graph (tree) of goals with indicators of their priorities. Goals must have specific formulations and quantitative characteristics by which the degree of their achievement can be judged. If the goals are of an alternative nature, then a set of goals is selected, which is used as the basis for subsequent actions to find the best solution. Specific statements of goals are end result work at this stage.

Search process the best option solutions starts with identifying a complete list of alternatives(mutually exclusive solution options). At this stage, the most complete possible set of alternative options (methods, means) for achieving the goals is determined. In real conditions, two or three solution options are usually considered, no more: less labor intensive analysis, less chance of making a serious mistake. However, there is no chance to make the best decision. Among them there may not be the best one at all. With a large set of solution options, there is a guarantee that among them there is the best one.

Thus, the final result of the work at this stage is to identify the most complete list of alternatives to achieve the goals.

Next begins selection of valid alternatives. If there are a lot of options, then evaluating each of them can be a difficult task. It is necessary to find a way of selecting options for detailed consideration that would ensure the exclusion of obviously irrational options for action that do not satisfy certain restrictions. We pass the alternatives identified at the previous stage through the filter of various restrictions (resource, legal, social, moral and ethical, etc.). Here we mean limitations, the consideration of which does not involve labor-intensive calculations, but is based primarily on expert assessments. Accounting for labor-intensive factors is carried out at the next stage. The end result of the work at this stage is a set of alternatives that satisfy the constraints.

Thus, the task of finding the best option splits into two parts. The first task is how to select acceptable (dominant, rational) ones from the many possible options, and the second is how to choose the best one from a relatively small number of acceptable options.

At the stage of preliminary selection of the best alternative a detailed analysis of acceptable alternatives is carried out from the point of view of achieving set goals, resource costs, and compliance with specific conditions for the implementation of alternatives.

When solving rather complex problems based on quantitative calculations alone, it is often difficult to develop unambiguous recommendations on the preference of one alternative over all others. It is possible to identify a group of acceptable, preferable alternatives obtained, say, based on Pareto optimization.

The end result of the work at this stage is to make a judgment about the preferability of alternatives. These data are presented by system analysts to the decision maker on this problem.

We illustrate the division of the process of choosing the best solution into the three stages discussed above with the following example. Let us assume that the problem of choosing the best option for organizing the release of some new product is being solved. The alternative solution to this problem is determined by the use of various technologies, within similar technologies - the use of different equipment, and different approaches to controlling this process. We carry out an initial assessment of alternatives using the following criteria: the cost of a unit of product (C) and the volume of output provided by the selected alternative (O). In Fig. 1. 3 full list alternatives are depicted as dots with the numbers of these alternatives.

We select feasible alternatives as follows. Let's draw vertical lines connecting (passing closely) several points, as is done in Fig. 1.3. Without carrying out any special calculations, it is obvious that higher-lying alternatives are preferable to alternatives located lower vertically (they provide a larger volume of output at the same cost value).

By drawing horizontal lines, we will make sure that the leftmost alternatives are preferable to all other alternatives located along the horizontal (they provide a lower cost value for the same output volume).

Thus, we can conclude that the alternatives outlined in Fig. 1.3, are dominant, more preferable compared to other alternatives. (Here we essentially used a simplified method for identifying dominant options - finding the Pareto set - based on pairwise comparisons).

Rice. 1.3. Alternatives Analysis Example

Based on the criteria used, it is not possible to determine which of the alternatives under consideration is the best. To do this, at the stage of preliminary selection of the best alternative, it is necessary to conduct a more in-depth analysis using additional criteria, and above all the value market demand and available resources. But such calculations are carried out only among a limited number of feasible alternatives.

Let us assume that the magnitude of demand is best satisfied by alternative 4. However, for its implementation there are not enough resources, which are sufficient to implement alternative 3. Therefore, alternative 3 can be recommended for implementation, although the market potential in this case will not be fully used.

Assessment of alternatives by decision makers. Based on the data obtained at the previous stage, as well as with the help of any other information, the best way to achieve goals is selected. Moreover, when making a conclusion about the choice of one or another solution option, the decision maker can take into account additional facts and points that were not taken into account by system analysts, based on his preference. Preference is an integral assessment of the quality of solutions, based on an objective analysis carried out by system analysts, and a subjective understanding of the value and effectiveness of decision options on the part of the decision maker.

System analysts are recommended to provide decision makers with descriptions of several solution options, indicating their pros and cons, and highlighting the best option. Such a resulting document may contain 1-2 pages. The clarity of the results obtained is enhanced if the resulting recommendations are presented in table form.

Thus, the joint use of intuition, managerial experience and analysis methods owned by specialists makes it possible to most fully take into account all aspects of the problem being solved. Essentially, the results of the analysis should be considered as one of the types of information necessary for the manager to make a decision.

Here it is important that the decision maker imposes his judgments, interests, and character traits on the data of system analysts, and does not allow them to bypass this data. It is obvious that the preference of the decision maker is not always based on the recommendations of system analysts, which in some cases is quite justified, because the decision maker is ultimately responsible for the results of the decision.

For example, the problem of choosing the best option for transporting an enterprise’s products to different regions is being solved. System analysts, based on linear programming methods, chose the optimal option that meets the condition of minimal transport costs. However, the decision maker, guided additionally by the requirements of reliability of deliveries, compliance with their deadlines, and finally, personal acquaintance with the heads of a number of transport enterprises, chose another transportation option, not the most effective in terms of transport costs, but the most reliable.

The end result of the work at this stage is the decision-maker making a judgment about the preferability of options for achieving the goals.

Experimental testing of alternatives. In cases where the decision maker finds it difficult to make a final choice of the best alternative and there are appropriate opportunities, an experimental test of 2-3 of the most preferred alternatives is carried out. This approach is typical for decision-making in the field of scientific and technical activities. In the field of management, examples include market testing of a new product, experimental testing of various options for the organizational structure of management, systems of remuneration and bonuses, and organization of control.

There are two approaches to conducting experiments. In the first, a series of experiments is simultaneously carried out, providing the necessary information on the basis of which a decision is made. In the second, experiments are carried out sequentially, and after each experiment it is necessary to make a procedural decision about continuing or ending the experiments.

It is important here to follow the theory of conducting experiments, and above all to ensure the possibility of comparing the experimental results obtained and reproducing the results of the experiment under real conditions.

The end result of this stage is the receipt of additional experimental information necessary for the final formation of a decision by the decision maker about the preference of a certain solution option.

Choosing a single solution. Taking into account the experimental testing data and any other additional information, the decision maker makes the final decision. It is the final result of work at this stage. If there is no experimental verification, then the decision maker selects a single solution immediately based on the information provided by system analysts. In some cases, it is possible to coordinate the decision with senior management.

Next is carried out activities to implement the decision made, including determining the stages, deadlines and executors of the decision made, stimulating them efficient work, coordination and control of the execution of the decision. Here, in essence, there is a search for answers by the decision taken to the following questions, what to do; where to do; to whom to do; when to do; how to do; with whom to do; in what order to do it; through what resources?

The end result of the implementation of the decision is the achievement of the set goals within the established time limits within the allocated resources.

In the above diagram of the stages of the decision-making process, the stages of building models, selecting evaluation criteria, and collecting information are not specifically highlighted. All this is carried out at almost all stages of decision-making considered. For example, models and criteria are necessary for almost all stages of decision making. Thus, without using appropriate criteria, it is not possible to identify key problems, determine the priority of individual goals, and select acceptable and then the best alternatives. These issues will be discussed specifically in the section on system analysis.

The same applies to searching and analyzing information. This work is carried out at almost all stages of the decision-making process, and not just at the initial stage, as is sometimes suggested. For a manager to know what information he needs, he must have a clear picture of each type of decision he must make, and he must have an adequate model of each decision. These conditions are rarely met. It is known in science that the less we understand a phenomenon, the more variables we need to explain it. Therefore, a manager who does not fully understand the phenomenon under his control acts “for sure” and wants to get as much information as possible. To system analysts, who most likely understand the problem being solved generally less than the manager, even the most complete information seems insufficient. To avoid the desire to collect information in general, it is better to do this purposefully, tying the collection of information to individual stages of the decision-making process, to the models that are used at them.

A fairly clear sequential division into stages is a simplification, since the actual stages of decision-making are often carried out in parallel to one degree or another. For example, when defining a problem, the goals of solving them are formulated in parallel, at least in a general form.

It is rarely possible to substantiate and solve a problem the first time. Changing previously formulated goals within acceptable limits makes it possible to significantly increase the efficiency of solving a problem by using more effective means of achieving it. The key to a successful solution is adjusting previously formulated problems, goals, options for achieving goals, assessing their effectiveness, developing new solution options, etc. In other words, as noted earlier, it is possible to return from any stage of the decision-making process to previous stages.

Thus, the considered process is iterative in nature, therefore, in the course of work it is necessary to show flexibility when new factors arise and re-evaluate the results obtained, and in some cases change the ideas underlying the decision. Such reassessments of the results obtained cannot be considered a waste of labor and time. Of course, constantly changing goals, ways and means of achieving them is unacceptable. This interferes with clear orientation. But no less dangerous is a formal attitude to the task at hand and a persistent desire to solve it contrary to the real course of events.

An analysis of decision-making practices carried out in the United States at one time showed that the failure of decisions made was 26% due to failure to pay due attention to goal setting, 35% to the choice of alternatives, and 25% to resource provision. Only 13% of failures were due to other reasons.

We can to some extent talk about the universality of the algorithm of the considered decision-making process. However, different schools of management pay different attention to individual stages of this process and the use of specific methods to justify a decision. So, from the positions under consideration, we can talk about the difference between the Japanese school of management and the Western one. In the Japanese school, much more emphasis is placed on defining the problem - is it worth pursuing at all? To discuss the problem and reach agreement, a large circle of people is involved - from the head of the company to the ordinary employee. In the Western school, the emphasis is on solving a previously identified problem, and that it is worthy of attention is often implicitly assumed. Thus, the Japanese focus on the essence of the issue that requires a decision, and not on possible solutions, the choice of which involves a clash of points of view of those who prepare and make the decision. When making a decision, there should be no winners and losers. The Japanese approach to decision making requires time, which is always in short supply in the West. However, once the problem is identified, action is taken with amazing speed, much faster than in the West. The Japanese approach involves postponing fundamental decisions until the time when all the decision factors are considered by the manager, who will be responsible for implementing the decision.

1.1. Problem situation

diversity brought into an organization increases its potential. At the same time, it reduces the stability of the organization and leads to deviations from the norm. When these deviations take on an ugly form, we are talking about pathology. Pathological changes do not occur immediately, but as a result of systemic deviations from the norm.

The organization is undergoing pathological changes due to the inability of employees to adequately perceive the changes taking place in the organization. The inadequacy of perception is due to the pressure on workers from past experience and various sociocultural factors, as well as the physiological abilities of each.

In order to treat, figuratively speaking, the disease of an organization, it is necessary to find out the source of the pathology and the reasons that contribute to its persistence.

As observations of organizations show, the overwhelming number of pathological changes are located within the system itself, and not at the interface between it and the external environment. As for internal pathologies, most of them are concentrated on the lines of communication between employees of the organization.

Signs of pathology at the entrance and exit from the organization are caused by a reaction to the external environment, which may be inadequate, hasty or, conversely, belated, as well as formal. Pathology manifests itself in the formal nature of changes in the organization, in hidden changes in the absence of obvious ones, in the absence of innovations that prevent the aging of the organization.

The problems of the organization are manifested in the performance of functions, in the implementation of internal organizational relationships and the functioning of the structure, in the implementation of activities, in the development of decisions and the implementation of internal rules of the organization.

The peculiarity of problematic changes in organizations is that the cause of their occurrence is human activity, which continuously creates problems for oneself and others, without solving which it is impossible to count on the “improvement” of the organization and development.

When describing problem situations, it is necessary to identify the full amount of knowledge about the organization’s needs and possible means of satisfying them. The collection of information cannot continue indefinitely and must be subordinated to the ultimate goal - solving the problem, therefore, during the entire process of collecting information, it is advisable to adjust the understanding of the problem situation, which allows you to cut off redundant information and shorten the search.

The process of describing a problem situation is determined by the following stages:

Fixation of a problem situation (insufficient and disordered information about the situation);

Preliminary description of the problem situation (organization of available information and awareness of its insufficiency);

Information search (obtaining additional information, which leads to its disorder);

A complete description of the problem situation (obtaining sufficient and organized information about the situation).

To correctly formulate a problem, it is necessary to understand the problem situation and the ability to reproduce it.

Adaptation of general knowledge to a specific object is required. Regrouping and adaptation of information, as a rule, appears in the form of reformulation of the description of the problem situation due to the fact that the description turns out to be contradictory.

When reformulating, it is necessary to take into account that the description of a problem situation fixes not only the elements and structure, but also the empirical basis and target settings. It is useful to pose the question: how else can you create a description of the problem situation, by what means, taking into account what motives and attitudes?

As a result, the description of the problem situation is supplemented by new questions that arise in the analysis of the description, or the set of questions is systematized by identifying new relationships between them. Using the first or second techniques, organization employees can find new elements and structures of a problem situation.

1.2. Simulation of a problem situation

If we imagine a problem as a hierarchically ordered set of issues, then the core of the problem situation is contradictions, the hierarchy of which can be established and the central contradiction identified, as a rule, only at the level of the theoretical scheme of the problem.

Most important factors formulation of the problem are methodological settings (the distinction between old and new, problematic knowledge contained in the description of the problem situation) and value orientations, in which methodological settings act as principles of prohibition or norms.

The genesis of the problem is the implementation of the following procedures:

Description of the problem situation (creation of an initial body of knowledge about the problem);

Understanding the problem and understanding its description (establishing the meaning of the problem situation in the structure of human activity);

Formation of a theoretical scheme of the problem (building a system of theoretical constructs);

Formulating the problem (correlating the theoretical scheme of the problem with the structure of the problem situation). However, in practice, the formulation of some problems does not always allow us to see the cause and effect, or even the very essence of the problem. IN in this case problems are understood as contradictions that require resolution; difficulties in overcoming difficulties.

According to the typology of A.I. Prigozhin, problems are divided into built-in, sociocultural and situational, and their formulations are divided into nominal, cause-and-effect and antithetical. An example of a combination of these types of problems is given in Table. 1.2.1.

Table 1.2.1

Typology of organizational problems

Problems built into the organization represent contradictions inherent in the organization, arising between the stability of the organization and its development, between the goals of the organization and the goals of its employees, etc. These are essential problems that can never be completely resolved.

Sociocultural problems of the organization caused by the environment in which the organization is located. These are habits, traditions, established views, experience, etc. These problems are surmountable, but the solution to some of them takes a long time (more than one generation of workers will change before the problem disappears completely).

Situational problems depend on the situation in the organization and its environment, so they are different every time.

The nominative type of formulation is reminiscent of complaints in intonation and is not very significant in its severity and relevance. IN cause-and-effect type of formulations there is a cause and effect of the problem situation. Antithesis type of formulation fixes a contradiction and is the most developed of the problem formulations, since it allows you to formulate tasks.

1.3. Analysis of the problem situation

Methods for identifying problems are varied and are selected based on the goals of researching problems and the nature of information sources. The main methods for studying problems are given in table. 1.3.1.

Structuring the problem field allows us to identify among the entire list of problems the most significant (nodal problems that cause other problems) and problems that are solved automatically when examining other problems in the catalog (resulting problems). Of particular value in structuring the problem field is the identification of the main (root, key) problem, on the solution of which other problems depend, but it itself does not depend on any of them.

Table 1.3.1

Methods for identifying organizational problems

As a result, we get a graph of the organization’s problems, from which it follows what the organization should do first, second, and third. the main problem organization requires strategic decisions, which predetermines the formulation of appropriate goals.

1.4. Goal setting in organizations

The organization as a mixed system is multi-purpose system. One of the possible models of system goals is shown in Table. 1.4.1. The purpose of this table is to demonstrate the position according to which the content of the system’s goals changes depending on what is the object and subject of goal formation. Another task is to show what the goals are aimed at.

The contents of the table show that the organization as a system strives for passive stability and existence regardless of external environment. The external environment represented by competitors and consumers of the organization's product forces the organization to respond to their requests using the method of operational management. If management subjects set goals that are future-oriented and capable of changing the external environment, then the organization is able to initiate the events it needs to make a breakthrough and attack competitors. Life success the client in this case is determined by the success of the organization itself.

Thus, the content of goals is determined not only by the subject of management, but also by the object and subject of goal formation itself.

Table 1.4.1

Goal Composition Model

1.5. Strategic goal system

I. Ansoff, considering distinctive features strategy, gives the following definition of strategy and its guideline (vision): “The guideline is the goal that the company seeks to achieve, and strategy is the means to achieve the goal.”

But from systems theory it is known that (we paraphrase the definition) a means to achieve a goal is a system. It follows that strategy is a system for achieving a goal. Let's try to substantiate the thesis put forward by analyzing the structure of the organization's goals.

In the early 1980s, A.I. Prigozhin, considering the main organizational goals, proposed three types of goals that are not related to each other by hierarchy: task goals, orientation goals and system goals. Goals-tasks reflect the external purpose of the organization (the terminology of strategic management in this case is more consistent with the expression “mission to the outside”). Goal-orientations correspond to the common interests of employees and can be realized through the organization (mission inward). Goals-systems realize the structure’s need for balance, stability, integrity (more precisely, the goal of ensuring the systematicity of the organization, which is characterized by structure, a set of connections between parts of the system), etc.

It follows that the system of organizational goals is a “system configurator” - a system consisting of subsystems represented in different description languages. Let's try to imagine a model of the composition of a system of strategic management goals, which we will then transform into a model of structure. However, we will first make a few comments, guided by the provisions of system analysis.

Any activity is purposeful. An organization usually has several types of activities, so there may be several goals. In addition, differences in goals lead to different definitions of the same phenomena (definitions here mean the language model of a system). The above indicates that the goals of the organization can lie in several intersecting planes, and the point (or line) of intersection of these planes in general view will reflect the location of the overall (integral) goal of the organization.

The goal here is understood as “a subjective image (abstract model) of a non-existent but desired state of the environment that would solve the problem that has arisen.”

If now the image of the desired future is projected onto the environment surrounding the object under study, then the projection will be a set of environmental elements, the use of whose properties makes it possible to achieve the goal. Such a projection of a goal on the environment represents a means of achieving the goal - a system (a set of interconnected elements that is isolated from the environment and interacts with it as a whole).

Reasoning in a similar way and based on previously given definitions, it is possible to build several subsystems based on different languages descriptions characterizing the goal in question.

The system of goals shows that vision, mission, objective goal, strategy characterize the same goal, in different planes (A, B and C - graphical model in Fig. 1.5.1). Moreover, these characteristics of the goal occupy the same (upper) level of the hierarchy.

Rice. 1.5.1. Graphical model of the target configurator

Thus, Fig. 1.5.1 illustrates the relationships between the main target characteristics of the organization and allows us to draw a number of conclusions.

Strategy is a system for achieving an organization's goals.

The direction of the strategy is determined by the mission addressed to the environment external to the organization and inside the organization: in social structure and a structure that ensures the maintenance of the systemic properties of the organization.

The strategy lies on the same plane as operational management organization, which consists of elements of the external environment and is poorly structured;

The purpose of the organization is a system, the subsystems of which lie in different planes, but are united by it and through it communication is carried out between the elements of different subsystems.

The goals of an organization, like any system, are formed under the influence of many factors (Fig. 1.5.2), from which it follows that goals may vary in time of achievement and orientation; by subjects of goal setting and direction in space; objective, like the properties of any system, and subjective, like the image that the organization strives for. The degree to which a goal is achieved is determined by the criteria chosen for a particular decision.

During the problem analysis:

It breaks down into many separate parts;

The main and secondary characteristics of the problem are identified;

Possible relationships and interdependencies between them are identified;

The whole set of causes and effects is recognized;

The patterns of occurrence and existence of the problem are determined;

As part of the analysis function, the manager seeks to specify the problem facing him by processing the largest possible amount of information relevant to the problem.

Problem situation is a set of circumstances (conditions) arising under the influence of internal and external influences that disrupt the specified functioning of the system and require its transfer to a new state. Problem literally translated from Greek means obstacle, difficulty, task. This is a discrepancy between the actual combination of factors and the one that is desirable or optimal from the point of view of the existing characteristics of the object. A problematic situation may present several problems.

The main characterizing feature of any problem situation is the frequency of its possible occurrence. It is possible to distinguish two categories of problem situations:

stereotypical;

unique, which are divided into:

○ formalized problem situations;

○ weakly formalized problem situations.

Stereotypic situations mean their frequent repetition. Consequently, it becomes possible to accumulate experience in preparing design options and solutions. At the same time, it is permissible to use some stereotypes in developing a plan and solution, which makes it possible to formalize and technologize the procedure for preparing options for exiting the situation.

The essence of management analytics in this case is the classification of problem situations and the search for such an option for each class of situations. management decision, which in each situation of a given class would not be very different from the optimal one, and the resulting deviation would be acceptable in this situation. The description of the characteristics of situations of each class and the corresponding solutions that are optimal on average for the class forms the knowledge base of the management body on a particular problem. It is clear that at each significant time period the knowledge base on a given problem has its own level of completeness and completeness.

Unique are situations that generally have not been encountered in the past. Some parts of the problem may have existed before, but overall it looks different. The use of stereotypical solutions can have unpredictable consequences.

However, this does not exhaust the variety of problem situations. In the process of activities at various levels of the organization, a variety of different and unpredictable situations constantly arise. They can be classified in different ways (Fig. 6.1). For example, they can be divided into three groups: internal environment, external environment and the situation of interaction between the internal and external environment. Situations can be of a system-wide nature, relate to individual subsystems or elements of the system, or have a pronounced production, organizational, economic, social or psychological character. Much more often they are complex in nature and require comprehensive research based on the use of a systematic approach.

Rice. 6.1. Classification of situations that arise

in the activities of enterprises

Management situations can be: simple and complex, easily visible and difficult to analyze. They may require short-term, long-term, global, partial, comprehensive programs actions or one-time measures.

It should be borne in mind that a separate area of ​​management in an organization is located in the system of the general management situation, which includes the state of the organization and human resources, the level of main tasks and development problems. The general management situation determines the assessment of a specific situation, the selection of priority tasks, the planning of the manager’s time, and the work of employees.

Each situation can be divided into separate elements according to the degree of their influence on the achievement of main goals and objectives. These elements are variable and constant. The manager must be able to quickly and clearly highlight the essential, important elements situations, including:

The current state of implementation of the planned plan, program (for the past period);

Personnel potential, labor productivity;

The state of the material and technical base, its possible changes;

Goals and objectives of management in a specific area, their prospects;

The relationship between material resources (volume, structure, limitations, conditions for increase) and set goals and objectives; reserves and conditions for their identification;

The scale of operational space, the possibility of clearly recording it and probable changes;

Main factors of regulation (behavior, organization);

Temporary conditions (deadlines, progress of the production process) and other restrictions that must be taken into account when performing the task;

Conditions environment and the quality of relationships with her;

Internal and external market of buyers and suppliers, infrastructure at the location of the enterprise;

Material, moral incentives and their effectiveness;

Managers' performance;

Problems as tasks that require solutions are an integral element of the management situation. The internal structure of the problem may include elements such as:

Subject (characterizes the contradiction that has arisen, which is expressed in the question: “What is the essence of the problem?”);

Object (answers the question: “Where did the problem occur?”);

Subject (one who is associated with the problem, its social, intellectual element);

Connections (characterize both structural inter-element connections (constraints) and relationships with other problems. They are reflected in the question: “What is the problem connected with?”);

The purpose of solving the problem (expressed in the question: “Why is it necessary to solve the problem?”).

Another structuring of the problem is possible (Fig. 6.2).

Rice. 6.2. Circular diagram of the structure of the problem field

Problems differ in content, level of solution, time factor, and methods used (Fig. 6.3).

Rice. 6.3. Classification of problems

There are other classifications of problems. For example, the following stand out:

By purpose - cognitive (theoretical) And problems of implementing solutions (behavioral);

In relation to the organization - external And internal; straight And indirect;

According to the time factor - long-term And short-term.

Problems are also divided into planned and unplanned, extensively and intensively solved, etc.

N. N. Trenev proposed a classification of problems of a typical enterprise, assuming that state and commercial enterprises have them in common (Fig. 6.4).

It is possible to classify problems depending on the degree of certainty of their elements:

1. With fully controllable and predictable parameters. Such problems provide a deterministic result when solved and are resolved using an adaptive method. In management activities, this situation is not very widespread and is mainly characteristic of tactical situations.

2. Partially(by 40–80%) manageable And predicted parameters. They are most often encountered in practice, which is associated with evolutionary changes in economic conditions. When solving these problems, all available methods are used in different combinations.

3. With the uncontrollable and unpredictable(over 90% uncontrolled parameters) parameters, born from revolutionary changes in engineering, technology, and management. As a rule, a manager cannot have algorithms for getting out of such situations.

Problems can be classified according to their sources:

The first group of problems ( functioning problems) is due to the fact that actual performance results have not reached the required level;

Second group ( development problems) means the discrepancy between potential opportunities and the goals that have been set.

It is necessary to distinguish problems from “pseudo-problems”. The first ones are of a constructive vital nature, the second ones have only apparent significance.

The sequence of analytical reasoning when considering problem situations contains the following stages (Fig. 6.5):

System archetypes help managers effectively and conveniently solve problems of structuring, systematizing and accumulating knowledge and skills. The remarkable properties of archetypes lie not only in the fact that they allow one to concentrate complex managerial experience, but also in the fact that they allow managers to apply knowledge of related disciplines when resolving problem situations: psychology, cognitive science, mathematics, ecology, physics, anthropology, genetics, sociology.

Archetype – it's something familiar. Work experience accumulates, over time the pattern is realized, an archetype of the situation is formed, which is subsequently applied in practice. In a dynamically changing market environment, the archetypal vision of problems becomes an indispensable tool for a manager in order to meet the minimum time needed to solve problems.

Obviously, it is cheaper to periodically conduct a comprehensive diagnosis of the organization and its individual components (divisions, areas of activity, individual employees, projects, resources) than to start problems, turning them into chronic ones. On early stage many problems are just toys and their solution does not require significant effort. Neglected problems can threaten the very existence of the organization.

Rice. 6.7. Option for complex diagnostics of an enterprise

Problem situation this:

1. Preliminary formulation of the inventive problem. The description of the problem situation usually contains answers to the following questions; what is the main goal of solving the problem; what prevents you from achieving your goal; what is needed to eliminate the difficulty, the interfering factor; what the solution to the problem will provide for the individual and society; what is its relevance? The problem situation represents the initial component in the formulation of the inventive problem.
2. The situation before starting the search for a solution, when the solution is potentially unknown at the time the problem is posed. If, when setting a problem (in a broad sense), the path to its solution and the necessary means for this can be known to the developer and all that remains is to implement the solution, then only a narrow problem exists. If at the time of setting the problem the solution is potentially unknown, then a problem situation occurs - a problem.

The classification of a problem situation is carried out primarily on such grounds as the level of description (empirical, theoretical, methodological) and the type of activity (natural: man - a system of nature, social, technical, cognitive), within which there are both needs and means of satisfying them .

A preliminary description of a problem situation includes two stages: the formation of the structure of the situation, usually connecting the main contradiction with the contradictions generated by it and other contradictions associated with it; assessment of the parameters of the problem situation and clarification of the environment surrounding it.

The main elements of describing a problem situation are answers to questions reflecting: the essence of the problem situation (What? Where? Who? Why? For what purpose?); the emergence and development of a problem situation (When?); main factors and conditions (Under what conditions?); relevance and urgency of solving a problem situation; degree of completeness and reliability of information.

A preliminary analysis of a problem situation is carried out in order to establish its existence (real or imaginary problem situation) and the reasons for its occurrence. The latter allows us to reveal the most significant factors influencing the solution of the problem.

Analysis of the history of the emergence of a problem situation is associated with establishing its novelty, and the forecast of its development is associated with justifying the need and direction of its solution.

Comparison with other problem situations (more general, similar, more specific), along with further clarification of its main elements, also makes it possible to use, in whole or in part, a solution to similar problems existing in practice. Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of possible undesirable consequences, which is very often neglected at this stage.

The final description of the problem situation consists of determining the degree of completeness and reliability of information, its regrouping and adaptation to specific conditions. Translating a description of a problem situation from natural language into a special scientific language makes it possible to achieve unambiguous understanding of it, and simplifying the structure of the description usually deepens its understanding. An important element of describing a problem situation is the recording of knowledge that is not known for the case under consideration.

An example of a problem situation description

a) Inside the workshop there is a pneumatic transport with a pipe diameter of 300 mm, which periodically delivers powder and small plastic blanks to work sites. The workshop was transferred to the production of new products, for the production of which it is also necessary to supply large workpieces with overall dimensions, significantly exceeding the diameter of the pipeline.

b) It is necessary to ensure mechanized supply of large workpieces from the warehouse to the workplace.

c) Large workpieces cannot be delivered by pneumatic transport due to the small diameter of the pipes. There are no transport paths inside the workshop, which makes it difficult to use wheeled vehicles. There is no free space in the upper part for installation and operation of crane equipment.

d) Solving the problem will eliminate the manual transportation of workpieces in this workshop and in other similar cases.

Operation 2. Description of the function (purpose) of the Technical Object (TO). The description contains clear and brief description technical means, with the help of which the need can be satisfied. In this case, it is recommended to first give a qualitative and then a quantitative description of the function that needs to be implemented using the technical object (TO) being developed (or the need that needs to be satisfied). The table provides examples of descriptions of functions, where for each TO a qualitative and then a quantitative description of the functions is first given in the form of separate components a), b), c), which should be read as one sentence.

Examples of function descriptions

Operation 3. Selecting a prototype and compiling a list of requirements. The description of a problem situation often indicates a prototype that needs to be improved. The prototype is often used as a basis when searching for an improved solution. At the same time, it is recommended to select 1-2 additional prototypes that have certain advantages compared to the original one. In this case, first of all, similar technical solutions in the leading class of technical maintenance facility. The leading class of maintenance, compared to the one under consideration, has a similar function and a higher technical level. For example, for a car the leading class should be aviation, for construction – mechanical engineering, etc.

A list of basic requirements for a prototype is compiled based on the level of its description in the form of a list of requirements for the operating principle or technical solution.

Each technical object must be represented descriptions having hierarchical subordination. Descriptions characterized by two properties:

1. each subsequent description is more detailed and more fully characterizes the technical object compared to the previous one;

An example of a description of a problem situation - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Example of description of a problem situation” 2017, 2018.