Ancient culture presentation. Presentation on the topic: Ancient culture
The history of Ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural eras: Aegean or Kritomekenian (III-II millennium BC), Homeric (XI-IX centuries BC); Archaic (VIII-VI centuries BC); Classical (V-IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (second half of the 4th-mid 1st century BC).
The period of Homeric Greece Around the 8th-7th centuries. BC. a blind singer-storyteller created two great poems called “Illiad” and “Odyssey” (the poems were written down several centuries later). Homer’s works opened a most important page in the history of ancient artistic culture. It is no coincidence that the philosopher Plato called the poet “the educator of Greece.”
During this period, the Greeks built temples to their gods, but they did not reach us; only the remains of the foundations and images on vases were preserved. In the 8th century. BC. ceramics flourished. With the help of a potter's wheel and firing, many works were created, both everyday and ritual. Ceramics of that time, painted in the so-called “geometric style” - with patterns of circles, rhombuses, triangles, etc., have survived to this day. Amphora. 750 BC
Greek mythology There are many wonderful forces in nature, But there is nothing stronger than man. Sophocles “Antigone” During this period, Greek mythology took shape, within the framework of which a person creates a holistic picture of the world, the main feature of which was the fairy-tale-religious convention. The gods of Olympus became the source of subjects and images of artistic creativity.
Son of Zeus and the nymph Maya, patron of trade. Aphrodite's husband, lame blacksmith god, patron of fire. Goddess of wisdom and just war. Consort of the king of the gods. The patroness of family and marriage, the Goddess of the Hunt helped women during childbirth. Twin sister of Apollo. God of the underworld, husband of Persephone. The Lord of the Seas exhibits a wild and independent disposition. God of wine and fun. Goddess of love and beauty. Supreme Olympian god, ruler of gods and men Test yourself:
Archaic Period The art of the Greek archaic - new in style and spirit - arose in the era of the formation of republican rule, the emergence of policies - Greek city-states. The art of Greek archaic art has a special harmony and poetic Feeling; it is addressed to man and reflects the joy of life. Greek architecture, like sculpture, developed in the archaic era.
Temple of Apollo at Delphi During the Archaic era, Greek sanctuaries were built. The sanctuaries were the focus of ancient rituals and gradually large centers of the arts. Temple of Athena Aphaia on the island. Aegina BC. The temple became the prototype of the Parthenon.
Sculpture occupied a large place in archaic art, which decorated not only temples, but was also an integral part of religious cult. The new ideal of beauty - a healthy human body - is embodied in the surviving statues of Kora Kurosa. Naked young men - athletes. Girls are always in clothes (drapery).
The classical period of ancient art continued the traditions of the archaic in all types of arts: architecture, painting, plastic arts. Classical period The greatest works of Greek art were created in the 5th century. BC e. The beginning of this period was marked by the victorious struggle of the Freedom-loving Greeks with the Persians. In advanced cities, a democratic republican form of government is emerging. The ideals of democratic cities, imbued with the pathos of the heroic struggle against enemies, found expression in art, literature, and architecture.
The layout of the Ereikhtheion is very complex and asymmetrical; the temple was built on different levels and divided into two parts. Three porticos adjoin the temple, including the portico of the caryatids (a sculptural depiction of female figures carrying a ceiling). Opposite the Parthenon, the Erechtheion was erected, dedicated to Pallas Athena (mother) and her husband Poseidon Erechtheus.
Numerous sculptors worked in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. Among them, the three most significant stand out: Myron, Polykleitos and Phidias. In his work, Myron finally overcame the last vestiges of archaic art with its rigidity and immobility of forms. In the middle of the 5th century. BC e. he created a statue of a young man throwing a discus. He conveyed the complex pose of an athlete straining for a throw vividly and convincingly. And in his other works, Miron sought to reveal all the richness and diversity of human movements. Discus thrower Athena Marsyas
Unlike Myron, his younger contemporary Polykleitos usually portrayed a calmly standing man. Particularly famous was his statue of Doryphoros (spearman), an athlete-warrior who embodied the ideal of a beautiful and valiant citizen of a free polis (c. 440 BC). The pose of the young man, slightly bent with one leg and leaning on the other, is simple and natural, the muscles of his strong body are conveyed vividly and convincingly. Polykleitos built his sculptures according to a system he developed of a mathematically precise relationship between the parts of the human body. The ancient Greeks called the statue of Doryphorus a canon, that is, a rule; many generations of sculptors followed its proportions in their works. Amazon DiadumenDoriphoros
At the end of the 5th century. BC e. The period of crisis of the slave policies of Greece begins. The war between Athens and Sparta weakened Greece. The worldview of the Greeks and their attitude towards art are changing. The majestic and sublime art of the 5th century, glorifying the hero-citizen, gives way to works reflecting individual feelings and personal experiences. Sculptor of the first half of the 4th century BC. e. Skopas depicts wounded warriors with faces distorted by suffering. He was famous for his statue of the Maenad, the companion of the god of wine Dionysus, rushing in a frantic, drunken dance (a smaller marble copy is located in Dresden, in the Albertinum). Pothos Maenad
The gods also began to be depicted in a new way. In the statues of the famous sculptor of the 4th century. BC e. Praxitele's gods, having lost their greatness and power, acquired features of earthly, human beauty. He depicted the god Hermes resting after a long journey (Museum, Olympia). In the arms of the god is the baby Dionysus, whom he amuses with a bunch of grapes. Hermes with the Child Dionysus Torso of Aphrodite Venus Medici Venus Apollo Sauroctone
Apoxyomenes Hercules Sculptor of the second half of the 4th century. BC e. Lysippos created a new image of a young athlete. His statue of Apoxyomenos (a young man clearing sand from his body) emphasizes not the pride of the winner, but his fatigue and excitement after the competition (Vatican Museum, Rome). Hermes putting on sandals
In addition to temples, theaters are among the highest achievements of Greek architecture. These open structures with raised seats for spectators had excellent acoustics. The theater in Epidaurus, built by the architect Polycletus the Younger in the 4th century, was famous. BC e.
The Age of Hellenism A new stage in the history of Greece, which began after the conquests of Alexander the Great. At this time, art was called upon to glorify the victories of the royal rulers of Greece and the countries of the east conquered by Alexander the Great. This art embodied a new idea of the greatness of the world, united in the vast space of Hellenic culture. Lion hunt Battle of Alexander the Great with the Persians
12. Name of the sculpture and era Name of the sculpture and author.
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The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to refer to a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, but it largely coincides with the time of the existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th to the 9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and until the 5th centuries. AD - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.
One of the most remarkable phenomena of ancient Greek culture is theater. It arose from folk songs and dances during holidays in honor of the god Dionysus. From the ritual songs that were sung while dressed in goat skins, tragedy was born (tragos - goat, ode - song); A comedy was born from mischievous and cheerful songs. Theater of Ancient Greece Theatrical performances were considered a school of education, and the state paid great attention to them. Performances took place several times a year on major holidays and lasted for several days in a row. 3 tragedies and 2 comedies were staged. During the heyday of Greek culture (VI - V centuries BC), the most outstanding Greek tragic poets, classics of not only Greek but also world literature, lived and worked in Athens.
The leading architectural structures of classical Greece were temples, theaters, and public buildings. But the main architectural structure is the temple. The most famous examples that have survived to this day in the Athenian Acropolis are the Parthenon and Erechtheion temples. Styles in ancient Greek architecture changed successively: Doric, Ionic Corinthian. A distinctive feature of these styles is the shape of the columns - an indispensable attribute of ancient Greek buildings. The main temple of Ancient Athens - the Parthenon
Greek sculpture was initially inferior to the sculpture of the ancient East. But from the 5th century. BC. reached unprecedented prosperity. It conveys not only the figure and face, but also the movement and even the feelings of the people depicted. The following sculptors enjoyed particular fame and glory: Myron, Polykleitos, Phidias, Praxiteles, Scopas, Lysippos. Miron. "Disco thrower" Sculpture of the early classics
Painting was widespread in ancient Greece in the form of frescoes and mosaics that decorate temples and buildings, but they have hardly survived to this day. Examples of surviving paintings include the famous Greek black-figure and red-figure vases. Ancient Greek painting. Black-figure vases
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Ancient Roman culture went through a complex path of development from the culture of the Roman community, absorbing the cultural traditions of ancient Greece, falling under the influence of Etruscan, Hellenistic cultures and the cultures of the peoples of the ancient East. Roman culture became the breeding ground for the culture of the Romano-Germanic peoples of Europe. Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheater
Roman culture, like Greek culture, is closely connected with the religious ideas of the population of Ancient Rome. In the Roman mind, every object, every phenomenon had its own spirit, its own deity. Each house had its own Vesta - the goddess of the hearth. The gods knew every movement and breath of man from birth to death. Another curious feature of early Roman religion and people's worldview is the absence of specific images of gods.
Rome and other cities of the empire were decorated with magnificent buildings - temples, palaces, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses. Amphitheaters and circuses in which animals were poisoned, gladiator fights and public executions were staged were a feature of the cultural life of Rome. Roman Forum The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public figures of the state. In many cities, houses with 3 to 6 floors were built. Arch in Piazzale Rome
Palaces and public buildings were decorated with wall paintings and paintings, the main subjects of which were episodes from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as images of water and greenery. During the imperial period, portrait sculpture received special attention, a characteristic feature of which was exceptional realism in conveying the features of the person depicted. Many works of sculpture were beautifully executed copies of Greek and Hellenistic works of art. A particularly widespread form of art was mosaic, processing of precious metals and bronze.
Ancient culture is a unique phenomenon that had a huge impact on the development of the entire European civilization. The achievements of Greek art partially formed the basis for the aesthetic ideas of subsequent eras. Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the appropriateness of things and actions, justice in the life of society, was able to complement Greek culture. The synthesis of these two cultures created a unique ancient culture, which became the basis of European culture.
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ANCIENT CULTURE Antiquity is the period of one and a half thousand years from its origin in 1 thousand BC. Ancient Greece until the death of the Roman Empire in the 5th century. AD Ancient culture is the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in the corresponding historical period. Aegean (Crito-Mycenaean culture) – III-II millennium BC. e. Culture of Ancient Greece – XI-I centuries BC. - Homeric period – XI-VII centuries BC. - archaic period – VII-VI centuries BC. - classical period – V-IV centuries BC. - Hellenistic period – IV-I centuries BC. e. 3. Etruscan culture - VIII-VI centuries BC. 4. Culture of Ancient Rome - V century. BC - V century AD - period of the republic V – I centuries. BC. - period of the empire of the 1st century. BC. – V century ADSlide 2
Aegean culture. Crete. Mycenae. Aegean art, which is sometimes called Crete-Mycenaean, is the fruit of a culture that arose in the Bronze Age in the Aegean Sea basin: on the islands of this sea, on mainland Greece (on the Peloponnese peninsula) and on the western coast of Asia Minor. Its main center was Crete, and then Mycenae.
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AEGEAN CULTURE CRETE MYCENEAN (Minoan) (Achaean) Island of Crete Mainland Greece Asia Minor Cities of Knossos, Festus of the city of Mycenae, Tiryns city of Troy d\z 1. You are probably familiar with the phrase “Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer.” Who said it and for what reason? 2. In what Greek legends and myths is the island of Crete mentioned?
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His passion brought success to a cause in which no one but him believed for a long time. As a child, Heinrich Schliemann announced to his father: “I don’t believe that nothing remains of Troy.” I'll find her. And he found it... But before that he still did a lot of things. The son of a modest pastor, who was left without any means at the end of his life, Heinrich Schliemann was forced to quit school in order to earn a living. Then, little by little, he succeeds in commerce, becomes a wealthy man, and finally makes a significant fortune. His other achievement at this time was his knowledge of languages. According to his own system, he studies language by language. Knowledge of languages helped Schliemann in his trading operations, and the millions he acquired allowed him to begin to realize his cherished dream: from under the layers of earth, piled up over thousands of years, to discover the ruins of a great city along with the treasures of its king. He began excavations in a place that most closely matched Homer's descriptions. It was the Hissarlik Hill on the Asia Minor coast of the Aegean Sea. He found a golden treasure, decided that it was the treasure of King Priam, and announced that he had found Troy. Mycenae reached its highest point between the 16th and 13th centuries. BC e., which means they flourished even after the collapse of Crete, where Aegean art apparently arose. But Mycenae was excavated before the Cretan palaces, and therefore the man who discovered Mycenae should be considered the discoverer of the Aegean cultural world. This man is the German Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890).
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Subsequently, it turned out that Schliemann was mistaken: the city of Priam lay above the one that he took for Troy. But the real Troy, although it was greatly damaged, he still dug up. The treasure found by Schliemann belonged to a king who lived a thousand years before Priam. And then Schliemann went to the Peloponnese, again following the instructions of Homer, to discover Mycenae, where the conqueror of the Trojans, the leader of the Achaeans and the leader of the allied army, the “lord of men” Agamemnon, once reigned. Schliemann dug up Mycenae and found a treasury there in the royal graves with a pile of priceless gold jewelry. Perhaps not Agamemnon himself, but Schliemann could rightfully declare: “I have discovered a completely new world for archeology, which no one even suspected.” Schliemann achieved unprecedented fame; one can say that he was one of the most famous people of his time. And in Crete, the English archaeologist Arthur Evans continued and completed his work.
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Knossos Palace At the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Many palaces were built in Crete. The palace was a large group of buildings built around a courtyard and intended for both religious and secular needs. The palace could serve as the residence of the ruler and the center of government for the entire region. It was both a city and a fortress. There were palaces in several Cretan cities: Knossos, Phaistos, Gournia, Mali and Kato Zaro. All Cretan palaces have a number of common features. The courtyard was a rectangle with sides 52 by 28 meters. Almost all palaces are oriented to the cardinal points - their courtyard stretches from north to south. Each palace is oriented towards a “sacred mountain”, clearly visible from it.
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Cretan art avoids immobility, heavy supports, and emphatically stable structures. Despite the enormous size of the palaces and the apparent simplicity of the structures, these structures are quite complex. Various interior spaces are connected to each other in the most bizarre way, and long corridors unexpectedly lead to dead ends. The floors are connected by many stairs. The visitor's journey through the palace - with its contrasts of light and darkness, isolation and openness, darkness and sonorous, rich colors, constant ascents and descents - resembles life itself with its unpredictability and non-stop movement.
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In front of the western facade of the Knossos Palace there was a theater platform for ritual stage performances, and crowded holidays were also held there. In all likelihood, palaces were considered an earthly reflection of the habitats of the celestials; the latter included goddesses who were worshiped in sanctuaries. In the sanctuaries, sacrifices and ritual meals were performed, and gifts in the form of dishes and terracotta figurines were presented to the gods. Although kings lived in palaces, it is possible that these buildings were considered the property of goddesses. The ruler, whose origin was thought to be divine, acted as the son or husband (and often son-husband) of the goddess. The ruler's wife was a priestess and represented the goddess in the most important rituals.
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At the Palace of Knossos, the main entrance, the Processional Corridor, was decorated with a painting of the goddess being presented with gifts and new clothing. Holidays that were held in connection with the beginning of the new year were very popular in ancient times. In Knossos, mostly young men took part in the procession of the monstrance bearers. They carried precious vessels and a special gift - a Cretan culotte for the “newborn” goddess. The priestess-goddess accepted the gifts standing, holding in both hands the Cretan symbols of power - double axes (labryses), from which, apparently, the name of the palace came - the Labyrinth (Palace of Labryses).
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Mycenaean cities, more like fortresses, were built in secluded places in the mountains. Enclosed by powerful walls, they are real strongholds. Such are Mycenae and Tiryns on the Peloponnese peninsula, built from huge blocks of natural stone. This type of masonry is called “cyclopean”. Mycenaean palaces are significantly different in structure from Cretan ones - their forms are simple and strict. The palace building is a megaron - an elongated structure, oriented to the cardinal points, without a courtyard. The building consists of three main rooms strung along the main axis. MYCENEAN PALACES
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. In the XIV century. BC e. The entrance to the city was decorated with the so-called “Lion Gate”, decorated with a scene of lions worshiping the deity embodied in the Cretan column.
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Among the greatest achievements of Mycenaean art are the monuments of funerary art. Next to the Mycenaean palace was the royal necropolis (tomb). The necropolis was located below the road level and had the shape of a circle surrounded by a stone ring. In these necropolises dating back to the 16th century. BC e., all the richest treasures of the Mycenaean kings were kept. In each “circle” there are several deep shaft tombs where members of the royal family were buried. The tombs have a rectangular shape, are made very roughly, and do not even have the internal lining of the walls with stone. Golden masks were found in the burials, highly stylized, but clearly conveying the features of the Mycenaean rulers. Pronounced Indo-European features are sometimes truly noble (the mask of Agamemnon). Domed tomb of King Atreus Shaft tomb of Agamemnon
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The images of the Cretans on the frescoes in the palaces correspond to their ideas about the world. The figures in the images are always fragile, with wasp-like waists, as if ready to break. Participants in the sacred procession in the Processional Corridor walk with their heads proudly thrown back and their torsos tilted back. The male figures are painted in shades of brown, the female figures in white. MASTERPIECES OF AEGEAN PAINTING
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Flowers played a huge role in the life of ancient people. They were also endowed with special holiness; they were seen as incarnations of gods. In the Sanctuary of the Ladies, where the ceremony of presenting the goddess with a new dress was depicted, the adjacent room was painted with papyrus flowers - huge, with snow-white corollas and elongated leaves, symbolizing the inviolability of the gods. According to legend, as soon as Persephone picked a narcissus flower, the earth opened up, Hades, the god of the underworld, appeared and kidnapped her. Probably, a Feraean ritual was also associated with this legend.
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In the West House, the sanctuary was two adjacent rooms on the second floor, richly decorated with frescoes on nautical themes, which is why the building was originally called the Captain's House. Here the solemn rite of rebirth of the goddess took place. In the smaller room there was a special cleft, similar to a crack in a rock, in fact, from there came the goddess, whom the priestess represented.
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The goddess appeared from the underwater world, where she experienced temporary death, as evidenced by the cut lilies depicted in the walls. The goddess herself is depicted as if in a “transitional” state - in the partition near the door connecting the rooms. The priestess solemnly walked to the corner of the room, where on one of the eight windows there was an altar decorated in the Cretan style with dolphins diving among coral reefs. Here, to the altar, the young priests carried bundles of fish. corresponding historical period.
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The image of the “Parisian Woman”, an elegant girl depicted in one of the rooms on the second floor of the Knossos Palace, breathes special charm. The fresco represented a ritual feast, the participants of which sat opposite each other with bowls in their hands.
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In the fresco depicting “Taurocatapsia” - a ritual fight with a bull - not only men, but also women fight with the bull. The female goddess was the main opponent of the bull god, her son-husband. She sacrificed him every year at a similar festival - so that he, having outlived his annual cycle, could be born again. The taurocatapsy fresco shows how dynamic and lively Minoan art was. Frozen poses, fixed glances and self-absorption are alien to him - that is, everything that was so dear to the Egyptians and the inhabitants of the ancient Mesopotamia. For Cretan art, the important thing is the moment, the correctly captured movement, the thrill of the present. Here is a young man doing a somersault over the back of a bull, now the bull has already pierced one of his opponents with its horn.
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In the 3rd millennium BC. e. The art of the islands of the Aegean Sea and the coast of Asia Minor reached a high peak. The so-called Cycladic idols (“Harper”) became universally famous. These are marble figurines found in burials of the Cyclades, as well as in Crete and Balkan Greece. The idols - sometimes miniature, and sometimes reaching one and a half meters in height - are figures of naked people standing in constrained poses (“Great Goddess”). AEGEAN CYCLADIAN SCULPTURE Great goddess. Cycladic idol. Ser. III millennium BC e. These gods were supposed to help the dead find a new life. The figurines with connected legs, weakly outlined arms and chest are completed with a very conventional image of the head, in which only the nose stands out. Researchers suggest that the remaining facial features were painted, but traces of them have not been preserved.
Cretan vase painters reached rare heights of skill. They made vessels of various shapes and sizes, from small cups with thin, almost transparent walls to huge clay ovoid pithoi, reaching two meters in height. Grain, water, and wine were stored in pithos. Minoan vases do not have wide, heavy pallets; they gravitate towards volumetric, spherical shapes. For greater stability, they were sometimes buried in the ground, completely or partially. “KAMARES” STYLE VASES
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The vases were painted in bright colors using red, white, blue and black paint. The compositions included both geometric forms and images of living nature. Vases often depicted mollusks, coral reefs and octopuses entwining their tentacles throughout the vessel. Cretan artists were especially fond of flowers - lilies, tulips, crocuses. Flowers were depicted both in flowerpots and growing in flower beds. Remarkable compositions represent flowers bowing their heads under gusts of strong wind. The most beautiful vases of the Minoan era were found in the Kamares cave near Festa, which is where their name came from - “Kamares” vases.
You are beginning to study the most important part of the artistic heritage antiquity. The culture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, which is the greatest creation of mankind and at the same time the cradle of European culture, is usually called ancient. Greek and Latin languages, works of art, mythology and literature, scientific knowledge and much more became its integral part. The history of world art is replete with reproductions of ancient scenes, themes of mythology, history and everyday life. Almost all known literary genres, many philosophical systems, the main principles of architecture and sculpture, and the foundations of many sciences go back to antiquity. The thousand-year history of antiquity has accumulated priceless and unsurpassed treasures of the human spirit, which not only are not outdated, but have also received the honorable right to be called classical, that is, exemplary.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE.
1.Periods in the history of ancient Greek culture.
In the history of ancient Greek culture, it is customary to distinguish the following periods:
III–II thousand BC: Cretan-Mycenaean, associated with the flourishing of states located on the islands of the Aegean Sea and in a number of cities of mainland Greece (some art historians consider the Cretan-Mycenaean culture to be a special period, separate from the ancient one, in the history of the MHC);
XI–IX V. BC.: Homeric(or geometry), or the “dark ages” that came after the invasion of warlike tribes, a time of cultural decline;
VIII–VI BC.: archaic, the early stage of development of Greek society, the period of formation of ancient art;
V–IV BC.: classical, the heyday, the pinnacle of the development of ancient art;
end IV – I BC.: Hellenistic, associated with the flourishing of the states formed on the site of the power of Alexander the Great, the rise of culture of which was based on the synthesis of Greek and local cultural traditions.
2.Creto-Mycenaean culture.
The Cretan-Mycenaean (also called Aegean) culture refers to the culture of the Bronze Age ( III–II thousand BC), which dominated the Eastern Mediterranean (the islands of Crete, Thera and others in the Aegean Sea) and in some cities of mainland Greece (Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, etc.). Its development was greatly influenced by the culture of the ancient East, in particular Egypt.
On the islands, the centers of culture were monumental palace complexes, which were also royal residences, fortresses and places of worship. The famous palace in Knossos on the island of Crete, with its majestic architecture, is reminiscent of ancient Egyptian temples with their vast columned halls and courtyards. Discovered during excavations at the turn of the twentieth century. and partially restored, the palace amazes with its complex system of rooms and exquisite decorative decoration, among which are magnificent frescoes, ceramic vases with plant and marine motifs and columns tapering downward.
Cretan art avoids immobility, heavy supports, and emphatically stable structures. The various interior spaces of the Knossos Palace are connected in the most bizarre way, and the long corridors suddenly lead to dead ends. Stairs lead from floor to floor, and the visitor finds himself first in a light courtyard, then in a loggia, then in a large main hall for feasts. The frescoes show how dynamic and alive Cretan art was.
Several Greek myths are associated with the palace. According to legend, it was ruled by the ancient king Minos[ The civilization of Crete is therefore called Minoan, and its inhabitants of that time are called Minoans.] - son of Zeus and Europa, in the same palace, called the “labyrinth” in legendsMinos imprisoned the half-bull, half-man Minotaur, to whom Athens had to sacrifice seven young men and seven girls every nine years; in the same labyrinth, with the help of Ariadne (Minos’ daughter), the Athenian hero Theseus killed the Minotaur, freeing Athens from the terrible tribute. After the flight of Theseus and Ariadne, the anger of Minos turned to Daedalus, who was helping them; Minos imprisoned the master in a labyrinth, and subsequently Daedalus, together with his son Icarus, flew away from the island with the help of homemade wings made of wax and feathers.
 | Mycenaean culture, which borrowed a lot from Cretan culture, reflected the warlike nature of the ancient Achaean tribes. In Mycenae and other cities of this period, powerful defensive structures were discovered, called cyclopean: according to Greek myths, the creators of these thick walls made of huge blocks of stone were the one-eyed giant Cyclopes. The powerful walls of Mycenae had several gates, the most famous of which, the Lion Gate, were decorated with a sculptural relief depicting two lionesses. In Mycenae and other cities, remains of royal palaces similar to Knossos (only without the courtyard) were found. Rich burials were discovered, in which funeral masks, gold and silver vessels, jewelry and weapons were found. The walls of the palaces and tombs are covered with paintings similar to those of Crete, but the manner of painting is different. The images are static and emphatically decorative. |  |
Writing monuments from this period have been found both on Crete and in the cities of mainland Greece. Inscriptions written in Cretan syllabaries (the so-called “Linear A”) have still not been deciphered, but the Mycenaean texts (“Linear B”) could be read in the middle of the 20th century.
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At the beginning of XI V. BC. some kind of disaster occurred. The weakened, degraded Cretan-Mycenaean world was destroyed by the invasion of northern tribes.
3. Homeric period.
This period (XI – IX V. BC) is usually called the “dark ages”, because information about him is very scarce and fragmentary. At this time, writing, monumental architecture and painting were absent in Greece.
It was mainly literature that developed. During this period, the foundations of mythology and epic poetry were formed, which conveyed in figurative form the life, spiritual aspirations and heroic deeds of the people. The myths reflected the Greek ideas about the origin of the world and the structure of society. The mysterious forces of nature were clothed in concrete images of gods. The images of the gods are anthropomorphic, they are characterized by human weaknesses and passions, they fight among themselves, deceive, love, have mercy and punish.
The poems created during this period (and recorded centuries later) “ Iliad" And " Odyssey"attributed to the blind poet Homer. The importance of poems in world artistic culture is extremely great; they are not only the greatest literary monuments, but also the basis of European art, ethics, and philosophy. Their ideas, plots and images have been inspiring artists, playwrights, sculptors, musicians, and filmmakers for many centuries. In Hellas itself, the Homeric epic was the basis of the education system and all professional poetry.
Art in the Homeric era was poorly developed. Only vase painting and sculpture, represented by small bronze figurines, received some development.
The paintings were dominated by a geometric style, which got its name from the clear, logically clear forms of the main painting techniques: rhombus, square, rectangle, circle, zigzag, line (therefore, in literature, the Homeric period is also called the period geometry). Products produced in various artistic centers - on the island of Thera (now Santorini), in Peloponnesian Argos, in Athens, etc. - were all made in the same style. Each such vessel contains information about the world - not only in its external form, but also in the painting.
Each symbol of the vessel painting was a detail of a conventional image of the structure of the world. In the continuous field of geometric patterns-signs, the ribbon ornament formed by a line broken at a right angle stands out especially - meander.
Amphoras of the geometric style are characterized by extremely good stability (statuary) and the impression of internal weight. It was this quality that became an integral property of architecture, which originated in the 8th century. BC e., but began to develop rapidly only in the archaic era (VII-VI centuries BC).
4. Archaic period.
The Archaic era is an early stage in the development of ancient Greek society. Then the majority of polises arose with their own system of values and a special polis, collectivist morality. The polis system fostered a special worldview among the Greeks; it taught them to value the real abilities of a human citizen, elevated to the highest artistic principle and aesthetic ideal of ancient Greece.
In the archaic era, almost all the main forms of ancient culture and art arose: philosophy, classical literature (poetry), fine arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), and various games. Priority in art belonged to the plastic arts - architecture and sculpture.
The types of architectural structures of the Archaic period are represented mainly by temples. The temple was a rectangular building with an entrance on a narrow end wall. The columns, which either framed the entrance, or divided the internal space along the longitudinal axis, or stood against the walls, were proportionate to a person, likened to his figure. In the archaic era, a single architectural language was created - order system.
An order is the order of connection between the load-bearing and non-supporting parts of a building in a post-and-beam structure. The order suggested using a single module (measure) - a span, an elbow or a foot - when constructing buildings. This gave the buildings a special completeness. Thanks to the order system, the opposing forces of upward growth and downward pressure were balanced in an architectural work. The load-bearing parts were the base ( stereobat) and its upper platform ( stylobate), as well as the supports standing on it ( columns). Load-bearing parts - the entire upper part of the building, the roof with entablature- ceiling lying directly on the columns. The entablature consisted of three subordinate parts: architrave, frieze And cornice. The column, in turn, had a base ( base), which relied on the stereobat, trunk, consisting of several drums stacked on top of each other, and ended capital, in which the “pillow” stood out ( echinus) and a square slab lying on top of it ( abacus).
The oldest type of order is Doric. It got its name from one of the main branches of the Hellenic people - the Dorians, inhabitants of the Peloponnese. The other main branch was the Ionians, who inhabited the Central Balkans (including Athens), and then moved to the Asia Minor coast and partly to the islands. This is where it arose and was formed ionic order. Dorica has traditionally been associated with a masculine, harsh style, while ionica has been associated with a feminine, soft and pampered style. In the Doric order, columns were placed directly on a stereobat without supports; these columns tapered sharply at the top and usually had a thickening in the center - entasis (to emphasize the incredible weight that the building's supports had to bear); the columns usually had twenty grooves - flute. Visually, the flutes lightened the weight of the massive supports and emphasized their upward direction.
Greek craftsmen with amazing skill inscribed temples dedicated to different gods into the natural landscape in accordance with their functions and images: some were built on the plains, others on hills, others on the edges of forests, near rivers or sacred gorges.
In Southern Italy, where from the 8th century. BC e. There were Greek colonies, and several Doric temples survived. In Paestum there are the so-called Temple of Poseidon And so-called Temple of Ceres. Also at this time, large sanctuaries began to be built - Apollo at Delphi, Hera - in Olympia, however, most of the archaic temples here have survived to our time in ruins.
Archaic sculpture is closely related to architecture, since sculpture was usually intended for religious complexes and decorated gables buildings. Even the individual statues that decorated the pediments at first looked too much like columns: the arms were pressed closely to the body, the feet stood at the same level. Male and female figures have similar proportions: thin waists and broad shoulders, with the only difference being that male figures, as a rule, appear naked, while female figures are depicted in complex robes that hide the plasticity of the body. By the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC e. proportions of female figures called statues core, and male figures called statues kouros, become more natural, and their movements become more free. A joyful smile shines on their faces. Gradually, the body shapes of the kouros and kors become stronger and more real, and by the beginning of the Greco-Persian wars, the smile disappears from the archaic faces.
In the archaic era, vase painting became one of the most developed areas of art. Thousands of workshops were created for molding and painting various vessels: amphoras for oil or wine, kraters for mixing wine with water (this was customary at Greek feasts), skyphos, oinochoi and kylix for wine, pyxis for women's jewelry.
In the first half of the 6th century. Vase painting flourished in Corinth, where Oriental-style paintings were popular - the pieces were decorated with rows of friezes of animals or fantastic creatures. In the second half of the 6th century. BC e. Corinth gave way to Athens, which from that time gradually became a kind of capital of the Hellenic world. Here, vessels made in the so-called black-figure style: black figures are depicted on a light background. The paintings were covered with a special varnish, which gave the vessel a mirror shine. In Athenian workshops, the potter and vase painter leave their signatures on the vase.
Around 30's VI century BC e. A brilliant galaxy of vase painters (the most outstanding of whom were Euphronius and Euthymides) began to work in the so-called red-figure style - the figures now became light, and the background dark. The desire for realism in the image, for harmony between the depicted figures and the shape of the vessel makes Greek ceramics of the Archaic period especially valuable from the point of view of art connoisseurs.
The Archaic era laid the foundations for the future flowering of Greek art in the classical era.
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5.Classical period.
The Classical Age is the most famous period in the history of Ancient Greece. IN V V. the center of political and cultural life moved to Athens, which at that time was the most developed Greek city. Talented craftsmen from all over Hellas flocked here, where the best conditions for creativity existed at that time. The artistic culture of Athens was experiencing a period of brilliant prosperity: in a short time, the Acropolis ensemble was erected there, which became a symbol of ancient Greece, outstanding sculptors, playwrights, and philosophers created their works.
ARCHITECTURE.
The most striking embodiment of the achievements of Greek architecture of the classical era is created during the time of Pericles Athens Acropolis(second half V century BC e.).
The Athenian Acropolis stood on a high cliff overlooking the city and was the center of all Athenian shrines. His ensemble included Propylaea(front gate), temple of Nike Apteros(wingless), Erechtheion and the main temple - Parthenon.
The Parthenon was built by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates. In plan, it is simply a rectangle of walls covered with horizontal beams on which a gable roof rests along the entire length of the building. The building is surrounded on all sides by calm, slender columns. The colonnade supports the ceiling, and the building as a whole is slightly raised on the plinth above the ground. The temple gives the impression of a highly harmonious structure due to the simultaneous use of two orders - Doric and Ionic. The columns are Doric, but the frieze along the naos (the main part of the temple where the shrines were located) is Ionic. The Parthenon is simple in form, there are no luxurious decorations, but it captivates with the balance of proportions, the calm rhythm of the alternation of columns, the step of which - uniform and majestic - gives a feeling of reliable peace and at the same time lightness and freedom.
The pediments of the Parthenon were filled with sculpture that glorified the Hellenes for all time. On the western pediment, facing the Propylaea, the myth of the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the possession of the Greek region of Attica was presented. The Athenians, as we know, preferred the goddess who gave them the olive grove. Both gods were depicted in the center on chariots with rearing horses. Behind them sat the gods and heroes of Attica who were present during the historical dispute. The main (eastern) pediment represented the myth of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus ( goddess statues from the east pediment). The internal frieze depicted a completely peaceful event - solemn procession of the Athenians at the festival of the Great Panathenaia (a festival in honor of the goddess Athena, held every four years). During the holiday, a new robe for the goddess - peplos - was carried on the ship. This gift was a sign of her resurrection. On the frieze, the All-Athenian procession was presented in a measured, festive rhythm: noble elders with branches in their hands, girls in new tunics and peplos, musicians, priests, riders on rearing, agitated horses. The relief was one meter high and was carved onto the building itself. In its beauty, harmony, perfection of forms and unity of rhythm, this work has no equal in world art. In the center of the naos of the Parthenon there was a colossal statue of Athena the Virgin, made by Phidias, which has not survived to this day (however, several small Roman copies have survived). In the 17th century The Parthenon sculptures were badly damaged. The remains of the surviving monuments, as well as a number of frieze slabs, were broken out by Lord Elgin in 1801, thanks to whom they ended up in the British Museum.
In the northern part of the Acropolis is the Erechtheion Temple, which housed the most ancient relics. In the Erechtheion there was an archaic ritual pool (Erechthean Sea), according to legend, carved into the rock by Poseidon during a dispute with Athena. Nearby grew a sacred olive tree, according to the same legend, planted by the goddess. Against the backdrop of the grandiose Parthenon, the graceful Erechtheion with three porticoes and statues of caryatids (girls carrying the ceiling) seems like a magical toy.
SCULPTURE.
In the classical era, man, along with the gods, became the central figure of fine art. Sculpture flourishes through admiration for the greatness and beauty of man. The main qualities of a worthy person from the point of view of the Greeks of the classical era were courage, bravery, determination - that is, what corresponds to the qualities of a citizen. All these features had to be dressed in a beautiful and harmonious form - a physically developed, strong, proportionate body. Sculpture from the high classical era is characterized by balance, strict symmetry, idealization and staticity. The faces of the statues are always impassive, the characters are interpreted unambiguously, the inner world of the heroes is devoid of the struggle of feelings and thoughts. The greatest Greek sculptors depicted people as they should be. The classical era did not tolerate models with flaws; it was believed that everything in a person should be perfect. Even on Pericles, who shone with intelligence and beauty, as well as nobility of spirit, the sculptor put on a helmet to hide the slightly elongated shape of the skull. Realistic and idealized at the same time, perfectly conveying the volume and proportions of the human body, the works of the classical era became the standard of physical beauty for many centuries. The most famous sculptors of the classical era are Myron, Polykleitos, Phidias, Scopas and Praxiteles.
Miron created the famous statue of the discus thrower - “ Discus thrower”, which has not survived to this day, but was reconstructed thanks to Roman copies (the statue was made of bronze, and, like the vast majority of such statues, was melted down). “Discobolus” is remarkable for the wit of its design: it moves rapidly and is at the same time motionless. A distinctive feature of this statue is the disproportions, specially introduced into it taking into account optical corrections: the face of the young man, when viewed from the front, is asymmetrical, the head is located in a strong tilt, as a result, optical effects arise that contribute to a surprisingly solid perception of this face.
Younger contemporary of Phidias, Argive sculptor Polykleitos, became famous for its statues of athletes. Among the mass of Roman copies were found sculptures known in the descriptions of ancient authors under the names “ Doryphoros"(spearman) and " Diadumen"(young man tying a headband). "Doriphoros", perhaps representing a hero of the Trojan War, is shown standing calmly. At the same time, he appears to be walking: his right leg is pushed forward, his left leg is put back. On his shoulder is a spear. The powerful figure of the hero was created by the sculptor not “by eye”, but in strict accordance with the proportions that determine the structure of the ideal human figure. In recent years, Polykleitos began to introduce notes of lyricism into his works. His “Diadumen” has his arms spread wide, the rhythm of his movements is lighter and more rapid. Tying a diadem around his head, this young man (perhaps this is the god Apollo himself) is completely immersed in his occupation, withdrawn into the sphere of self-contemplation.
The strict style came close to the portrait vision of people. Miron's heroes have individual, unique features. Phidias it neutralizes everything special that interferes with the embodiment of the general. Beautiful oval faces acquire ideal features: large eyes, an expressive mouth, a high forehead that merges with the line of the nose - features that later became known as the classical Greek profile. Body shapes also acquire ideal proportions and are filled with strength and power. This is how the surviving fragments of the Parthenon friezes, made by Phidias and his students, appear before the audience. Unfortunately, the most significant works of Phidias - the bronze statue of Athena-Promachos, which stood in the center of the Athenian Acropolis and made in the chrysoelephantine technique (a combination of a wooden base, ivory plates and gold) sculptures of Athena the Virgin from the Parthenon and Zeus at Olympia, have not survived to our day days.
During the late classical period, two main trends appeared in art: on the one hand, a retreat into pathetic heroics, and on the other, into an individual, sublimely lyrical world. The exponents of these two directions were the great masters of the 4th century. BC e. - the Parian Scopas and the Athenian Praxiteles.
Skopas gravitated towards pathos. He worked on orders in different parts of the world, including in Asia Minor, where he worked on Amazon battle scene- Amazonomachy, intended for the Halicarnassus mausoleum. The mausoleum in Halicarnassus was built for himself and his wife by the ruler of Caria, Mausolus. The relief of Skopas depicted a duel between the Greeks and the Amazons; the figures of the combatants were full of drama.
Sculptor Praxiteles was a master of lyrical divine images. Many Roman copies of his works have survived: “The Young Satyr”, “ Apollo killing a lizard", "Eros" and others. The most famous is his sculpture of Aphrodite, commissioned by the island of Kos, but bought by the inhabitants of the island of Knidos and therefore called " Aphrodite of Knidos" The surviving copies do not convey the beauty of the goddess, which was amazing, judging by the elegance of the work of this master. For the first time in ancient Greek art, Aphrodite appears naked. One of the works of the great master has survived to this day in the original. This " Hermes with baby Dionysus" The group was initiated into the Temple of Hera at Olympia, where it was found during excavations. Only the legs and hand of Hermes, holding a bunch of grapes, are lost. The messenger of the gods, carrying a baby to be raised by the nymphs, rests on the way.
Among the best creations of the Hellenes is the sculpture “ Apollo Belvedere", attributed to the sculptor Leoharu. Apollo walks, overshadowing everything around with his dazzling glory. The sophistication and showiness of Apollo delighted Renaissance artists, who considered him the standard of classical style.
Another great sculptor worked at the turn of Greek classics and Hellenism - Lysippos, court sculptor of Alexander the Great. Lysippos tried himself in different genres (“ Hermes tying a sandal», « Hercules of Farnese"), but most of all he was successful in depicting athletes. His main work is “ Apoxyomenes“- depicts a young man cleaning off sand from himself after a competition (Greek athletes rubbed their bodies with oil, so sand stuck to them during competitions). It differs significantly from the works of the late classics, including the works of Polycletus. In Lysippos, the athlete's posture becomes freer, and the proportions of the body also change: in particular, the head makes up one seventh of the body, and not one sixth, as in Polykleitos. The figures of Lysippos are more slender, natural and mobile. However, in comparison with the works of high classics, something important disappears in them - the character ceases to be a hero and is reduced to the level of an ordinary person.
Greek art of the classical era gave the world an example of an aesthetic ideal, clear harmony and rationality.
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GREECE CLASSICS.ppt
6.Hellenistic period.
By the end of the 4th century. BC e. the classical Greek world, torn apart by internal contradictions, had practically become obsolete. A new era has begun: borders have been erased, peoples and cultures of the entire ecumene have united (known inhabited world). This was facilitated by the great campaigns of conquest of the outstanding Macedonian commander Alexander the Great, who conquered many ancient peoples and created a huge empire. After Alexander's death in 323 BC. e. the colossal monarchy split into several regions, which soon turned into independent states. The most developed of them were Syria with its center in Antioch, Egypt with its capital Alexandria, and the Kingdom of Pergamon with its center in Pergamum. Life in these states was organized according to the Greek model. Hence the name of the era - Hellenism (from Greek - imitation of the Hellenes). The culture of the Hellenistic states was a synthesis of Greek and local principles and traditions.
There were common features that made the art of different areas related in the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. It embodied a new idea of the greatness of the world, united over a vast space by Hellenic culture. Fantastic projects were carried out: mountains were turned into cities, giants were created like the copper Colossus of Rhodes (sun god Helios) in the harbor of the island of Rhodes. The desire to go beyond the human and penetrate into the world of the gods is one of the characteristic features of the art of that era.
Cities were built and flourished everywhere, which no longer followed the picturesque design principle of the old acropolises. New cities subjected the area to a regular layout: they were cut through by straight and wide streets; the squares were decorated with porticos, temples, libraries, and public buildings (example - Alexandria of Egypt). The most popular order is becoming Ionic, as well as Corinthian, which appeared at the end of the classical era as a variety of Ionic. The main visual difference between the Corinthian order and the Ionic order is the complex capitals of the columns, similar to a beautiful flower basket(usually with acanthus leaves).
One of the most beautiful cities of that time was Pergamon in Asia Minor (now Bergama in Turkey). It brought Pergamum worldwide fame altar of Zeus(II century BC). The innovation was that the altar was moved outside the temples and turned into an independent architectural structure. It was built on a high plinth in the form of a rectangular fence that enclosed the sacrificial site on three sides. A wide staircase led to the entrance. Inside, the altar was decorated with reliefs on the theme of the myth of Telephus, the son of Hercules, who was revered by the kings of Pergamon as their ancestor. Outside, the altar fence was surrounded by a grandiose frieze depicting battles of the Olympian gods with their rival giants for supreme power. The giants, who have partially lost their human forms, are endowed with powerful torsos and snake tails - after all, they are the sons of the earth goddess Gaia. She herself half rose above the ground to be horrified when she saw the terrible massacre and death of her children. Here the adamant Athena grabs the giant Enceladus by the hair. The goddess of the hunt, Artemis, pursues the enemy, accompanied by animals. The goddess of the night Nyux and the three-body Hecate also engage in battle with the giants. All the gods rise to this terrible battle. The whole scene is filled with enormous tension and has no equal in ancient art. Faces distorted by pain, mournful glances of the vanquished, genuine suffering - all this is shown expressively and truthfully.
One of the recognized masterpieces of Hellenistic art is sculptural group "Laocoon and his sons", created by sculptors Agesander, Athenodorus and Polydorus. The gods punished the Trojan priest Laocoon by sending two huge snakes to attack him and his sons. Laocoon convinced his fellow citizens not to introduce a huge wooden horse into Troy, in which the best Greek warriors hid, arguing that it was a trap invented by the cunning Odysseus. Laocoon tries in vain to break off the snake's bonds. The poison gradually spreads throughout the priest’s body: his legs are already numb, but his arms and torso continue to fight. In the face of the priest one can read suffering and pain, at the same time his appearance retains nobility and greatness. The work was performed masterfully. Human anatomy is conveyed with unprecedented care, reaching the point of naturalism.
Another masterpiece of Hellenistic art is the sculpture of the goddess of victory - "Nike of Samothrace", created in the 2nd century. BC e. The goddess is depicted flying from her pedestal, represented in the form of the stern of a ship. Her beautiful body, dressed in water-soaked clothes, is shown in a helical turn, widely used since the time of Skopas. The mighty wings of the goddess flutter heavily behind her back, each feather carved with great care. In its poetry, the image of the “Nike of Samothrace” surpasses all previously created creations.
In addition to the idea of greatness and grandiosity of the world, Hellenistic art also developed in a different direction. Chamber images appeared, the main content of which was spiritual life. One of the best monuments of this kind is the so-called "Venus de Milo" work Agesandra, found on the island of Melos (now Milos). The goddess is depicted half-naked, her hair is tied in a simple and strict hairstyle with a middle parting. The face and figure are presented by the sculptor in a rather general way. Her entire posture, facial expression and gaze exudes peace and tranquility.
Portrait statues that appeared already in the 4th century indicate an interest in the spiritual world. BC e. However, now, less constrained by the classical tradition, they become more expressive. Particularly notable are the portraits of Greek philosophers, among them - Demosthenes statue sculptor's work Polyeucta(III century BC). Demosthenes stands with his hands clasped together and his head bowed. The heroism, previously characteristic of Greek portraits, is completely absent. The character is not young, not handsome, but full of dignity. In his pose one can read detachment, the bitterness of defeat in the struggle of life, and hopelessness. However, the sculptor managed to convey the “noble beauty and quiet grandeur” of his hero - a quality inherent in all Hellenic creations. Portraits of philosophers mark a departure from the classical system, committed to heroic ideals, when it was customary to depict only “fair and valiant” citizens.
The artistic culture of Hellenism was of great importance for the development of art in Ancient Rome, Byzantium and for all world art in general.
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GREECE HELLENISM.ppt
ARTISTIC CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME
When creating the manual, materials from the portal http://artclassic.edu.ru/ were used
1. Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman Empire - from the British Isles to Egypt. Roman art is the highest achievement and the result of the development of ancient art. It was created not only by the Romans, but also by the Italics, ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Syrians, inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Ancient Germany and other peoples. Although, in general, the ancient Greek school dominated Roman art, in various parts of the Roman Empire, specific forms of art were largely determined by local traditions.
Ancient Rome created a kind of cultural environment: beautifully planned cities adapted for life with paved roads, magnificent bridges, library buildings, archives, palaces, villas and simply comfortable, good-quality houses with equally comfortable and high-quality furniture - that is, everything that characteristic of a civilized society.
The artists of Ancient Rome were the first to pay close attention to the inner world of man and reflected it in the genre of portraiture, creating works that had no equal in antiquity. Few names of Roman artists have survived to this day, but the creations they created have entered the treasury of world art.
2. In the cultural history of Rome, two important stages can be distinguished. The first (mostly this was the era of the republic) - from the moment of the emergence of the city of Rome until the middle of the 1st century. BC e. The second stage - the imperial one - began with the reign of Octavian Augustus, who switched to autocracy, and lasted until the 5th century. Roman art flourished during I – II centuries.
Early centuries of Roman historyextremely poor in works of art. The Etruscan tribes had a huge influence on the Romans at this time, from whom the Romans borrowed writing, the secrets of many crafts (for example, bronze casting), construction technologies, and the art of sculptural portraiture. The first temples of Rome were probably also built by the Etruscans. It was they who created for the Capitol, the main of the seven hills on which Rome is located, the statue of the Capitoline she-wolf, a symbol of the legendary ancestress of the Romans.
In subsequent centuries, Roman culture was formed and strengthened, absorbing various influences, primarily Greek. The need for educated people was satisfied for a time by importing educated Greek slaves. Numerous figures of Roman culture - writers, philosophers, scientists, artists, architects - were overwhelmingly non-Romans. The enormous historical merit of the Romans was their preservation of numerous monuments of ancient Greek sculpture, from which marble copies were made. The Romans also copied paintings by Greek artists and copied many manuscripts.
3. One of the most important types of art in Rome was architecture. The achievements of the Romans in this area were significant. They not only actively used technologies borrowed from the Greeks and Etruscans (the order system and the arch, respectively), but also created a new structural system, which is commonly called monolithic-shell. Its essence lies in the fact that the support of the building was walls constructed of brick and concrete; in such buildings, elements of the order were used as part of the decor. The Romans also actively used arched-vaulted structures, learned to build domed ceilings.
The architecture of the republican era is represented by a number of remarkable monuments. Among them are order temples, round and rectangular in plan. Round temple - rotunda- consisted of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade. Round Temple of the Sibyl, or Vesta, at Tivoli near Rome surrounded by Corinthian columns. The frieze is decorated with reliefs depicting a traditionally Roman motif - bull skulls from which heavy garlands hang. It is a symbol of sacrifice and remembrance.
The Roman bridges of the 2nd-1st centuries are magnificent. BC e. ( Fabrizia Bridge in Rome, Garsky Bridge in French Nimes ). During their construction, arcades were used - rows of arches supported by pillars or columns. The Garsky Bridge is also an aqueduct; a water pipeline is laid along its upper tier.
The main attraction of Republican Rome is the so-called Forum Romanum (a kind of market square where public ceremonies, religious holidays, elections, etc. were also held). IN I V. BC. it was decorated with magnificent marble buildings. At the beginning of the 20th century. Through the efforts of archaeologists, architects and restorers, it was possible to partially restore this grandiose ensemble of ancient Rome. Subsequently, many rulers built their Forums in Rome, decorated with numerous temples, public buildings, statues and triumphal structures. Forums became an integral part of any provincial Roman city.
4. The appearance of a typical ancient Roman city can be illustrated by the example of several settlements buried under a thick layer of ash as a result of the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. e. City of Pompeii had a regular layout. Straight streets were framed by the facades of houses, in the first floors of which there were shops-taberns. The vast forum was surrounded by a beautiful two-story colonnade. There were temples and an amphitheater (a special type of Roman theater in which the seats were located in an ellipse around the arena). There were also two theaters in the city, built according to the Greek model (with seats in a semicircle).
Pompeian houses - domuses - are remarkable. Domus It was a rectangular structure stretched along the courtyard, and facing the street as a blank wall. The main room in the house was atrium, which performed a sacred function - the “world pillar” that connected every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. There was a hole in the center of the roof, under which a pool was placed to collect water. The most important things for the Romans were kept in the atrium: a chest with family valuables and a cabinet with wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits. Walls inside houses with I V. BC. they began to paint. On the frescoes of houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum you can see beautiful ornaments, corners of gardens, gifts of nature, animals, city landscapes, images of people, whose images amaze with their vitality and spirituality. The floors, as well as the bottoms of fountains and pools, were often decorated with mosaics.
5. A special achievement of Roman art was the sculptural portrait. Roman portraits dated back to wax masks that were removed from the dead. The portraits were very close to life, they conveyed the smallest details of the human face.
Portrait art reached its heyday in the first centuries of our era during the era of the birth and development of the empire. During the reign of Octavian Augustus, who is considered the first emperor of Rome, art began to focus on the ideals that were instilled by the rulers. Augustus began to lay the foundations of the imperial style. Extant Octavian statues They present him as an energetic and intelligent politician. A high forehead, slightly covered with bangs, expressive facial features and a small, firm chin. Although Augustus, according to ancient authors, was in poor health and often wrapped in warm clothes, he was depicted in portraits as powerful and courageous.
Many portraits of Nero, one of the most cruel rulers of the Roman Empire, have survived. In them one can trace the change in human nature - from a gifted child to a despised monster. Portrait of Nero -The emperor is far from the traditional type of powerful and brave hero. Sloppy sideburns, chaotically fluffed hair above the forehead. The face is gloomy, incredulous, eyebrows are knitted, in the corners of the lips there is a vengeful, sarcastic grin. His personality, extraordinary and strong, is burdened with many vices.
During the imperial era, Roman cities were decorated with hundreds of magnificent statues. Reached to this day equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ( II V.) . The statue was made in accordance with the ancient ancient tradition, but the appearance of the rider is not in harmony with either the horse or the mission of the warrior. The emperor's face is detached and self-absorbed. Apparently, Marcus Aurelius thinks not about military victories, of which he had few, but about the problems of the human soul. The sculptural portrait of that time acquired a special spirituality. At this time, sculptors achieved special virtuosity: they learned to depict lush, complex hairstyles, which, together with a mustache and beard for men, picturesquely framed the face. For the first time, the pupils of the eyes began to be drilled out (previously they were only painted), which created the illusion that the statue was “looking with a living gaze.” The eyes of Emperor Marcus Aurelius are made emphatically large, with heavy, as if swollen eyelids and raised pupils. The viewer gets the impression of sad fatigue, disappointment in earthly life and withdrawal into himself. Portraits of Emperors III - IVbb., the time of the decline of the empire, represent a whole gallery of characters, inclinations, passions, reflect the influence of a complex historical era and emergency circumstances on the human personality.
6. From the era of the empire, many masterpieces of architecture have reached us. In the 70-80s. n. e. a grandiose building was built in Rome Flavian Amphitheater , called " Coliseum " It was built on the site of the destroyed Golden House of Nero and belonged to a new type of building. The Colosseum was a huge bowl with stepped rows of seats, enclosed on the outside by an elliptical ring wall. The Colosseum is the largest amphitheater of the ancient era. It accommodated over eighty thousand spectators. Inside there were four tiers of seats, which on the outside corresponded to three tiers of arcades: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. The fourth tier was blank, with Corinthian pilasters - flat projections on the wall. Inside, the Colosseum is very constructive and organic; expediency is combined with art: it embodies the image of the world and the principles of life that the Romans had developed by the 1st century. n. e.
At the same time, the famous Triumphal Arch of Titus . Triumphal arches are a Roman architectural innovation. Arches were built both in honor of victories and as a sign of the consecration of new cities. However, their original meaning is associated with triumph - a solemn procession in honor of victory over the enemy. Flanking the opening of the Arch of Titus are two Corinthian columns. The arch is decorated with a high superstructure - an attic with a dedication to Titus “from the Senate and people of Rome.” Previously, at the top there was a statue of the emperor on a chariot drawn by four horses.
The Forum of Trajan in Rome reminds us of the most prosperous time in the history of Rome and the “best of emperors.” In its center stood Trajan's Column , which has survived to this day. It was erected in honor of the conquest of Dacia (the territory of modern Romania). Painted reliefs depicted scenes from the life of the Dacians and their capture by the Romans. Emperor Trajan appears on these reliefs over eighty times. The statue of the emperor at the top of the column was eventually replaced by the figure of the Apostle Peter.
7. Under Emperor Hadrian (c. 125), the most grandiose domed structure of the Ancient World was completed - Pantheon , the temple of all the gods, which still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument that escaped destruction or reconstruction during the Middle Ages. From the outside, the Pantheon is a huge cylindrical volume, to which is attached a Greek 16-column portico. Giant bronze doors, 6.5 meters high, lead into a huge round hall the size of half a football field. The dome of the Pantheon, reaching a diameter of almost 44 m, became a masterpiece of engineering science. Its proportions are carefully adjusted - its height is exactly half of the rest of the building. This is the largest dome in history built without the use of reinforced concrete.
The Pantheon vault is the most daring engineering challenge that the Romans ever set themselves. The main problem in its construction is to prevent it from collapsing under its own weight. The dome constantly tends to move apart at the base and collapse in the middle. The Romans solved the problem in two directions. Firstly, the walls were made very thick. And to prevent the dome from spreading underneath, the base was erected inside massive buttress walls, and a multi-tiered reinforcing ring was laid around it. The weight of the giant hemisphere rested on eight powerful pillars, the thickness of which reached six meters. To reduce their own weight, inspection wells were laid inside the pillars. Five different types of cement were used in the construction of the dome, the main component of which was pozzolan - local volcanic sand, which gave the mixture almost stone hardness. Also, the design of the vault contains a number of original solutions that made it possible to reduce its weight and pressure. Hidden inside the walls is a system of arches that reduce weight and transfer pressure down to the support pillars. The weight of the dome itself was also reduced - large square panels - caissons - were cut out from the inside of its constituent blocks, which decorated the interior and gave it rhythm. The caissons were gilded, forming a semblance of a golden canopy above the head. The vault is crowned with an oculus (“eye of the Pantheon”) - a round hole with a diameter of about 9 meters. This amazing detail removed the vault from the point of maximum stress, which contributed to the longevity of the building.
8. The architecture of the era of the decline of the empire (III-IV centuries) is characterized by unusually large, sometimes excessive scale of structures, magnificent decorative effects, emphasized luxury of decoration, restless plasticity of architectural forms. Roman architects achieved great ingenuity in designing the complex interior space of such outstanding architectural monuments, full of grandeur and ceremonial splendor, as Baths of Caracalla And Basilica of Maxentius in Rome.
Thermae (baths) for the Romans were something like a club, where the ancient tradition of ritual ablutions gradually acquired complexes for entertainment and activities - palaestrums and gymnasiums, libraries, music halls. Visiting the baths was a favorite pastime of the Roman people. There were a great many baths scattered throughout the empire - private and public, men's and women's (or general), simple and true masterpieces of ancient architecture. The Baths of Caracalla occupied a huge area with lawns and had halls of hot, warm and cold water. They were a complex architectural structure, covered with vaults of various structures. The walls and vaults of the baths were decorated with gold, precious stones and mosaics. Even their ruins amaze the eye with their grandeur.
A very common Roman building was the basilica - a rectangular elongated building intended for public meetings and councils. The building was divided by longitudinal rows of supports (columns, pillars) into several passages - naves. The middle nave was usually wider and higher than the side ones and was lit through windows above the side parts. Most often it ended with a protrusion - an apse. Subsequently, the architectural form of the basilica was used as a model in the construction of Christian churches.
9. The art of Ancient Rome left the world an enormous legacy, the importance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. The art of Roman times left many remarkable monuments in a variety of fields, from architectural structures to glass vessels. The artistic principles developed by ancient Roman art formed the basis of Christian art of the New Age.
ROMAN ART-2010-new.
ROMAN ART-2010-new.
The civilization of Crete is therefore called Minoan, and its inhabitants of that time are called Minoans.
Most researchers believe that the name “labyrinth” is associated with the labrys, a double axe, which was a sacred symbol of power among the Minoans. The roof of the palace at Knossos was decorated with images of labryses.
