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It depends on the distribution of heat on the ground. Distribution of sunlight and heat

Atmosphere pressure- the pressure of atmospheric air on the objects in it and the earth's surface. Normal atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. Art. (101325 Pa). For each kilometer increase in altitude, the pressure drops by 100 mm.

The composition of the atmosphere:

The atmosphere of the Earth is the air shell of the Earth, consisting mainly of gases and various impurities (dust, water drops, ice crystals, sea salts, combustion products), the amount of which is not constant. The main gases are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.93%). The concentration of gases that make up the atmosphere is almost constant, with the exception of carbon dioxide CO2 (0.03%).

The atmosphere also contains SO2, CH4, NH3, CO, hydrocarbons, HC1, HF, Hg vapor, I2, as well as NO and many other gases in small quantities. In the troposphere there is constantly a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol).

Climate and weather

Weather and climate are interrelated, but it's worth defining the difference between them.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere over a particular area at a particular point in time. In the same city, the weather can change every few hours: fog appears in the morning, a thunderstorm begins in the afternoon, and by the evening the sky is cleared of clouds.

Climate- a long-term, repetitive weather pattern characteristic of a particular area. The climate affects the terrain, water bodies, flora and fauna.

The main elements of the weather are precipitation (rain, snow, fog), wind, air temperature and humidity, and cloudiness.

Precipitation It is water in liquid or solid form that falls to the surface of the earth.

They are measured using a device called a rain gauge. This is a metal cylinder with a cross-sectional area of 500 cm2. Precipitation is measured in millimeters - this is the depth of the water layer that appeared in the rain gauge after precipitation.

Air temperature is determined using a thermometer - a device consisting of a temperature scale and a cylinder partially filled with a certain substance (usually alcohol or mercury). The action of a thermometer is based on the expansion of a substance when heated and compression - when cooled. One of the varieties of the thermometer is the well-known thermometer, in which the cylinder is filled with mercury. A thermometer that measures air temperature should be in the shade so that the sun's rays do not heat it up.

Temperature measurement is carried out at meteorological stations several times a day, after which the average daily, average monthly or average annual temperature is displayed.

The average daily temperature is the arithmetic mean of the temperatures measured at regular intervals during the day. The average monthly temperature is the arithmetic average of all average daily temperatures during the month, and the average annual temperature is the arithmetic average of all average daily temperatures during the year. In one locality, the average temperatures of each month and year remain approximately constant, since any large temperature fluctuations are leveled out by averaging. Currently, there is a trend towards a gradual increase in average temperatures, this phenomenon is called global warming. An increase in average temperature by a few tenths of a degree is imperceptible to humans, but it has a significant impact on the climate, since pressure and air humidity change along with temperature, as well as winds.

Air humidity shows how saturated it is with water vapor. Measure absolute and relative humidity. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in 1 cubic meter of air, measured in grams. When talking about the weather, relative humidity is often used, which shows the percentage of water vapor in the air to the amount that is in the air at saturation. Saturation is a certain limit to which water vapor is in the air without condensing. Relative humidity cannot be more than 100%.

The saturation limit is different in different regions of the globe. Therefore, to compare humidity in different areas, it is better to use an absolute indicator of humidity, and to characterize the weather in a particular area - a relative indicator.

Cloudiness usually estimated using the following expressions: cloudy - the whole sky is covered with clouds, partly cloudy - there are a large number of individual clouds, clear - there are few or no clouds.

Atmosphere pressure- a very important characteristic of the weather. Atmospheric air has its own weight, and a column of air presses on every point on the earth's surface, on every object and living being on it. Atmospheric pressure is usually measured in millimeters of mercury. To make this measurement clear, let us explain what it means. Air presses on every square centimeter of the surface with the same force as a column of mercury 760 mm high. Thus, the air pressure is compared with the pressure of the mercury column. A number less than 760 means low blood pressure.

Temperature fluctuations

The temperature varies from place to place. At night, due to the lack of solar energy, the temperature drops. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish the average day and night temperatures. Also the temperature fluctuates throughout the year. In winter, the average daily temperature is lower, gradually increasing in spring and gradually decreasing in autumn, in summer - the highest average daily temperature.

Distribution of light, heat and moisture over the Earth's surface

On the surface of the spherical Earth, solar heat and light are distributed unevenly. This is due to the fact that the angle of incidence of rays at different latitudes is different.

The earth's axis is inclined to the plane of the orbit at an angle. Its northern end is directed towards the North Star. The sun always illuminates half of the Earth. At the same time, the Northern Hemisphere is more illuminated (and the day there lasts longer than in the other hemisphere), then, on the contrary, the Southern Hemisphere. Twice a year, both hemispheres are equally illuminated (then the length of the day in both hemispheres is the same).

The sun is the main source of heat and light on Earth. This huge ball of gas with a surface temperature of about 6000 ° C radiates a large amount of energy, which is called solar radiation. It heats our Earth, sets the air in motion, forms the water cycle, creates conditions for the life of plants and animals.

Passing through the atmosphere, part of the solar radiation is absorbed, part is scattered and reflected. Therefore, the flow of solar radiation, coming to the surface of the Earth, gradually weakens.

Solar radiation arrives at the Earth's surface directly and diffusely. Direct radiation is a stream of parallel rays coming directly from the disk of the Sun. Scattered radiation comes from all over the sky. It is believed that the heat input from the Sun per 1 hectare of the Earth is equivalent to burning almost 143 thousand tons of coal.

The sun's rays, passing through the atmosphere, heat it up a little. The heating of the atmosphere comes from the surface of the Earth, which, absorbing solar energy, turns it into heat. Air particles, in contact with a heated surface, receive heat and carry it away into the atmosphere. This heats up the lower layers of the atmosphere. Obviously, the more the Earth's surface receives solar radiation, the more it heats up, the more the air heats up from it.

Numerous observations of air temperature showed that the highest temperature was observed in Tripoli (Africa) (+58°С), the lowest - at Vostok station in Antarctica (-87.4°С).

The influx of solar heat and the distribution of air temperature depends on the latitude of the place. The tropical region receives more heat from the Sun than the temperate and polar latitudes. The most heat is received by the equatorial regions of the Sun - the star of the solar system, which is the source of a huge amount of heat and dazzling light for the planet Earth. Despite the fact that the Sun is at a considerable distance from us and only a small part of its radiation reaches us, this is quite enough for the development of life on Earth. Our planet revolves around the sun in an orbit. If the Earth is observed from a spacecraft during the year, then one can notice that the Sun always illuminates only one half of the Earth, therefore, there will be day there, and at that time there will be night on the opposite half. The earth's surface receives heat only during the day.

Our Earth is heating unevenly. The uneven heating of the Earth is explained by its spherical shape, so the angle of incidence of the sun's ray in different areas is different, which means that different parts of the Earth receive different amounts of heat. At the equator, the sun's rays fall vertically, and they strongly heat the Earth. The farther from the equator, the angle of incidence of the beam becomes smaller, and consequently, these territories receive less heat. The same power beam of solar radiation heats a much smaller area near the equator, since it falls vertically. In addition, rays falling at a smaller angle than at the equator - penetrating the atmosphere, travel a longer path in it, as a result of which part of the sun's rays are scattered in the troposphere and do not reach the earth's surface. All this indicates that as you move away from the equator to the north or south, the air temperature decreases, as the angle of incidence of the sun's beam decreases.

The distribution of precipitation on the globe depends on how many clouds containing moisture form over a given area or how many of them the wind can bring. Air temperature is very important, because intensive evaporation of moisture occurs precisely at high temperatures. Moisture evaporates, rises up and clouds form at a certain height.

The air temperature decreases from the equator to the poles, therefore, the amount of precipitation is maximum in equatorial latitudes and decreases towards the poles. However, on land, the distribution of precipitation depends on a number of additional factors.

There is a lot of precipitation over coastal areas, and as you move away from the oceans, their amount decreases. There is more precipitation on the windward slopes of the mountain ranges and much less on the leeward slopes. For example, on the Atlantic coast of Norway, Bergen receives 1730 mm of precipitation per year, while Oslo receives only 560 mm. Low mountains also affect the distribution of precipitation - on the western slope of the Urals, in Ufa, an average of 600 mm of precipitation falls, and on the eastern slope, in Chelyabinsk, - 370 mm.

The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the Amazon basin, off the coast of the Gulf of Guinea and in Indonesia. In some areas of Indonesia, their maximum values reach 7000 mm per year. In India, in the foothills of the Himalayas, at an altitude of about 1300 m above sea level, there is the rainiest place on Earth - Cherrapunji (25.3 ° N and 91.8 ° E, an average of more than 11,000 mm of precipitation falls here in Such an abundance of moisture is brought to these places by the humid summer southwest monsoon, which rises along the steep slopes of the mountains, cools and pours with powerful rain.

The oceans, whose water temperature changes much more slowly than the temperature of the earth's surface or air, have a strong moderating effect on the climate. At night and in winter, the air over the oceans cools much more slowly than over land, and if oceanic air masses move over the continents, this leads to warming. Conversely, during the day and summer, the sea breeze cools the land.

The distribution of moisture on the earth's surface is determined by the water cycle in nature. Every second, a huge amount of water evaporates into the atmosphere, mainly from the surface of the oceans. Humid oceanic air, rushing over the continents, cools. The moisture then condenses and returns to the earth's surface in the form of rain or snow. Part of it is stored in the snow cover, rivers and lakes, and part returns to the ocean, where evaporation occurs again. This completes the hydrological cycle.

The distribution of precipitation is also influenced by the currents of the oceans. Over areas near which warm currents pass, the amount of precipitation increases, since the air heats up from warm water masses, it rises and clouds with sufficient water content form. Over the territories near which cold currents pass, the air cools, sinks, clouds do not form, and precipitation is much less.

Since water plays a significant role in erosion processes, it thereby affects the movements of the earth's crust. And any redistribution of masses caused by such movements in the conditions of the Earth rotating around its axis can, in turn, contribute to a change in the position of the earth's axis. During ice ages, sea levels drop as water accumulates in glaciers. This, in turn, leads to the growth of continents and an increase in climatic contrasts. Reducing river flow and lowering sea levels prevent warm ocean currents from reaching cold regions, leading to further climate change.

Which is for a source of enormous amount of heat and dazzling light. Despite the fact that the Sun is at a considerable distance from us and only a small part of its radiation reaches us, this is quite enough for the development of life on Earth. Our planet revolves around the sun in an orbit. If the Earth is observed from a spacecraft during the year, then one can notice that the Sun always illuminates only one half of the Earth, therefore, there will be day there, and at that time there will be night on the opposite half. The earth's surface receives heat only during the day.

Our Earth is heating unevenly. The uneven heating of the Earth is explained by its spherical shape, so the angle of incidence of the sun's ray in different areas is different, which means that different parts of the Earth receive different amounts of heat. At the equator, the sun's rays fall vertically, and they strongly heat the Earth. The farther from the equator, the angle of incidence of the beam becomes smaller, and consequently, these territories receive less heat. The same power beam of solar radiation heats a much smaller area, since it falls vertically. In addition, rays falling at a smaller angle than at the equator, penetrating through, travel a longer path in it, as a result of which part of the sun's rays are scattered in the troposphere and do not reach the earth's surface. All this indicates that when moving away from the equator to the north or south, it decreases, since the angle of incidence of the sun's ray decreases.

The degree of heating of the earth's surface is also affected by the fact that the earth's axis is inclined to the plane of the orbit, along which the Earth makes a complete revolution around the Sun, at an angle of 66.5 ° and is always directed by the northern end towards the Polar Star.

Imagine that the Earth, moving around the Sun, has the Earth's axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of rotation. Then the surface at different latitudes would receive a constant amount of heat throughout the year, the angle of incidence of the sun's ray would be constant all the time, the day would always be equal to the night, there would be no change of seasons. At the equator, these conditions would differ little from the present. It is in temperate latitudes that it has a significant influence on the heating of the earth's surface, and hence on the entire tilt of the earth's axis.

During the year, that is, during the complete revolution of the Earth around the Sun, four days are especially noteworthy: March 21, September 23, June 22, December 22.

The tropics and polar circles divide the Earth's surface into belts that differ in solar illumination and the amount of heat received from the Sun. There are 5 illumination zones: the northern and southern polar ones, which receive little light and heat, the zone with a hot climate, and the northern and southern zones, which receive more light and heat than the polar ones, but less than the tropical ones.

So, in conclusion, we can draw a general conclusion: uneven heating and illumination of the earth's surface are associated with the sphericity of our Earth and with the inclination of the earth's axis up to 66.5 ° to the orbit of rotation around the Sun.

Video lesson 2: Atmosphere structure, meaning, study

Lecture: Atmosphere. Composition, structure, circulation. Distribution of heat and moisture on the Earth. Weather and climate

Atmosphere

atmosphere can be called an all-pervading shell. Its gaseous state allows filling microscopic holes in the soil, water is dissolved in water, animals, plants and humans cannot exist without air.

The nominal thickness of the shell is 1500 km. Its upper boundaries dissolve into space and are not clearly marked. Atmospheric pressure at sea level at 0°C is 760 mm. rt. Art. The gas envelope is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% other gases (ozone, helium, water vapor, carbon dioxide). The density of the air shell changes with elevation: the higher, the rarer the air. This is why climbers can be oxygen starved. At the very surface of the earth, the highest density.

Composition, structure, circulation

Layers are distinguished in the shell:

Troposphere, 8-20 km thick. Moreover, at the poles the thickness of the troposphere is less than at the equator. About 80% of the total air mass is concentrated in this small layer. The troposphere tends to heat up from the surface of the earth, so its temperature is higher near the earth itself. With a rise up to 1 km. the temperature of the air envelope decreases by 6°C. In the troposphere, there is an active movement of air masses in the vertical and horizontal direction. It is this shell that is the "factory" of the weather. Cyclones and anticyclones form in it, westerly and easterly winds blow. All water vapor is concentrated in it, which condense and shed rain or snow. This layer of the atmosphere contains impurities: smoke, ash, dust, soot, everything we breathe. The boundary layer with the stratosphere is called the tropopause. Here the temperature drop ends.

Approximate boundaries stratosphere 11-55 km. Up to 25 km. There are slight changes in temperature, and higher it begins to rise from -56°C to 0°C at an altitude of 40 km. For another 15 kilometers, the temperature does not change, this layer was called the stratopause. The stratosphere in its composition contains ozone (O3), a protective barrier for the Earth. Due to the presence of the ozone layer, harmful ultraviolet rays do not penetrate the earth's surface. Recently, anthropogenic activity has led to the destruction of this layer and the formation of "ozone holes". Scientists say that the cause of the "holes" is an increased concentration of free radicals and freon. Under the influence of solar radiation, the molecules of gases are destroyed, this process is accompanied by a glow (northern lights).

From 50-55 km. next layer starts mesosphere, which rises to 80-90 km. In this layer, the temperature decreases, at an altitude of 80 km it is -90°C. In the troposphere, the temperature again rises to several hundred degrees. Thermosphere extends up to 800 km. Upper bounds exosphere are not determined, since the gas dissipates and partially escapes into outer space.

Heat and moisture

The distribution of solar heat on the planet depends on the latitude of the place. The equator and the tropics receive more solar energy, since the angle of incidence of the sun's rays is about 90 °. The closer to the poles, the angle of incidence of the rays decreases, respectively, the amount of heat also decreases. The sun's rays, passing through the air shell, do not heat it. Only when it hits the ground, the sun's heat is absorbed by the surface of the earth, and then the air is heated from the underlying surface. The same thing happens in the ocean, except that water heats up more slowly than land and cools more slowly. Therefore, the proximity of the seas and oceans has an impact on climate formation. In summer, sea air brings us coolness and precipitation, in winter warming, since the surface of the ocean has not yet spent its heat accumulated over the summer, and the earth's surface has quickly cooled down. Marine air masses form above the surface of the water, therefore, they are saturated with water vapor. Moving over land, air masses lose moisture, bringing precipitation. Continental air masses form above the surface of the earth, as a rule, they are dry. The presence of continental air masses brings hot weather in summer, and clear frosty weather in winter.

Weather and climate

Weather- the state of the troposphere in a given place for a certain period of time.

Climate- the long-term weather regime characteristic of the area.

The weather can change during the day. Climate is a more constant characteristic. Each physical-geographical region is characterized by a certain type of climate. The climate is formed as a result of the interaction and mutual influence of several factors: the latitude of the place, the prevailing air masses, the relief of the underlying surface, the presence of underwater currents, the presence or absence of water bodies.

On the earth's surface there are belts of low and high atmospheric pressure. Equatorial and temperate zones of low pressure, high pressure at the poles and in the tropics. Air masses move from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. But as our Earth rotates, these directions deviate, in the northern hemisphere to the right, in the southern hemisphere to the left. Trade winds blow from the tropics to the equator, westerly winds blow from the tropics to the temperate zone, and polar easterly winds blow from the poles to the temperate zone. But in each belt, land areas alternate with water areas. Depending on whether the air mass formed over land or over the ocean, it can bring heavy rains or a clear sunny surface. The amount of moisture in air masses is affected by the topography of the underlying surface. Moisture-saturated air masses pass over the flat territories without obstacles. But if there are mountains on the way, the heavy moist air cannot move through the mountains, and is forced to lose some, if not all, of the moisture on the slopes of the mountains. The east coast of Africa has a mountainous surface (Dragon Mountains). The air masses that form over the Indian Ocean are saturated with moisture, but all the water is lost on the coast, and a hot dry wind comes inland. That is why most of southern Africa is occupied by deserts.

Video lesson 2: Atmosphere structure, meaning, study

Lecture: Atmosphere. Composition, structure, circulation. Distribution of heat and moisture on the Earth. Weather and climate

Atmosphere

atmosphere can be called an all-pervading shell. Its gaseous state allows filling microscopic holes in the soil, water is dissolved in water, animals, plants and humans cannot exist without air.

Composition, structure, circulation

Layers are distinguished in the shell:

Heat and moisture

Weather and climate

Weather- the state of the troposphere in a given place for a certain period of time.

Climate- the long-term weather regime characteristic of the area.

If the thermal regime of the geographic shell was determined only by the distribution of solar radiation without its transfer by the atmosphere and hydrosphere, then at the equator the air temperature would be 39 0 С, and at the pole -44 0 С. and y.sh. a zone of perpetual frost would begin. However, the actual temperature at the equator is about 26 0 C, and at the north pole -20 0 C.

Up to latitudes of 30 0 solar temperatures are higher than the actual ones; in this part of the globe, an excess of solar heat is formed. In the middle, and even more so in the polar latitudes, the actual temperatures are higher than solar ones, i.e. these belts of the Earth receive additional heat from the sun. It comes from low latitudes with oceanic (water) and tropospheric air masses in the course of their planetary circulation.

Thus, the distribution of solar heat, as well as its assimilation, occurs not in one system - the atmosphere, but in a system of a higher structural level - the atmosphere and the hydrosphere.

An analysis of the distribution of heat in the hydrosphere and atmosphere allows us to draw the following general conclusions:

1. The southern hemisphere is colder than the northern one, since there is less advective heat from the hot zone.
2. Solar heat is spent mainly over the oceans to evaporate water. Together with steam, it is redistributed both between zones and within each zone, between continents and oceans.
3. From tropical latitudes, heat with trade wind circulation and tropical currents enters equatorial latitudes. The tropics lose up to 60 kcal/cm 2 per year, and at the equator the heat gain from condensation is 100 or more cal/cm 2 per year.
4. The northern temperate zone from warm ocean currents coming from the equatorial latitudes (Gulf Stream, Kurovivo) receives on the oceans up to 20 or more kcal / cm 2 per year.
5. By western transfer from the oceans, heat is transferred to the continents, where a temperate climate is formed not up to a latitude of 50 0, but much north of the Arctic Circle.
6. In the southern hemisphere, only Argentina and Chile receive tropical heat; The cold waters of the Antarctic Current circulate in the Southern Ocean.

In January, a huge area of positive temperature anomalies is located in the North Atlantic. It extends from the tropic to 85 0 n. and from Greenland to the Yamal-Black Sea line. The maximum excess of actual temperatures over the average latitude is reached in the Norwegian Sea (up to 26 0 C). The British Isles and Norway are warmer by 16 0 С, France and the Baltic Sea - by 12 0 С.

In Eastern Siberia in January, an equally large and pronounced area of negative temperature anomalies is formed with a center in Northeastern Siberia. Here the anomaly reaches -24 0 С.

In the northern part of the Pacific Ocean there is also an area of positive anomalies (up to 13 0 C), and in Canada - negative anomalies (up to -15 0 C).

Distribution of heat on the earth's surface on geographical maps using isotherms. There are maps of isotherms of the year and each month. These maps fairly objectively illustrate the thermal regime of a particular area.

Heat on the earth's surface is distributed zonal-regional:

1. The average long-term highest temperature (27 0 C) is observed not at the equator, but at 10 0 N.L. This warmest parallel is called the thermal equator.
2. In July, the thermal equator shifts to the northern tropic. The average temperature on this parallel is 28.2 0 C, and in the hottest areas (Sahara, California, Tar) it reaches 36 0 C.
3. In January, the thermal equator shifts to the southern hemisphere, but not as significantly as in July to the northern. The warmest parallel (26.7 0 C) on average is 5 0 S, but the hottest areas are even further south, i.e. on the continents of Africa and Australia (30 0 C and 32 0 C).
4. The temperature gradient is directed towards the poles, i.e. temperature decreases towards the poles, and in the southern hemisphere more significantly than in the northern. The difference between the equator and the North Pole is 27 0 C in winter 67 0 C, and between the Equator and the South Pole 40 0 C in summer and 74 0 C in winter.
5. The temperature drop from the equator to the poles is uneven. In tropical latitudes, it occurs very slowly: at 10 latitude in summer 0.06-0.09 0 C, in winter 0.2-0.3 0 C. The entire tropical zone turns out to be very homogeneous in terms of temperature.
6. In the northern temperate zone, the course of the January isotherms is very complex. Analysis of isotherms reveals the following patterns:
- - in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, heat advection associated with the circulation of the atmosphere and hydrosphere is significant;
- - the land adjacent to the oceans - Western Europe and North-West America - have a high temperature (0 0 C on the coast of Norway);
- - the huge landmass of Asia is very cold, on it closed isotherms outline a very cold region in Eastern Siberia, up to - 48 0 C.
- - isotherms in Eurasia do not go from West to East, but from northwest to southeast, showing that temperatures fall in the direction from the ocean deep into the mainland; the same isotherm passes through Novosibirsk as in Novaya Zemlya (-18 0 C). It is as cold on the Aral Sea as on Svalbard (-14 0 C). A similar picture, but somewhat in a weakened form, is observed in North America;
7. The July isotherms are fairly straightforward, because the temperature on land is determined by solar insolation, and the transfer of heat over the ocean (Gulf Stream) in summer does not noticeably affect the temperature of the land, because it is heated by the Sun. In tropical latitudes, the influence of cold ocean currents along the western coasts of the continents (California, Peru, Canary, etc.) is noticeable, which cool the land adjacent to them and cause isotherms to deviate towards the equator.
8. The following two patterns are clearly expressed in the distribution of heat over the globe: 1) zoning due to the figure of the Earth; 2) sectorality, due to the peculiarities of the assimilation of solar heat by oceans and continents.
9. The average air temperature at the level of 2 m for the whole Earth is about 14 0 C, January 12 0 C, July 16 0 C. The southern hemisphere is colder than the northern one in the annual output. The average air temperature in the northern hemisphere is 15.2 0 C, in the southern - 13.3 0 C. The average air temperature for the entire Earth coincides approximately with the temperature observed at about 40 0 N.S. (14 0 С).

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