Presentation on history education. Presentation: the era of enlightenment and enlightened absolutism

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John Locke.1632-1704

Division of power into legislative, executive and federal (in charge of relations with other states). Principle of legality: laws are binding on everyone without exception. Enlightenment ethics - commandments.

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Sacred and inalienable rights:

For life; - on property; - to freedom.

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Thomas Hobbes.1588-1679

The doctrine of the egoistic nature of man. Ethics of reasonable egoism. The ideal of power is absolute monarchy.

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One of the important advantages of a person was recognized by English educators as his ability to communicate, cooperate with others, and participate in collective creative activities. Membership in a club, attending political meetings or meetings of interests (for example, in a cafe) have become fashionable.

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French Enlightenment.

In France, educators did not have such influence in society as in England, where the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment became part of the national culture. Most French educators were persecuted for their views.

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Charles Montesquieu.1689-1778

Separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. He ridiculed the royal tyranny.

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Francois Voltaire.1694-1778

Letters often ended with the words: “Crush this reptile!” (meant the church). At the same time, he believed that religion is necessary as a support for morality. Criticized the monarchy.

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Jean Jacques Rousseau.1712-1778

The individual must submit to the good of society - the embryo of totalitarian theories of later times. Excessive inequality must be eliminated. “An uprising that leads to the murder or dethronement of a sultan is an act as natural as those acts through which he just disposed of the lives and property of his subjects.”

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There must be state regulation of trade, industry, distribution of food, money, goods. Since the simple-minded people are not able to understand what their true interests are, they need a wise ruler. From this thought, Rousseau is one step away from justifying the revolutionary dictatorship “in the name of the people.”

Assessment of the Enlightenment in historical science Traditional Criticism of the “old order” in Europe and the “ideological preparation” of the French Revolution Modern Enlightenment is a social movement whose participants sought to make a feasible contribution to expanding the mental horizons of people, improving their morals and well-being, counting in the future on the emergence of a more reasonable order that ensures basic human and civil rights

Enlightenment An intellectual, ideological and social movement in the countries of Europe and America, which laid the foundations of the Enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society.

Immanuel Kant Enlightenment is a person’s emergence from the state of his minority, in which he finds himself through his own fault. Juvenility is the inability to use one's reason without the guidance of someone else.

John Locke John Locke, an English philosopher and political thinker who laid the foundation for empiricism in psychology, was born in 1632 in Wrington into a family of dissident Puritans. At home, Locke received a strict religious upbringing. After graduating from school in Westminster, he entered Oxford College, where he remained after graduation, and taught ancient Greek, while simultaneously pursuing an in-depth study of medicine.

Locke's philosophy "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" is devoted to consideration of the origin, types and possibilities of human knowledge. Locke's theory is based on the fact that there are no innate ideas and principles - neither theoretical nor practical (moral), including the idea of ​​God, and all human knowledge stems from experience. Locke sees the source of our knowledge exclusively in external (sensation) and internal experience (perception of internal phenomena).

Locke's philosophy Locke opposed the religious fanaticism of various sects and persistently called for religious tolerance. In his essay “The Reasonableness of Christianity” (1695), in the spirit of Protestantism, he tried to separate the “true” teaching of Christ from subsequent modifications. In addition, Locke left a number of works on pedagogy and public law. His ideas had a strong influence on English and French philosophers.

Politics The state of nature is a state of complete freedom and equality in the disposal of one's property and one's life. Natural law - the right to private property; the right to action, to one’s work and its results. Supporter of constitutional monarchy and social contract theory. Locke is a theorist of civil society and a legal democratic state (for the accountability of the king and lords to the law). He was the first to propose the principle of separation of powers: legislative, executive and union or federal. The state was created to guarantee natural rights (freedom, equality, property) and laws (peace and security), it should not infringe on these rights, it should be organized so that natural rights are reliably guaranteed. Developed ideas for a democratic revolution. Locke considered it legitimate and necessary for the people to rebel against a tyrannical government that encroaches on the natural rights and freedom of the people.

The most important works of A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689). Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) The Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690). Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693).

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Montesquieu came from an aristocratic family. Charles-Louis was the second of six children. He received his initial education at the Oratorian College in Juy (1700-1705), then, returning to Bordeaux, he studied law. In 1708 he became a lawyer, in 1714 - an adviser to the Bordeaux parliament, and two years later inherited from his childless uncle Baron de Montesquieu, along with the title and name, the position of president of the Bordeaux parliament (until 1789, parliaments in France were the name of the highest courts).

Character. Interests “A typical Gascon,” Montesquieu combined independence, pride, curiosity, and prudence. He devoted a lot of time to improving his castle and loved to work in the vineyards, which were the main source of income. Parliamentary duties occupied him more out of family obligation than out of personal inclination: judicial chicanery bored him. He combined his service in parliament with his studies in science. In 1716, Montesquieu was elected a member of the Bordeaux Academy and wrote a lot of reports and speeches on various sections of the natural sciences - “On the causes of echoes”, “On the purpose of the renal glands”, “On the ebb and flow of the sea”, etc.

Philosophy of Montesquieu In the works of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. The treatise On the Spirit of Laws (1748) formulated the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. In the Persian Letters (1721), Montesquieu outlined the path that French educational thought was to take with its cult of the rational and natural.

“On the Spirit of Laws” The book was included in the list of prohibited books, and in a very short time it was distributed to Parisian salons. Many reprints soon followed - at least 12 in two years, and according to Montesquieu himself - 22. The book was a success even in official circles: the Dauphin himself, the son and heir of Louis XV, showed interest in it. The book amazed his contemporaries with its style: unlike the authors of ponderous and dogmatic treatises on legal issues, Montesquieu did not offer any ready-made schemes. His work invited the reader on picturesque and “exotic” walks through countries and eras, which made it possible to see the diversity of human customs and social institutions. Tracing the dependence of the political system on the characteristics of the state, its size, population, climate, geographical environment, on the religion professed by the people and their morals, Montesquieu introduced the natural scientific method into the science of law and into the humanities in general, acting, in particular, as the founder geographical school in sociology. The theory of forms of power occupied an important place in the book.

“On the Spirit of Laws” Offering readers a three-part scheme - “republic-monarchy-despotism”, the author did not take on the role of an apologist or judge. Explaining the features of each type of government, Montesquieu illustrated them with vivid examples from history. Therefore, each generation of readers interpreted the “Spirit of Laws” in their own way. The French parliaments found in the book a justification for the absolute power of the king by “intermediate powers” ​​- the privileged classes; many were attracted by the picture of the “English Constitution” drawn by Montesquieu and the Lockean theory of “separation of powers” ​​(legislative, executive and judicial) outlined by him. Finally, the appreciation of democracy contributed to the development of republican ideas in France and beyond. The condemnation of despotism, the affirmation of the principle of civil and personal freedom, the call for religious tolerance, political moderation, and gradualism in carrying out any changes determine the historical significance of the “Spirit of Laws” in the formation of modern political culture.

Voltaire Voltaire (François Marie Arouet) (1694–1778) - French enlightenment philosopher and poet, author of vivid revelations of traditional Christian ideas about God, good and evil, and the activities of the church. Voltaire considered it advisable to preserve faith in God as the basis of morality. “Freedom consists in depending only on laws.” “You cannot have a true concept of something that has not been experienced.” "Freedom to express one's thoughts is an essential right of a citizen." “He who does not love freedom and truth may be a powerful man, but will never be a great man.” “He who serves his country worthily does not need noble ancestors.” “If God did not exist, he would have to be invented.” “The most superstitious eras have always been the eras of the most terrible crimes.” “The history of the church is an unbroken chain of strife, deception, oppression, and fraud. . . and thus it is proven that abuse relates to the very essence of the matter, as it has been proven that the wolf has always been a predator and not at all as a result of some random abuses drank the blood of our sheep.”

Voltaire He was an ideologist of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by his clearly expressed anti-clerical activities, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the supremacy of the church over the state and society. The writer’s work is diverse in themes and genres: anti-clerical works The Virgin of Orleans (1735), Fanaticism, or the Prophet Mohammed (1742); philosophical stories of Candide, or Optimism (1759), The Simple (1767); tragedies Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical Letters (1733).

Denis Diderot French philosopher-educator, writer, foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1773). Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts (volumes 1-35, 1751-80). In philosophical works - “Letter on the Blind for the Edification of the Sighted” (1749), “Thoughts on the Explanation of Nature” (1754), “D’Alembert’s Dream” (1769, edition 1830), “Philosophical Principles of Matter and Motion” (1770, edition 1798), being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, came out with irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas. Literary works were written mainly in the tradition of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment (imbued with folk love of life and worldly wisdom, the novel “Jacques the Fatalist”, 1773, edition 1796; anti-clerical novel “The Nun”, 1760, edition 1796; wit, dialectical, not without a cynical shade , a game of the mind - in the novel “Ramo’s Nephew”, 1762-79, edition 1823). Works on public education.

Philosophy Diderot “Letter on the Blind for the Edification of the Sighted” (1749), “Thoughts on the Explanation of Nature” (1754), “D’Alembert’s Dream” (1769, edition 1830), “Philosophical Principles of Matter and Motion” (1770, edition 1798) , being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, came out with irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas

Diderot and the Encyclopedists The Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which outlined the basic concepts in the field of physical and mathematical sciences, natural science, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflected the latest state of knowledge. The Encyclopedia was inspired and edited by Diderot and J. D'Alembert (1717–1783); Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, and Rousseau took an active part in its creation.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau The great French educator Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) wrote a treatise “On the Social Contract” in 1762, in which he developed the ideas of natural equality of people and called for the transformation of the world. These ideas of Rousseau greatly influenced the preparation of minds for the French Revolution. “As long as the people, forced to obey, obey, they do well; but as soon as the people, having the opportunity to throw off the yoke, throw it off, they do even better. . . The social contract is a sacred right that serves as the basis for all other rights." “Only the general will can control the forces of the state in accordance with the purpose for which the latter was established and which is the common good. . . fortunately it comes down to two important things: freedom and equality. . . " ". . . no citizen should be so rich as to be able to buy another, and no one so poor as to be forced to sell himself.” “A man and a citizen, whoever he is, cannot offer society any other property than himself; all the rest of his property already belongs to the society. . . He who, in idleness, eats up what he himself has not earned, steals this last thing. . . Labor, then, is an inevitable duty for a person living in society. Every idle citizen - rich or poor, strong or weak - is a rogue. . . »

J. -J. Rousseau (1712–1778) He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, introducing elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalistic prose of the Enlightenment. Rousseau proposed his own way of political structure of society. In his treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law (1762), he put forward the idea of ​​popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an order, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One means of such a return of power could be the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.

Jean Meslier Jean Meslier (French: Jean Meslier; June 15, 1664 - June 17, 1729) - French materialist philosopher, atheist, utopian communist, Catholic priest. The son of a village weaver, Meslier, at the insistence of his parents, became a rural Catholic priest in 1689. He spent 40 years as a priest in Champagne without complaint or problem, but was an atheist all his life.

Meslier Jean Vera is always blind, because religions do not and cannot give any clear, reliable and convincing evidence of their supposedly holy secrets and imaginary divine revelations

“Testament” The “Testament” contained criticism of the reality of that time, the idea of ​​atheism, and dreams of an ideal social order. The “testament,” according to the author, contains a condemnation of “mistakes, delusions, nonsense, madness and human atrocities.” Mellier's social ideal is a single family-community in which all people jointly own common goods, work with pleasure and love each other like brothers. In order to reach such a state, people must understand the injustice of tyrannical power and free themselves from prejudices, among which religion occupies the first place.

Adam Smith is a Scottish economist and philosopher, one of the leading representatives of classical political economy. In “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776), he summarized the century-long development of this direction of economic thought, examined the theory of value and income distribution, capital and its accumulation, the economic history of Western Europe, views on economic policy, and state finances. He approached economics as a system in which objective laws amenable to knowledge operate. During Smith's lifetime, the book went through 5 English and several foreign editions and translations.

Theory of value wages, profit and rent. With the growth of labor productivity, he noted, there is an increase in wages and rent, but the share of profit in the newly produced value decreases. The total social product is divided into two main parts: the first - capital - serves to maintain and expand production (this includes the wages of workers), the second goes for consumption by the unproductive classes of society (owners of land and capital, civil servants, military personnel, scientists, liberal professions). etc.). The well-being of society depends on the ratio of these two parts: the larger the share of capital, the faster social wealth grows, and, conversely, the more funds spent on unproductive consumption (primarily by the state), the poorer the nation.

Jacques Turgot Anne-Robert-Jacques (Turgot, Baron d'Aulne) - b. in 1727, the famous French. state activist, originally from Normandy. The third son in the family, Turgot was destined for clergy. Intimidated by his mother, a quiet, shy boy who hid under sofas and chairs when strangers came to his parents’ house, he was sent to the Saint-Sulpice seminary, and then entered the Sorbonne to complete his theological education.

Turgot's views Freedom is the most important condition for the development of wealth: it should be provided to everyone both in the field of labor and in the field of trade relations. To create national wealth, it is necessary to restore to trade that precious freedom which it has lost through the prejudices born of centuries of ignorance, and the tendency of governments to indulge private interests; it is necessary to make it easier for everyone to work, in order to thereby create the greatest possible competition, leading to improved production and the establishment of prices that are most profitable for buyers. Combining the theory of freedom and unlimited competition with the theory of the separation of owner from worker, Turgot proclaimed that “the wages of the worker are limited to what is necessary for his existence.”

Immanuel Kant was born in Konigsberg in Prussia. His father was a craftsman. After graduating from school, Kant entered the University of Konigsberg. After graduating, he earned his living by giving private lessons to Prussian families, but continued his education on his own. Having successfully defended his dissertation, he became a private assistant professor and taught various courses at the University of Königsberg. In 1770 he became professor of logic and metaphysics at this university and remained in this post until he resigned three years before his death.

Life of Kant He lived a calm and measured life, traveled little and acquired a reputation as a very punctual person. He took walks every day at exactly the appointed time, and people could set their watches by these walks. One of the rare occasions when he was late for his afternoon walk was the day he was reading Rousseau's book Emile. He had many friends, he was respected and admired by all those who knew him, but his social life was as regulated as his work. He remained a bachelor, although, as they say, he loved company, especially beautiful and well-mannered women. He earned a reputation as a lively lecturer, although no one could tell from his works, which are difficult to understand and dry in both style and content.

“Critique of Pure Reason” Kant identifies the conditions under which the main forms of scientific knowledge are possible. This problem is concretized by Kant in the following three questions: “How is pure mathematics possible? ", "How is pure natural science possible", "How is metaphysics possible as a science? ". This is a way of reasoning in which questions are asked and answers are given. Kant calls the transcendental and his answers to these questions the transcendental theory.

Ethics “Fundamentals of the Metaphysics of Morals” (1785), “Critique of Practical Reason” (1788), “Metaphysics of Morals” (1797), “On the Originally Evil in Human Nature” (1792), “On the Saying “Perhaps this is true in theory, but not suitable for practice" (1793), "Religion within the limits of reason alone" (1793). “Two things always fill the soul with new and ever stronger surprise and awe, the longer and longer we reflect on them - this is the starry sky above me and the moral law in me.” The basis of morality lies, according to Kant, a priori in the concepts of pure reason. In this case, Kant understands reason as practical reason, and not theoretical, as it was before. Practical reason is morality, dealing with the problems of freedom and free will. Pure reason functions as practical reason when it determines the will and it becomes free will.

The philosophy of the Enlightenment receives noticeable development: a deep faith in the unlimited possibilities of science in understanding the world - a faith based on the ideas of F. Bacon (about the possibilities of experimental research of nature) and R. Descartes (about the possibilities of mathematics in natural science) that were well adopted by the philosophers of the Enlightenment; deistic ideas about the world develop, which in turn leads to the formation of materialism as a fairly integral philosophical doctrine, it is deism in unity with the successes and results of the natural sciences that leads to the formation of French materialism of the 18th century; a new idea of ​​social history is being formed, of its deep connection with the achievements of science and technology, with scientific discoveries and inventions, with the education of the masses.

Historical significance Pan-European significance in the 18th century. received French educational literature in the person of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot and other writers. Their common feature is the dominance of rationalism, which directed its criticism in France to issues of a political and social nature, while the German enlighteners of this era were more concerned with resolving religious and moral issues.

Historical significance Under the influence of the ideas of enlightenment, reforms were undertaken that were supposed to rebuild the entire social life (enlightened absolutism and the French revolution).

Historical significance Philosophers of our day consider the main virtues of the Enlightenment to be a strict geometric order of thinking, reductionism and rationalism, contrasting them with emotionality and irrationalism. In this respect, liberalism owes its philosophical basis and critical attitude towards intolerance and prejudice to the Enlightenment.

Historical significance The ideas of the Enlightenment also underlie political freedoms and democracy as the basic values ​​of modern society, as well as the organization of the state as a self-governing republic, religious tolerance, market mechanisms, capitalism, and the scientific method.

Maria Theresa The reign of Maria Theresa was an important stage in the development of absolutism in the Austrian lands. She carried out reforms aimed at strengthening state centralization (establishment of the State Council, reform of provincial government, customs reform, etc.). She pursued a policy of protectionism and patronized the development of industry and trade. In the context of the crisis of the corvee system and under the influence of the peasant uprising of 1775, she issued the “corvee patent” (1775), which limited corvee in the Czech lands to 3 days a week. In 1768 she issued a new criminal code, and in 1776 she abolished torture.

Joseph II Joseph II, from the Habsburg family. German king in 1764-1790. Emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" in 1765-1790. King of Hungary and the Czech Republic in 1780 - 1790. Son of Emperor Franz I and Queen Maria Theresa.

Reforms: abolition of serfdom (first in Bohemia, and then in other provinces) and introduction of relative freedom of religion.

Frederick II King of Prussia from the Hohenzollern dynasty, major commander, philosopher, musician, composer, friend of Voltaire and then his opponent

Reforms Introduction of new criminal legislation Abolition of torture Streamlining the tax system Expansion of primary education

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The Age of Enlightenment, a time of transformation

Enlightenment The era of spiritual development of European society in the 17th-18th centuries. The projections of the Enlightenment in art were: Baroque, Rococo and Classicism. The Enlightenment replaces the Renaissance and precedes Romanticism. Pan-European significance in the 18th century. received French educational literature in the person of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot, Meslier

Ideas of the Enlightenment Characteristic of the era of transition from feudalism to capitalism An ideological movement associated with the struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism Common to all ideologists of the Enlightenment was a merciless criticism of the feudal system

Adam Smith 1723 - 1790 Outstanding Scottish economist, philosopher one of the leading representatives of modern economic theory Key theory - liberation of the economy from state tutelage

John Locke English philosopher and educator, creator of the ideas of liberalism Developed the idea of ​​“separation of powers” ​​He considered three basic human rights: - to life - liberty - property 1632 - 1704

Jean Meslier 1664 - 1729 French materialist, atheist, utopian communism Predecessor of the French enlighteners of the 18th century Revolutionary democrat

Charles Louis Montesquieu French political thinker, writer, sociologist, historian Representative of French educational philosophy One of the ideological predecessors of the bourgeois revolution in France of the 18th century 1689 - 1755

Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire 1694 - 1778 French writer, philosopher, historian Author of numerous political and historical works, poems, novels, plays Criticized the church and feudal order, however, believing that religion must be preserved for the people in order to keep them in obedience

Denis Diderot 1713 - 1784 French philosopher, writer, theorist of the Great French Revolution Founder and editor of the “Encyclopedia - 1751”, or “Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts” Supporter of the idea of ​​an enlightened monarchy

Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712 - 1778 French enlightenment philosopher, writer, composer He believed that people are born equal in their rights and that the people have the right to establish the government of the country themselves. He opposed the luxury of the rich and the property of feudal lords

Tests Philosopher who corresponded with Empress Catherine II the Great Philosopher of the Enlightenment, ideological predecessor of the bourgeois revolution in France in the 18th century Outstanding Scottish economist Philosopher of the Enlightenment, author of the Encyclopedia Philosopher of the Enlightenment, opposed to luxury and the rich Author of any encyclopedia