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Primitive art on the territory of Belarus. Ancient beliefs and primitive art in Belarus

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

The starting step in the progressive socio-economic development of human society, as is commonly believed, is the primitive communal system. It usually distinguishes three main stages: the primitive human herd, the formation and flourishing of the clan society (maternal clan) and its decomposition into social groups that differ from each other.

This topic occupies a fundamental place in the course of the history of Belarus, allowing one to identify the basis of Belarusian culture, imposing itself as a kind of starting point, and analyze the course of history in its evolutionary aspect.

Information about this topic has been quite well studied by Belarusian scientists today, as evidenced by numerous educational and reference manuals of our time.

Based on the materials from which the tools that have come down to us were mainly made, historical science distinguishes the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. The Stone Age is divided into Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age). The Paleolithic, in turn, is divided into early, middle and late.

Stone Age (100 thousand years BC - 3rd millennium BC)

The longest, most complex, and often dramatic period of humanity’s past is the Stone Age. It experienced both the maximum cooling of the last hundred thousand years (20-18 thousand years ago), which caused an unsuitable climate for humans, and the greatest warming (6 thousand years ago), with its especially favorable conditions for all living things.

With the change in living conditions in the process of working, the person himself changes: his intellect evolves, tools and weapons improve, occupations and life become more complex. Taking this into account, scientists divide the Stone Age into 3 periods:

1. primitive stone age - paleolithic(from Greek poleo - ancient, litas - stone)

ü Early (Lower) Paleolithic 2.2 million - 170 thousand years ago

ü Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) 100 - 35 thousand years ago.

ü Late (Upper) Paleolithic 35 thousand years ago - 9th millennium BC.

Middle Stone Age - Mesolithic(from Greek meso - middle) 9th - 5th millennium BC

New Stone Age - Neolithic(from Greek neo - new) end of the 5th - 3rd millennium BC.

I. Paleolithic

ü Middle Paleolithic (Mousterian) - the beginning of the settlement of the territory of Belarus by Neanderthals

Three large and several small glaciations in time and duration are known: Berezinsky (500 - 350 thousand years BC), Dnieper (300 - 110 thousand years BC) and Voldaysky (90 - 83 thousand years BC.). The Ice Age in Belarus ended completely only in the 9th millennium BC.

primitive society stone age

Data from archeology and other sciences suggest that man appeared on the territory of Belarus between 100 thousand and 40 thousand years ago, that is, in the Middle Paleolithic. From that time on, intensive settlement of its territory by people began. Material evidence of this was found near the village of Podluzhye (Chechersky district), near Svetilovichi in the Gomel region, the villages of Kleevichi Kostyukovichi and Obidovichi in the Bykhovsky district of the Mogilev region. They belonged to a man of the Neanderthal anthropological type. It was at this time that people (paleoanthropes, or Neanderthals (homo sapiens)) mastered the methods of making fire and made stone tools such as pointed points, scrapers, and choppers. The main occupation of man during this period was hunting and gathering. They hunted mammoths, hairy rhinoceroses, musk oxen, reindeer and other animals characteristic of a cold (Arctic) climate with poor vegetation. Neanderthals knew how to build houses, heat them with fires, and sew clothes from animal skins. They could already exchange some words with each other in order to understand each other, which was especially necessary during a collective driven hunt. They had the germs of religion, because They buried the dead in graves. In order to better withstand the harsh conditions of existence, they united in primitive herds, where they observed submission to the authority and power of the leader, planning of activities, division of labor according to its nature between women and men, adults and adolescents. As for the biological characteristics of the paleoanthropus, its proportions are similar to modern man, but its skull still retains some primitive features. This is a man of small stature (150-165 cm), with a flat forehead, protruding brow ridges and a sloping chin. The volume of his brain reaches an average of 1500 cm3 .

ü Late (Upper) Paleolithic - Cro-Magnon era

For still unknown reasons, about 40 - 35 thousand years ago, Neanderthals completely disappeared. Their place was taken by people of the so-called Cro-Magnon type, who were similar to modern humans.

Compared to their predecessors, the Cro-Magnons made more diverse and sophisticated tools, the blanks for which were mainly flint plates. These were spear tips, knives, scrapers, scrapers, chisels, axes, etc., which became effective weapons for hunting and self-defense.

There is undoubted information that the Cro-Magnons inhabited the north-east of Belarus for a long time; these are the remains of their settlements and sites.

In 1926, the Belarusian archaeologist K.M. Polikarpovich found the first and so far only Poleolithic sites on the territory of Belarus - one near the village of Berdyzh (Chechersky district of the Gomel region), the other in Pripyat, not far from Mozyr, near the village of Yurovichi. Materials from Berdyzh gave 2 dates - 23 thousand and 15 thousand years ago, Yurovicheskaya dates back to 26 thousand years ago.

Residents of the oldest site on the modern territory of the village of Yurovichi settled on the high left bank of the Pripyat. Residents of the Berdyzh site chose the high dry bank of the Sozh River.

At that time there were mostly frosty winters and cold summer months. The endless tundra lay all around, and the glacier still ruled in the north. Strong cold winds forced people to build squat, long-term houses from bones (tusks, ribs, basins) and animal skins, wear warm leather clothes, and continuously burn fires. People were engaged in collective driven hunting for mammoths, wild horses, arctic foxes, primitive bulls, bison, and wolves. But the main object of hunting was still the mammoth. Gathering and fishing were less common. Housing areas ranged from 15 to 50 m 2. The number of residents in the parking lot did not exceed hundreds.

It is generally accepted that Upper Paleotic hunters and gatherers already had a certain system of ideas about the world around them, which were directly related to the specific conditions of their life and activities. The initial stage of man’s understanding of inanimate nature was fetishism, then animism and totemism.

At this time, art begins to emerge. Ornamented plates made from mammoth tusks were found at sites, female figurines, and amulets-decorations. Musical instruments were invented.

During this era, there were various rituals that were aimed at ensuring a successful hunt. These rituals were magical in nature.

By this time, a clan society had become established, where the clan was formed from several families. People lived in a maternal-clan community, which included several dozen people. The basis of the community at this time was a group of maternal relatives. Hence the name of the community - maternal clan. A woman occupied an exceptional position in the house; she was both a woman-keeper of the hearth and a woman-mother, mistress of the house. At this time, exogamy and endogamy already exist. Here an equal division of hunting and fishing products was carried out between community members. The clan was the owner of a certain territory, ran a joint farm, and had joint property.

II. Mesolithic

About 20 - 18 thousand years ago, at the time of the widest spread of the glacier, the ancient inhabitants of Belarus lived on the shores. The third attempt to gain a foothold on our land occurred at the very end of the Ice Age (about 12 - 11 thousand years ago), when the glacier retreated far to the north, and tribes of reindeer hunters began to penetrate the plains, where newly invented weapons were the most effective. - Bow and arrows. The settlement of Belarus occurs from different sides: from the west and north-west, from the south. As a result, almost the entire territory was developed. Various archaeological cultures took part in this: Grenskaya, Sviderskaya, etc. Having settled in compact groups, they formed the smallest - 4 cultural-historical regions. In ethnic relations, Belarus did not represent unity at that time.

6 thousand years ago the climate began to change specifically, as a consequence of the glacier leaving for good. The climate changed in a particularly favorable direction and settled at an optimum. The tundra was replaced by forests. The animal world is also changing, reindeer are moving north. Their place is taken by moose, bears, wild boars and other animals. Some residents follow the deer, which are their main prey, while others prefer life among the forests.

Changes in climate, flora and fauna greatly influenced all aspects of the life of Mesolithic man. Hunting methods and types of weapons are changing, and the technology for processing them is improving. The main tools are made of flint, wood and bone. More complex tools also appeared: flint plates, axes, chisels, scrapers, adzes. The farm takes on the appropriating type as a consequence of the lush vegetation created due to the humidity. Fishing is beginning to occupy a larger place. Fish is caught not only with harpoons, but also with a hook; moreover, a fishing net is created, woven from bast fibers. Since Mesolithic times, the discovery of the first boats hollowed out from a trunk has also been known. At this time, a person tames a dog, which helps him in hunting.

People's houses became lighter, fires were lit inside the house only in cold weather, and so mostly it was located near it, nearby in several utility pits.

About 120 Mesolithic sites are known in Belarus. The total number of its inhabitants is approximately 4.5 - 6 thousand people. The life and everyday life of people is characterized by a clan organization, where clan communities begin to turn into tribes.

In the Mesolithic, the first autochthonous population already lived in the valleys of large rivers in Belarus. The former isolation of the tribes was increasingly violated.

At the end of the Mesolithic, when human life became more sedentary and the population increased, sites began to cover the banks of rivers and lakes more densely, and more reliable housing was built.

III. Neolithic

About 6 thousand years ago, a new stage began in the development of Stone Age society - the Neolithic, characterized by radical changes in the economy, material and spiritual culture.

In the Early Neolithic period, the population already lived in optimal climatic conditions. At that time the temperature was 2-4 O From above modern times, there was less precipitation. Moisture and heat contributed to the rapid development of vegetation. Among the trees, spruce, spruce-broadleaf forests with elms, lindens, as well as oak and hornbeam were more common. It was warmest in Palesie.

In Late Neolithic times, the climate became colder, which influenced a slight shift of the forest belt to the south.

A variety of fauna found refuge in the forests - balgorod deer, aurochs and bison, moose, wild boars, bears, etc., most of which became human hunting prey. The diverse swamps were rich in birds, and the reservoirs were rich in fish.

It is believed that the typical Neolithic society is distinguished by four main features - the emergence of agriculture, cattle breeding, pottery (ceramics) and polished stone manufactures.

It is with the appearance of ceramics that the new Stone Age begins in Belarus. The appearance of such dishes became an indicator of important economic changes. The fact is that the favorable climate influenced the amount of wild plant food (berries, fruits) that had to be stored somewhere. Clay dishes baked over fire acquired quite durable and long-lasting properties, which made it possible not only to use them as storage containers, but also for preparing food that was more varied than its predecessors. It is believed that the first potters were women. Almost all Neolithic pottery was pointed, of varying sizes depending on their function. It happened that its size reached up to a meter. The ceramics that have reached us provide a huge amount of information about the level of production, physical and chemical knowledge, aesthetic tastes, and even the worldview of the people of that time.

The tradition of gathering gave way to agriculture, which gradually began to penetrate into the territory of Belarus from the Mediterranean and the Middle East. In the 5th - 4th millennium BC. the ability to grow plants spread to the south of Belarus. In the middle zone and in the north, where there was a lot of game and fish, the new form of farming was adopted slowly. The main grain crops of Neolithic Europe were wheat and barley. At the same time, colder Belarus turned out to be more suitable for barley. Later they began to grow wheat grain, millet, and flax. Self-seeding nettle grew in the beds, from the stems of which strong and long fibers were extracted, from which threads and even ropes were made. At first, small plots of land were used for crops. The soil was loosened with sharpened stakes, wooden and horn hoes. In the late Neolithic, with the expansion of agriculture, they began to burn down and cut down forests, clearing places for real fields. This type of farming is called slash-and-burn. Ripe barley could be cut in the garden with an ordinary knife, but with the development of agriculture, when large areas began to be allocated for crops, knives were replaced by sickles. By grinding the cut spikelets, grains were extracted from them and ground on flat stones. As a result of such farming, food supplies were replenished, people became more independent of natural and climatic conditions.

Cattle breeding, like agriculture, originated in the southern lands, but nevertheless spread to the territory of Belarus in the Neolithic era. At this time, people began to tame and raise goats, sheep, cows, horses, and pigs on their farms. These animals became so domesticated that they began to breed in captivity, which is true animal husbandry.

In the Neolithic, flint processing reached perfection. High-quality tools and weapons were made from it: knives and daggers, scrapers, chisels, arrow and spear tips, which were indispensable in hunting.

At the same time, material and spiritual culture changed, and relationships between groups and individuals became more complex. Exchange developed in the Neolithic. Flint came from Posozhye and Ponemanye to Podvinia. Amber came from the Baltic states to the territory of Belarus. This huge economic revolution in the history of mankind is called the Neolithic revolution, which is considered by scientists as a significant leap in the development of productive forces and the mastery of certain technological achievements. Closed, self-sufficient, underdeveloped farms were replaced by economic relations associated with exchange. This had a significant impact on all aspects of the life of Neolithic populations, including the growth of their numbers and cultural and spiritual development.

More than 1,500 Neolithic sites are known in Blairwis, discovered mainly in the basin of the Pripyat, Sozh, and Neman rivers. Neolithic settlement sites are large and crowded.

Neolithic archaeological materials testify to the peculiarities of the worldview of the people of that era and their artistic inclinations. Man’s dependence on the forest and water environment and the surrounding landscapes was also reflected in his ideas. There was a cult of animals and birds. This is evidenced by the finds of bone figurines of moose, turtles, snakes, and ducks. There was also a cult of ancestors, who transformed into guardian spirits, and then into deities. Their sculptural images were carved from wood and bone. During excavations of Neolithic settlements, jewelry is found in large quantities. Ornamented items, pendants made from animal and human teeth indicate that a number of objects were given magical meaning. There was also music, as evidenced by the pipes found in the swamps.

At that time, eastern Polesie was inhabited by tribes of the Polesie variant of the Dnieper-Donetsk culture, the Dnieper basin northeast of the Berezina and Iput was inhabited by tribes of the Neman culture. In the 3rd millennium BC. Cattle-breeding tribes of the spherical amphorae culture penetrated into the western part of the current territory of Belarus. In the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. The territory of the Belarusian Poozerie was inhabited by tribes of the typical culture of comb-pit ceramics. At the end of this millennium, part of the population from the Dnieper region moved here - tribes of the Corded Ware culture.

Bronze Age (2nd millennium BC - 7th century BC)

The Bronze Age is an era in human history when metallurgy, processing and use of bronze emerged and actively expanded. Early metal manufactures, which were used together with stone and flint ones, made noticeable changes in the lives of the people of that time and contributed to the particularly rapid development of society. The advent of a new era primarily involves changes in the economic, social and spiritual spheres of life.

The first metal products, including bronze, within the borders of Belarus were found in the Upper Dnieper region in the burials of the Middle Dnieper culture of that time. Copper and bronze axes, spearheads, chisels, knives, awls, and various decorations appeared. All these products entered the territory of Belarus through exchange. The new era differed from previous ones in the widespread spread of cattle breeding and primitive agriculture. Large and small cattle, horses, and pigs were bred. Small areas for crops were cultivated with stone and horn hoes. In the Bronze Age, the territory of Belarus was part of the areas of the Corded Ware cultures, then the Middle Dnieper, Corded Ware Polesie, Vistula-Nieman, and North Belarusian cultures, etc. They indicate a gradual transition to agricultural sedentism, as a result of which human communities became more stable, than with a wandering or hunting appropriating economy. The so-called first social division of labor took place, i.e. separation of agriculture from cattle breeding. In relation to this stage, we can already talk about such historical types of ethnic communities as tribes. A community of related tribes with similar cultures of production of objects of labor and a similar way of life began to take shape. At the same time, both clans and tribes gradually emerged, which, more than others, raised livestock, received grain, and owned other material assets, i.e. wealth inequality emerged. This was facilitated by the production of regular surplus and then surplus product, which gave rise to relations of exploitation. The accumulation of certain surplus products facilitated exchange.

In the 2nd millennium BC. There was a replacement of maternal-clan relations with patriarchal-clan relations, and of the maternal clan with paternal ones. The male hunter, the breadwinner, on whom the well-being of the clan and even its existence depended, took a dominant position, and kinship began to be determined along the male line. The social status of women has changed. Now she becomes dependent on the man, his kind of property. The main social and economic unit was a large patriarchal family (community), consisting of several generations of immediate paternal relatives with their wives and children.

In 2000 - 1000 BC. Indo-Europeans advanced from the south to the future Belarusian lands. Coming into contact with the local population, the Indo-Europeans, who were at a higher level of socio-economic development, occupied a dominant position, absorbed, assimilated it.

The mixing of Indo-Europeans and the local population in the basins of the Neman, Western Dvina, and Upper Dnieper led to the formation of the so-called Baltic groups of tribes and peoples.

Indo-Europeans were the inventors of the wheel and wheeled transport and practiced plow farming. They brought with them the custom of burial in burial mounds. The Indo-Europeans are associated with the method of applying ornaments to dishes using a cord wound on a stick.

The total number of people living in the Bronze Age on the territory of Belarus could reach from 50 to 70 thousand people. With the development of agriculture, open settlements became widespread - unfortified villages, villages where several families lived.

The worldview of the population of the forest zone was characterized by the cult of the beast and the male hunter, and they were also supplemented by beliefs with the cult of fire, light, heavenly bodies and the fertility of the earth.

Iron Age (VII century BC - V century AD)

In the 7th - 6th centuries. BC. our ancestors had already learned to obtain iron from swamp ores. Such raw materials were common in many places, so a lot of iron was obtained and there was enough of it for making a variety of things - axes, sickles, knives, spear and arrowheads, fishhooks, awls, stammers and many others. others, who began to forge from iron. Moreover, the productivity of tools made from this metal became greater than those made of stone and even bronze, which is why in the new era it was almost completely replaced in everyday life, and copper and bronze were used mainly for making jewelry.

When the Bronze Age in Belarus was in many ways a continuation of the Stone Age, then in the Iron Age our society changed significantly and its development accelerated. Iron opened the way for humanity to the future heights of civilization.

The man of that time received iron in the corresponding domnitsa. This is a kind of furnace, with the help of which "brick iron" was produced . At times, such iron was heated and hammered several times to create steel. Steel objects were known in Belarus already at the beginning of the Iron Age.

Such types of crafts as bronze casting, processing of bones and animal horns spread. Spinning and weaving became widespread, as evidenced by numerous finds of spindle whorls.

The second major social division of labor in the history of mankind took place - the separation of crafts from other occupations and, above all, from the most important of them - agriculture. Nevertheless, the basis of the economy in the earlier Iron Age remained agriculture and cattle breeding (hunting and fishing acquired auxiliary importance). Agriculture was slash-and-burn. This means that before sowing the fields, people, having chosen forest land for these needs, set fire to trees and bushes, then uprooted stumps and only then, having harrowed the ground with the so-called “knot harrow” the soil was sown with crops (poenitsa, field beans, peas, millet, etc.). After 5-7 years of such cultivation of the land, when the yield, as a rule, sharply decreased, the plot was abandoned and people moved to another. In the southern regions of Belarus, where the soils were suitable for agriculture, more advanced tools appeared. One of them is a wooden door made entirely of oak. The development of the arable farming system took place. Cattle breeding occupied an important place in the economy: large and small cattle were raised, horses and pigs were of secondary importance. The rapid development of agriculture and animal husbandry, the spread of exchange and crafts lead to greater accumulation of wealth. Therefore, not only creative work is now becoming profitable, but also armed robbery of neighbors. In the absence of a system of collective defense, without state organization, each human collective relied only on its own strengths and skills.

More advanced tools led to the construction of more advanced houses. The further development of cattle breeding and the spread of arable farming led to an even greater increase in the importance of the male father in the clan, who sought to pass on his property as an inheritance to his sons. Thus, the primitive clan increasingly begins to disintegrate into separate families, and the primitive communal system decomposes. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. fortified settlements appeared, because Clashes begin between people and fortifications are formed. This type of settlement was surrounded by walls, high defensive ramparts were built around them and deep ditches were dug. They were usually located in naturally inaccessible places (high steep river banks, capes). Over 1.2 thousand so-called ancient settlements have been discovered on the territory of Belarus, i.e. remains of similar settlements. They are especially numerous in the eastern part of the Gomel region. Subsequently, unfortified open settlements became the main form of settlements, and settlements were used as refuges in times of danger.

In the Iron Age, the territory of Belarus was inhabited by tribes, which scientists attribute to different archaeological cultures and are distinguished by the peculiarities of the construction of dwellings, the peculiarities of funeral rites, the shape and ornamentation of dishes, decorations, the location of settlements, etc.

The southeast of Belarus and the adjacent part of modern Ukraine were occupied by the Milograd culture (VII-III centuries BC). Western Polesie in the IV-III centuries. BC. inhabited by tribes of the Pomeranian culture. On the border of the 3rd - 2nd centuries. BC. In the territory previously occupied by the Milograd and partly Pomeranian population, a community of tribes of the Zarubinet culture begins to form. In the II-IV centuries. AD The territory of Western Polesie is occupied by the Wielbar culture, and at the same time the southeast is occupied by the population of the Kiev culture. Throughout the Iron Age, central and northern Belarus was inhabited by a line of hatched pottery.

Conclusion

The primitive era in the history of Belarus is not only an initial and extended period, but also an extremely important one. During this period, decisive changes took place:

· from primitive Neanderthal to modern humans;

· from the first penetration of man into the northeast to the settlement of the entire territory of Belarus;

· from light huts made of poles, bark, skins to complex housing, utility, religious and defense buildings;

· from short-term stops to populous settlements and ancient settlements, where people lived continuously for many hundreds of years;

· from the use of stones and bones to the manufacture of copper, bronze and iron tools and weapons;

· from bark and hide storage to high-end pottery;

· from obtaining “gifts of nature” to livestock breeding and arable farming;

· from walking to shuttles, skis;

· from primitive exchange to broad economic and cultural ties with near and distant lands;

· from jewelry made from animal teeth to jewelry made from non-ferrous metal and glass;

· from the rhythmic scratching of bones to the high patterns of fine and ornamental art, to the use of wind and percussion musical instruments;

· from primitive herdism, evenness and collectivism to the division of property and the emergence of a tribal aristocracy.

List of used literature

1.Novik, Y.K. History of Belarus: padruchnik: at 2 hours. Part 1. The hell of the old hours - the battles of 1917 / Y.K. Novik. - Mn., 2006. - 416 p.

2.Charnyaski, M.M. Illustrated history of ancient Belarus: First periods / M.M. Charnyaski. - Mn.: Ext. center BDU, 2003. - 144 p.

.History of Belarus: U 6 vol. T.1. Starazhytnaya Belarus: Hell of the Pershapachatkova settlement and syaredzina XIII century. / Redkal: M. Kastsyuk (gal ed.) and others. - Mn., 2000. - 351.

.Ermalovich, M. Starazhytnaya Belarus: Polack and Novagarod periods / M. Ermalovich. - Mn., 2001. - 366 p.

.Archaeology of Belarus: U 4 vol. T.1. Stone and bronze ones / E.M. Zaykoski, U.F. Isaenka, A.G. Kalechyts i insh. - Mn., 1997. - 424 p.

.Chigrinov, P.G. Belarusian history: popular science essay / P.G. Chigrinov. - Mn., 2010. - 928 p.

.Kovkel, I.I. History of Belarus: From ancient times to our time / I.I. Kovkel, E.S. Yarmusik. - Mn.: Aversev, 2005. - 605 p.

Tags: Primitive society on the territory of Belarus Abstract History

Selection from the database: Management as a science and art.doc, Boileau-Dépreo Nicola. Poetic art - royallib.ru.doc.

Course content, periodization of the history of Belarus. Concepts of the origin of the Belarusian people and the name “Belarus”. Sources and basic research on the history of Belarus.
Primitive society in the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages in Belarus.
The settlement of the territory of Belarus by the Slavs (Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi). Kievan Rus.
Ancient beliefs and primitive art in Belarus.
The first principalities on the territory of Belarus: Polotsk and Turov.
The origin of feudal relations, the socio-economic development of Belarusian lands in the 9th – mid-12th centuries.
Feudal fragmentation in Belarus. Disintegration of the Polotsk and Turov principalities into appanage principalities.
The struggle of the Belarusian principalities with the crusaders and Mongol-Tatars. Foreign policy situation at the end of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries.
Culture of Belarusian lands in the 9th – mid-13th centuries. Spread of Christianity on the territory of Belarus.
Prerequisites for the creation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Activities of Mindovg. The internal situation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the second half of the 14th century.
The place of Belarusian lands in the political system of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Foreign policy and internal political situation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th century.
The rise of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under Vytautas, the Union of Krevo and the Battle of Grunwald. Civil war in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1432-1436.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania: political system, authorities and management, judicial system, administrative-territorial division of Grand Duchy of Lithuania (XV – XVI centuries)
Stages of enslavement of the peasantry. Economic development and social relations in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIV – XVI centuries.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the reign of Casimir and Alexander Jagiellonczyk. The struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Moscow Principality at the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century.
Formation of the Belarusian nation. Culture of Belarus XIV – XV centuries.
Union of Lublin 1569 and the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The place of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the political system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Religious processes in the Belarusian lands in the 15th – early 17th centuries.
Development of Belarusian culture in the 16th – early 17th centuries: from the Renaissance to the Counter-Reformation.
F. Skaryna and the development of book printing and education in Belarus in the 16th – first half of the 17th centuries:
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries: wars with Sweden and the Principality of Moscow.
Belarus during the wars of the mid-17th century: the anti-feudal Cossack-peasant war of 1648-1651, the war with the Moscow principality of 1654-1667.
Belarus in the Northern War 1700-1721. Political crisis and gentry anarchy.
Social and economic crisis in Belarus in the second half of the 17th – first half of the 18th centuries.
Culture of Belarus in the second half of the 17th – 18th centuries. Age of Enlightenment.
The political crisis of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and attempts to reform it. The uprising of T. Kosciuszko and the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Belarus as part of the Russian Empire: changes in the political, socio-economic, religious and cultural spheres.
Belarus in the Patriotic War of 1812
Secret societies and socio-political movement in Belarus in the first half of the 19th century. Uprising 1830-1831
Reform by P. Kiselev. Socio-economic development of Belarusian lands in the first half of the 19th century.
Development of Belarusian culture in the first half of the 19th century.
Preparation and abolition of serfdom in 1861. Features of the bourgeois reforms of the second half of the 19th century. in Belarus.
Development of capitalist relations in Belarus in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
National liberation uprising of 1863-1864. K. Kalinovsky and his role in the history of Belarus.
Socio-political movement in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. in Belarus: populists and the formation of political parties.
Culture of Belarus in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. National Revival and the newspaper “Nasha Niva”.
Belarus during the revolution of 1905-1907. Activities of BSG.
Stolypin's agrarian reform in Belarus and the completion of bourgeois reforms.
The First World War and the situation in Belarus: political, social and economic aspects. Belarusian national movement during the war.
The February Revolution of 1917 in Belarus and the situation in the region in February - October 1917.
The October Revolution of 1917 and the establishment of Soviet power in Belarus.
The formation of Belarusian statehood in 1918-1919: from the BPR to the BSSR.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918. Belarus during the Soviet-Polish War. Second proclamation of the BSSR.
The policy of “war communism” and the BSSR during the years of the New Economic Policy (NEP).
Policy of Belarusization: development of education, science and culture in the BSSR in the 1920-1930s.
Industrialization and collectivization of agriculture in the BSSR, their results.
Repressions and socio-political life in the BSSR in the late 1920s - 1930s.
The Treaty of Riga and the position of Western Belarus within the Polish state. National liberation movement in Western Belarus, political parties.
Culture of Western Belarus 1920 – 1930s. TBS and B. Tarashkevich.
Beginning of World War II. Reunification of Western Belarus with the BSSR. The first events of Soviet power in Western Belarus.
The beginning of the Great Patriotic War. Defensive battles on the territory of Belarus. The Nazi occupation regime on the territory of Belarus.
The struggle of the Belarusian people against the Nazi occupiers (partisans and underground fighters). Collaborationism.
Liberation of the BSSR from the Nazi invaders. Results of the war for the BSSR.
Belarus in the international arena. Participation of the BSSR in the founding of the UN. BSSR in the second half of the 1940s - the first half of the 1950s.
Socio-economic development of the BSSR in the second half of the 1950s - the first half of the 1980s.
Social and political life in the BSSR in the second half of the 1950s and the first half of the 1980s. The state of education, science, literature and art.
BSSR in the second half of the 1980s. The policy of perestroika and the features of its implementation in the BSSR.
Declaration of independence of the Republic of Belarus. Socio-economic development at the turn of the 20th – 21st centuries.
Belarus at the present stage: socio-economic and political situation.
International situation and foreign policy of the Republic of Belarus.

61. Culture of the Republic of Belarus in the 1990s - 2000s. Main achievements and directions of development
1. Course content, periodization of the history of Belarus. Concepts of the origin of the Belarusian people and the name “Belarus”. Sources and basic research on the history of Belarus.

History object- this is the totality of phenomena in the life of a society throughout history. essence of people. The emergence of history is caused by the society’s need to understand its past and study the prospects for further development. Main function– scientific-cognitive. activity.

PERIODIZATION:

1) Ancient society. (100 thousand years BC – V century AD).

2) Middle Ages. (V century AD – XV century AD).

3) New time (XVI - 1918).

4) Modern times (1918 - ...).

Methodological approaches in the study of history:

-formational(materialistic understanding of history based on the study of general economic formations)

1) primitive society

2) slave system

3) feudal structure

4) capitalism (divided into capitalism and imperialism)

5) communism (divided into socialism and communism)

1) savagery (people lived in clans and used stone tools)

2) barbarism (invention of pottery)

3) civilization (writing, transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one + the emergence of a state)

Sources according to history Bel.:

Archaeological

Written (vernacular)

Folklore

Ethnographic

Film-photo-phonological documents

Auxiliary sources Sciences: archaeology, archeography (study and publication of historical materials), toponymy (study of geographical names), anthropology, numismatics (coins), heraldry (coats of arms).

Bel. national historiography begins to form at the beginning. 19th century – Bobrovsky, Danilovich (“Wrote about Lithuanian chronicles” about the Grand Duchy of Lithuania). End 19 – beginning 20c – Efim Karsky (“Belarusians”), Dovnar-Zapolsky (“Fundamentals of Statehood of Belarus”), Lastovsky (editor of “Nasha Niva”), Ignatovsky (“1863 in Belarus: Narys Padzei”), Picheta.

Origin of Belarusians (=ethnogenesis) 5 theories:

Krivichi-Dregovichi-Radimichskaya (authors: Karsky, Picheta, Dovnar-Zapolsky)
Krivichskaya (Lastovsky)
Old Russian (whites are part of the Old Russian nationality. Author: Korneychik) According to this theory, Kievan Rus led to the formation of the Old Russian nationality. The result of the collapse in the 13th century. This state was the formation of three new ethnic groups: Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian.
Baltskaya (White = Slavs + Balts; authors: Sedov, Shtykov) on the territory of modern Belarus before the Slavs lived the Balts (Livs, Prussians, Yatvingians, Zhmud, etc.). This is evidenced by the Baltic names.
Finnish (white = Slavs + Finns;

Origin of the name "Belarus":

White color of clothes, hair, skin.

Freedom, independence of a territory not captured by either the Crusaders or the Tatars.

Orthodox faith “pure”, ex. from paganism.

A special privileged position of the Polotsk and Vitebsk lands in the composition. ON

2.Primitive society during the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages in Belarus.

PERIODIZATION:

1) Stone (from 3 million years BC to 3 thousand years BC)

1. Paleolithic (100(40)-10 thousand BC):

a) lower (150 thousand years BC)

b) middle (150-35 thousand BC; Moustier era)

c) upper (35-10 thousand BC)

2. Mesolithic (9-6 thousand BC)

3. Neolithic (5-3 thousand BC)

2) Bronze (2 thousand BC - beginning of the 1st millennium BC)

3) Iron (1st millennium BC – IV-V century AD)

Stages of development of a primitive society:

1.Primitive herd

2.Early clan community (matriarchy)

3. Late clan community (patriarchy)

4. Decomposition of the primitive society, the beginning of the formation of classes

People:

Austrolapithecus (Habilis) - Archanthropus (erectus) - Paleoanthropus (Neanderthal) - Neoanthropus (Cro-Magnon).

First man appeared in Belarus in the Middle Paleolithic (100-40 thousand years ago); species - Neanderthal. Processed silicon tools were found near Svetilovichi, the villages of Obidovichi, Kleevichi.

On the territory of Belarus (near the villages of Berdyzh and Yurovichi, on the banks of the Sozh and Pripyat rivers), Late Paleolithic human sites dating back 26-24 thousand years have been discovered. Flint implements, bones of mammoth, bull, reindeer were found here... People lived in a maternal-clan community. They shared hunting, fishing, and gathering.

About 11 thousand years BC. warming and mass settlement of the territory of Belarus begins, mainly along river basins.

Activities of primitive man:

Appropriating economy: hunting (driven, individual using a bow and arrow), fishing, gathering, beekeeping.

5 thousand years BC people switch to a settled life, pottery and weaving are born. The main material for tools is flint. Near the village of Krasnoselsky, mines for its extraction were discovered. At the end of the Neolithic, the NEOLITHIC revolution occurs (the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing one)

BRONZE AGE.

Agriculture and livestock breeding are becoming the leading occupations of people. Spinning and weaving became more common.

Agriculture: hoe (Spanish: stone or horn hoe); slash-and-burn (slash-and-burn; Spanish harrow); plowed (wooden furrow with an iron coulter).

In the family and society, the man took a dominant position. Stands out tribal nobility(council of men - warriors, military leaders), the former equality of rights is violated, private property arises.

They infiltrate Belarus Indo-Europeans, who came from Asia Minor. as a result of their mixing with local tribes, three peoples emerged - the Germans, the Slavs and the Balts. The first Indo-Europeans were the Balts, who came to our territory 3 thousand years BC.

In Belarus there were no local deposits of copper and tin, the alloy of which produces bronze, so they were brought mainly from the Caucasus.

IRON AGE.

From iron ore to cheese cesspools(furnaces made of clay) smelted shouty iron. The domnitsa was found near the village. Labenshchina, Minsk region.

Property inequality has arisen, which leads to wars. People begin to create fortifications - fortifications. Unions of clans unite into tribes, and the formation of the rudiments of statehood begins.

3.Settlement of the territory of Belarus by the Slavs (Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi). Kievan Rus.

In the first centuries AD, under the onslaught of the Goths, who came from Scandinavia, the Slavs began their migration. As a result of the “great migration of peoples,” the Slavs were divided into three large groups: southern (Bulgarians, Croats, Slovenians, Serbs, Macedonians), western (Poles, Czechs, Serbians), eastern (Belarusians, Russians, Ukrainians).

The territory of Belarus was inhabited by East Slavic tribes: Krivichi, Dregovich, Radimichi.

DREGOVICHI. (from “drygva” - swamp) settled between the river. Pripyat and Zap. Dvina in Polesie.

RADIMICI. (named after Prince Radzim) settled along the river. Sozh., their center was Gomel + Krichev, Chechersk, Rechitsa and Rogochev. They were the weakest; they never managed to create their own statehood, because... in 885 the Kiev prince obliged them to pay him tribute, and before that they had paid tribute to the Khazars. In 984 Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich sent an army led by a governor to the Radimichi, a battle took place on the Peschana River, as a result of which the Radimichi were defeated.

The statehood of the Eastern Slavs began to take shape in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. and finally took shape in the 10th century. Its center was Kyiv, which is why the Old Russian state is usually called Kievan Rus. Kievan Rus is a medieval state in Eastern Europe that arose in the 9th century as a result of the unification of East Slavic tribes under the rule of the princes of the dynasty Rurikovich. However, the Rurik Empire was not a centralized state entity. It represented a political unification of feudal lords around the Grand Duke with the aim of repelling the constant raids of external enemies and collecting tribute from their own population. The territory of modern Belarus was located on the western outskirts of Kievan Rus. At first, the Polotsk and Turov principalities existed here. As feudal relations developed, some principalities made attempts to break away from the power of Kyiv. Kievan Rus is the first early feudal state among the Eastern Slavs, which is largely due to the feudal economic structure that developed at that time. The formation of Kievan Rus accelerated the formation of the Old Russian people with certain economic ties based on territorial, cultural and linguistic community, and contributed to the strengthening of its unity.

4.Ancient beliefs and primitive art in Belarus.

The inability to explain natural phenomena gave rise to people's belief in the existence of supernatural forces. The spiritual culture of the primitive society was:

With the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, new beliefs of people arose. They began to deify the Sun ( sun worship, the cult of the Sun is evidenced by solar symbolism), sky, rain…. The main gods (by the end of the 10th century): Perun (god of warriors, weapons, wars, thunder and lightning), Stribog (sky and universe), Give God (sun, nature), Makosh (god of the Earth and fertility).

There was 2 types of burials:

Deposition of corpses (mounds were poured),

Cremation.

Attached great importance clothes e (symbolic ornament, embroidery along the edges of clothing to protect against evil spirits). Was distributed ancestor cult(dzyady, rainbow). There were rituals, round dances, conspiracies, spells, songs.....Previously there was a cult of ghouls (vampires), beregins (mermaids), and brownies. In the Bronze Age, belief in an afterlife appeared, rituals appeared sacrifices, funeral, wedding There were sacrificial pits with idols, temples(pagan temple, place of sacrifice).

The attitude of ancient people to the surrounding world was expressed not only in religion, but also in art. His first monuments were figurines (women, men, elk, ducks; found at the Eliseevich site in the Bryansk region woman figurine, dating from the Upper Paleolithic). Ornament appeared in the Bronze Age (the appearance of corded ornament is associated with the Indo-Europeans). The appearance of musical instruments (the first were drums). The first archaeological find - pipe, made from a bird bone. It belonged to the Upper Paleolithic and was found at the Asovets site. There were various kinds of jewelry - silver, bronze pendants, skillfully made beads.

Description of the presentation by individual slides:

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Primitive man entered Europe approximately 40-35 thousand years ago. The people of that time are called Cro-Magnons. In appearance they are similar to modern ones. Cro-Magnons began to settle in the south of Belarus. The oldest human settlements (sites) were found by archaeologists on the banks of the Pripyat and Sozh rivers near the villages of Yurovichi and Berdyzh in the Gomel region. They existed approximately 24-21 thousand years BC. e. The remains of a hearth, flint tools, as well as bones and skulls of mammoths used for housing construction were discovered here.

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The primitive system on the territory of Belarus is divided by scientists into three periods (depending on what materials the tools were made from): Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages. The most important achievements of primitive people were the development of fire, the invention of pointed secant, cutting, and piercing tools.

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The Stone Age on the territory of Belarus ended approximately at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. During this period, several glacier advances occurred. Period Main types of occupations Paleolithic Driven hunting, gathering. Making fire. Manufacturing of hand axes and scrapers. Construction of primitive housing. Mesolithic Hunting, fishing. The appearance of the bow and arrow. Making bone tools. Neolithic The origin of agriculture and cattle breeding. Intertribal connections. Sedentary lifestyle. The emergence of ceramics and weaving. Silicon processing. Sawing, grinding and drilling of stone. Mining industry. Invention of the boat.

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The peculiarity of the activities of Stone Age people was that they took everything from nature in ready-made form. Such an economy is called a consumer (appropriating) economy. Primitive people gradually began to engage in individual hunting. A dog helped them in this - the first animal domesticated by man. An irreplaceable material for the production of tools was flint. It was mined in primitive mines - vertical wells 3-5 m deep, found by archaeologists near the village of Krasnoselsky, Volkovysk region.

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The first known group of people was the primitive human herd. Cro-Magnons already lived in tribal communities that united 50-70 blood relatives. At the head of the community was an elected elder. Gradually, the clans united into tribes. Kinship was initially conducted through the maternal line, since women played a decisive role in the life of primitive society. This order is called the maternal clan, or matriarchy.

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The Bronze Age on the territory of Belarus lasted from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. approximately until the end of the 8th century. BC e. At this time, copper and bronze products came from the south to the territory of Belarus. People began to domesticate more and more animals, and then moved on to breeding them. The first domestic animal was a pig. There is a transition from hunting to animal husbandry and from gathering to agriculture. It meant a transition from a consumer economy to a productive economy.

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At first, farming was hoe farming, when the main tool of labor was a hoe, and then - slash-and-burn. Ancient people cut down the forest, uprooted and burned stumps, used the ashes as fertilizer, and cultivated the land with a harrow. Sickles were used to harvest the crops, and flour was obtained from grain grinders. To preserve grain, as well as milk obtained from bred animals, flat-bottomed pottery was made.

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During the Bronze Age, Indo-Europeans gradually began to penetrate into the territory of Belarus - numerous tribes of nomadic livestock breeders who originally lived in Asia Minor. During the period of settlement in Europe, as a result of the mixing of Indo-Europeans with the local population, tribal associations of Germans, Slavs, and Balts arose.

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The Iron Age on the territory of Belarus began around the 7th century. BC e. People learned to mine iron ore. It was called swamp because this raw material was found by its brown color in a swamp or under turf in a meadow. The ore was smelted in cheese-blowing furnaces made of clay into a porous mass - cast iron. Agriculture gradually developed and became arable. When cultivating the land, they used a wooden furrow with an iron tip.

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Primitive society in the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages in Belarus.

PERIODIZATION:

1) Stone (from 3 million years BC to 3 thousand years BC):

2) Bronze (2 thousand BC - beginning of the 1st millennium BC)

3) Iron (1st millennium BC – IV-V century AD)

Stages of development of a primitive society:

1. Primitive herd

2. Early clan community (matriarchy)

3. Late clan community (patriarchy)

4. Decomposition of the primitive society, the beginning of the formation of classes

Austrolapithecus (Habilis) - Archanthropus (erectus) - Paleoanthropus (Neanderthal) - Neoanthropus (Cro-Magnon).

Processed silicon tools were found near Svetilovichi, the villages of Obidovichi, Kleevichi.

People lived in a maternal-clan community. They shared hunting, fishing, and gathering.

Activities of primitive man:

Appropriating economy: hunting (driven, individual using a bow and arrow), fishing, gathering, beekeeping.

BRONZE AGE.

Agriculture and livestock breeding are becoming the leading occupations of people. Spinning and weaving became more common.

In Belarus there were no local deposits of copper and tin, the alloy of which produces bronze, so they were brought mainly from the Caucasus.

IRON AGE.

From iron ore to cheese cesspools(furnaces made of clay) smelted shouty iron.

Property inequality has arisen, which leads to wars. People begin to create fortifications - fortifications. Unions of clans unite into tribes, and the formation of the rudiments of statehood begins.

The settlement of the territory of Belarus by the Slavs (Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi). Kievan Rus.

The territory of Belarus was inhabited by East Slavic tribes: Krivichi, Dregovich, Radimichi.

DREGOVICHI. (from “drygva” - swamp) settled between the river. Pripyat and Zap. Dvina in Polesie.

KRIVICHI. (from “blooded”, close in blood or “crooked territory”, hilly on which they lived) settled in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Western. Dvina, Volga and Lake Peipus. Those who lived in the upper reaches of the West. The Dvinas were called Polochanachi. The Polotsk Krivichi had their own “reign,” i.e. initial public education. They gathered for veche meetings to discuss common affairs, rituals, and trade relations. RADIMICI. (named after Prince Radzim) settled along the river. Sozh., their center was Gomel + Krichev, Chechersk, Rechitsa and Rogochev. They were the weakest; they never managed to create their own statehood, because... in 885 the Kiev prince obliged them to pay him tribute, and before that they had paid tribute to the Khazars. In 984 Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich sent an army led by a governor to the Radimichi; a battle took place on the Peschana River, as a result of which the Radimichi were defeated.

The territory of modern Belarus was located on the western outskirts of Kievan Rus. At first, the Polotsk and Turov principalities existed here. As feudal relations developed, some principalities made attempts to break away from the power of Kyiv.

Ancient beliefs and primitive art in Belarus.

The spiritual culture of the primitive society was:

1. Fetishism(belief in the extraordinary abilities of nature, stones, trees or man-made objects (fetish))

2. Animism(belief in the existence of spirits and souls that have human characteristics and influence all living things)

3. Totemism(belief in common ancestry, family ties between a group of people and a particular species of animal or plant)

With the advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, new beliefs of people arose. They began to deify the Sun ( sun worship, the cult of the Sun is evidenced by solar symbolism), sky, rain…. The main gods (by the end of the 10th century): Perun (god of warriors, weapons, wars, thunder and lightning), Stribog (sky and universe), Give God (sun, nature), Makosh (god of the Earth and fertility).

5.The first principalities on the territory of Belarus: Polotsk (PK) and Turov (TK).

PRINCIPALITY OF POLOTSK

PC arose in the middle reaches of the Western Dvina in the 9th century and occupied the entire modern central and northern Belarus. Polotsk itself was first mentioned under 862(the city was located on the Western Dvina River, which was part of the most important trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”; the advantageous settlement contributed to the rapid growth of Polotsk and its transformation into a major center of crafts and trade).

Around 970-980 To Rogneda The princes of Novgorod and Kyiv were wooed. She preferred Yaropolk (Prince of Kyiv). Insulted, Vladimir attacked the PC. He took Rogneda by force. He took him to his place (Vladimir gave Rogneda a new name, Gorislava). She became one of the concubines, so she tried to kill Vladimir, but he woke up and pulled out a knife. Son Izyaslav saved my mother. Then Vladimir gathered a boyar council to solve the problem. Rogneda was released back because... Vladimir converted to Christianity and abandoned polygamy. Rognede and Izyaslav were exiled to the Principality of Polotsk in Zaslavl, which made it possible to restore the Polotsk princely dynasty. At the end of her life, Rogneda entered a monastery under the name Anastasia and died in 1000. Izyaslav spread Christianity and writing on the territory of Belarus. Died in 1001

After the uprising of the Kievites (September 15, 1068), he was made the Grand Duke of Kyiv, but after 7 months. Vseslav returned to Polotsk. After the death of Vseslav, the PC split into a number of separate principalities, and a period of feudal fragmentation began. The control system in a PC is characterized as princely veche system. Veche- a general meeting of adult men to resolve public and state issues, which could remove and appoint a prince. Duties of the Prince: organization and command of troops, collection of tribute, execution of justice. The prince's support was the squad (an armed detachment of people specially trained in military affairs) and the people's militia. The veche invited the prince to reign, expelled the unwanted prince, declared war and peace, regulated trade and economic relations and was the highest court. The main law was "Russian Truth" Yaroslav the Wise.

PRINCIPALITY OF TUROV (TK)

The first mention of Turov 980g. The first chronicle prince is Tur. Territory: left bank of the Pripyat River with the cities of Turov, Pinsk, Slutsk, Brest. Until the end of the 10th century. The Principality of Turov developed as an independent one. A dynasty of princes ruled here. From the end of the 10th century. the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv reigns in Turov Svyatopolk, who fought for the independence of the principality. Svyatopolk marries a Polish princess and invites Catholic Bishop Rainburn to Turov. In 1015, Vladimir, Prince of Kiev, dies and Svyatopolk becomes Prince of Kyiv. The struggle for Kyiv begins between Yaroslav the Wise and Svyatopolk, which ended in 1019 at the Battle of the Alta River(Yaroslav won). In Turov, the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Izyaslav, became the prince, whose dynasty ruled in Turov until 1113. And in 1150. Yuri Yaroslavovich took possession of the TK and restored the Izyaslavovich dynasty, which ruled Turov until his entry into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

6. The origin of feudal relations, the socio-economic development of Belarusian lands in the 9th - mid-12th centuries.

In the 9th – 12th centuries. among the Eastern Slavs it develops feudal system(in connection with the emergence of private property and property inequality). The land, which was previously in the possession of the rural community, becomes the private property of individual community members (elders, leaders...). From them a class is formed feudal lords. And previously free peasants, community members (“people”) fell into feudal dependence and performed various duties in favor of landowners. There were such groups of dependent peasants: servants (served at the court of the feudal lord), smerdas (semi-free peasants), serfs (almost slaves, completely lost personal freedom), purchases (became dependent for debts), ryadovichi (became dependent under a contract).

There was 2 forms of feudal land tenure:

Patrimonial property (with the right of sale, division, inheritance)

Local (with the right of temporary use for service with the prince)

In the 9th – 12th centuries. happened on the territory of Belarus emergence of cities. Causes: separation of crafts that required special skills from agriculture; the settlement of artisans in places close to the sources of raw materials necessary for their activities; development of exchange of products for goods and trade.

The most ancient Belarusian city is considered Polotsk(862), then Vitebsk (974), Turov (980) according to the Tale of Bygone Years. In total, the chronicle mentions more than 30-35 names of cities that existed on the territory of Belarus in the 9th – 13th centuries.

The city consisted of several parts. The city center, fortified with ramparts, ditches, and walls, was called "child". The settlements of artisans and traders that arose near the fortified center were called plantings. Usually, by the will of the Detinets, there was a market or bargain. Early feudal cities were small: from several hundred to several thousand inhabitants. The dwellings of ordinary townspeople were wooden log houses. Churches were usually built of wood, stone and brick. Princely towers (palaces) were built on several floors. The streets (they were called “ends”) were narrow, extending in different directions from the center.

Cities were also trade centers. The route passed through the territory of Belarus "from the Varangians to the Greeks": from the Baltic Sea to the West. The Dvina is then dragged to the Dnieper and along the Dnieper to the Black Sea. From Belarus were transporting fur, wax, honey. They delivered fabrics, glassware, spices, jewelry, olive oil.

7. Feudal fragmentation in Belarus. Disintegration of the Polotsk and Turov principalities into appanage principalities. Time from the beginning of the 12th century. until the end of the fifteenth century. called a period feudal fragmentation or specific period. Feudal fragmentation is a process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. This process was determined by economic and political reasons: a) development of feudal relations, strengthening the power of local feudal lords, b) growing importance of economic and political centers. This period began during Vseslav’s lifetime, when he, fearing a struggle for land redistribution, was forced to divide the “fatherland” between his sons, who began further reshaping the territory, which inevitably led to the fragmentation of this single and powerful principality. As a result, the Principality of Polotsk was fragmented first into 6 and then more appanages. Actually, Polotsk was given to the eldest of the sons, Davyd.

The Principality of Turov also suffered the fate of being split into appanages. In 1142 it was divided into such appanages as Brest, Kletsk, Rogachev, Drogichin, Chertoriysk. By the beginning of the 13th century, TK had lost its former political significance. Pinsk, Brest, and Slutsk acquired increasing independence. Pinsk became, as it were, the second capital of the principality.

8. The struggle of the Belarusian principalities with the crusaders and Mongol-Tatars. Foreign policy situation at the end of the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries.

CRUSADERS

At the end of the 12th century at the mouth of the West. German knights landed on Dvina under the guise of spreading Catholicism (eradicating paganism); they sought to enslave the local population. IN 1201g The Riga fortress was founded under the Catholic Bishop Albert. In 1202, the Order of the Swordsmen was created, which began to expand its territories, trying to control the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and seize the right to collect tribute from the Livs. ( order is a military organization of church and secular feudal lords). In this their interests clashed with the PC, so summer 1203 Prince Vladimir organized a campaign and captured the fortresses of Ikskul and Golm. In the fight against the crusaders during the defense of the fortified city, Kukeinois distinguished himself Prince Vyachka. He defeated them several times, but 1208g was forced to burn his fortress. In 1209, Herzike was captured and burned by the crusaders. 5 times they tried to capture Polotsk. In 1210 it was concluded between the Bishop of Riga Albert and Vladimir (a peace beneficial to the crusaders). In 1216, a large campaign was prepared jointly by the Polotsk squads with the Liv and Estonian tribes against the crusaders. (the campaign did not take place because Prince Vladimir was poisoned). Then another peace was concluded, which was called “Smolensk Trade Truth” (peace of Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk with Riga). .

The Crusaders threatened not only Polotsk, but also Novgorod, which led them to political unification. So in 1240 at the Battle of the Neva(Yakov the Polotsk resident became famous), and then in 1242, in the Battle of Lake Peipus (“Battle of the Ice”), joint Novgorod-Polotsk troops under the leadership of Alexander Yaroslavovich (Al. Nevsky) won brilliant victories over the German knights.

MONGOLO-TATARS

From the east, Tatar-Mongol hordes began to invade Russian lands. IN 1223g The Tatars defeated the united army of Russian and Polovtsian princes on the river. Kalka. Prince Yuri Nesvizhsky died in the battle. By 1240, the Tatar-Mongols captured all Russian lands and part of the West. Europe, Created their own state - Golden Horde.

9. Culture of Belarusian lands in the 9th – mid-13th centuries. Spread of Christianity on the territory of Belarus.

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY.

In 988 Kiev Prince Vladimir adopted Christianity as a state. religion. In this regard, he abandoned polygamy. A clergy appeared, headed by the metropolitan, and the bishops were subordinate to him. Following this, Christianity was adopted by the highest nobility of Polotsk, but there were Christians in Polotsk even earlier, at the beginning of the 9th century: Polotsk warriors who were part of Byzantium, Rogneda, Izyaslav, etc. After the official adoption of the faith, they began to create dioceses(religious-Christian districts). In 992 in Polotsk(Vitebsk, Mensk, Orsha, Zaslavl, Braslav, Logoisk), in 1005 - in Turov(Gomel, Brest, Grodno regions). Churches and monasteries began to be opened: in the 12th century, near Polotsk, Euphrosyne of Polotsk founded the women's Holy Savior and the men's Holy Mother of God monasteries; Results of the spread of Christianity:

The development of the culture of the Eastern Slavs, the spread of writing, chronicle writing.

The beginning of stone architecture

Development of crafts and trade with other countries

Creation of artistic values.

RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL FIGURES:

Euphrosyne of Polotsk.

Predslava. As a girl, she fled to a convent, became a nun under the name Euphrosyne, copied church books, founded a school for children, a monastery, and in her later years made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. During which she died in 1167. The relics were in the Kiev Pechersk Lavra, and in 1910 they were transferred to the Polotsk Spaso-Ephrosyne Monastery. The first saint.

WRITING.

The news of writing among the Eastern Slavs dates back to the 10th and early 11th centuries. It was Cyrillic. First monuments writing in Bel: “Borisov stones” (4 boulders with inscriptions) - in line with the West. Dvina (12th century), “Rogvolodov stone” - near Orsha, wooden comb with letters of the alphabet - in Brest, birch bark letters in Vitebsk and Mstislavl - 13th century.

STONE ARCHITECTURE. FRESCOES

Towards the end of the 10th century, with the adoption of Christianity, the construction of monumental religious buildings began - in the mid-11th century in Polotsk a stone Saint Sophia Cathedral(7 domes, frescoes, library, archive, state treasury; plinth - flat brick - was used during construction).

In the 13th century, defensive structures, because of the threat from the Crusaders and Tatars: Belaya Vezha tower in Kamenets (30 meters).

In the 11th-13th centuries - fresco painting. Fresco– water-based paints on fresh plaster. The walls of the St. Sophia and Spassky Cathedrals, Vitebsk, Annunciation Churches, etc. are decorated with frescoes depicting biblical stories and figures of saints.

Related information.

Stages of development of primitive society. Primitive society and the beginning of the settlement of the Slavs on the territory of Belarus.

Primitive society covers the era from the appearance of the first people to the advent of class society. Then the most important tools and means of labor for human life, hunting and fishing, agriculture, animal husbandry, language and thinking, science and religion, appeared and began to develop. 2 main stages in the development of primitive society: general historical (highlights the primitive herd, early and late tribal communities, the decomposition of primitive societies and the beginning of the formation of classes); archaeological stage (divides early history into the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic), Bronze and Iron Ages. Primitive society is also divided into appropriating (appropriating the gifts of nature) and producing (agriculture).

The Slavs of other peoples were known as Antes or Sklavens. The places of formation of the Slavs are considered to be between the Vistula and Oder rivers and the southern part of the forest zone of Eastern Europe. Gradually, 3 groups formed: Western, Eastern and Southern Slavs, depending on where they settled. Mass arrival Slavs in Belarus dates back to the 6th-7th century, in the Pripyat River basin. The territory of Belarus was inhabited by 3 tribes - Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi. In the primitive era, the Eastern Slavs developed linguistic, ethnographic features, mythology and religious ideas. We can say that for the Eastern Slavs there was characterized by a high level of spiritual culture.

Socio-economic development of Belarusian lands in the early Middle Ages (VI-IX centuries).

During the VI-IX centuries. The productive forces grew and the process of class formation began. The most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs: 1.) the development of arable farming and the emphasis on crafts; 2.) the collapse of the tribal community, the formation of a neighboring community; 3.) the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; 4.) transformation of the tribal army into a squad that dominates its fellow tribesmen; 5.) seizure of tribal land by princes and nobles for personal

Agriculture has long been the basis of the Slavic economy. Types of agricultural crops: rye, wheat, barley, oats, peas, flax, etc. The main tools of labor were the plow and the plow. Along with agriculture, cattle breeding developed. The Slavs farmed: horses, cows, sheep, pigs, etc. Common trades were hunting, fishing and beekeeping. The Slavs achieved significant success in the mining and processing of iron, pottery and weaving. Transition to the 8th century. to a three-field farming system (including sowing spring and winter crops) led to the emergence of peasant families leading independent farming within the neighboring community. By the 9th century. In the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs (including the infertile Novgorod region), a significant area of land cleared from forests formed. The main economic unit was a large family, which included a large circle of relatives. An ancient Slavic tribe was an association of small tribal communities. (~100-200 tribes). The most important public affairs were decided at public meetings (veche), at which the tribal nobility set the tone. The princes who had their own squads enjoyed great influence. The process of formation of princely military power was underway.

The formation of early feudal state formations of the Eastern Slavs. Polotsk and Turov principalities. Feudal fragmentation (IX – first half of the 13th century)

The development of the primitive system led to the emergence of early feudal relations. Feudalism is a system that replaces the primitive communal system and precedes capitalism. Feudal relations were reflected in the division of crafts and agriculture, the development of exchange relations, and the emergence of a class society. The formation of feudal relations took place on the territory of the first early feudal principalities of Polotsk and Turov. In the Principality of Polotsk there were 2 powers - the power of the prince (executive) and the veche (legislative). Veche - this is a meeting of Polotsk residents to resolve public affairs. It carried out the court, controlled the activities of the prince, and resolved issues of war and peace). The first Prince of Polotsk was Rogvolod. The Principality of Polotsk achieved its greatest prosperity under Vseslav Bryachislavich (Vseslav the Magician). After his death, the Polotsk land was divided between his sons into destinies, this was a period of feudal fragmentation. The Polotsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Vitebsk, Izyaslav, and Logoisk destinies stood out.

Turov is the center of the Drigovichi. In 988, Svyatopolk was planted in Turov, who fought for the independence of the principality. This was achieved only under Prince Yuri Yaroslavovich. The political system of the Turov principality included the mayor-deputy prince, the thousand, who headed the city militia, as well as the veche.

Spiritual life and culture of the Belarusian lands in the 9th – first half of the 13th century. Concepts of the origin of the Belarusian ethnic group.

During this period, the adoption of Christianity was of great importance. The date of the baptism of the East Slavic lands was 988. Then Christianity was officially introduced in Kiev. After this, Byzantine craftsmen began to build stone churches according to the Byzantine model. The famous ancient temple in Belarus is St. Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk. Schools of architecture gradually began to appear in Polotsk and Grodno. A distinctive feature of the Polotsk school was the laconicism of the architectural structure and interior decoration with frescoes. Examples of the Polotsk school are the Church of the Savior Euphrosyne, Pyatnitskaya and Borisoglebskaya churches. Examples of the Grodno school are the Kalozhskaya Church, Prechistinskaya. Within the walls of the Kalozhskaya Church special voice boxes were inserted for better acoustics. The buildings of Grodno schools had some features of Byzantine architecture.

Then writing appeared among the Eastern Slavs. The appearance of the alphabet is associated with the names of Cyril and Methodius. The main genre of writing was chronicle writing. The center of chronicle writing was Polotsk, Turov, Novogorodsk. There was also religious and secular literature, both original and translated. The pinnacle of artistic literature -ers of that time consider “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”

Fine art also developed. The main genres were monumental painting (frescoes, mosaics), icon painting and book miniatures.

Decorative and applied art was represented by beads, rings, and jewelry. The most important creation in decorative and applied art of that time can be considered the six-pointed cross, made by order of Euphrosyne of Polotsk.

It is also known that at the princely court in Polotsk there were usually artists, poets, singers and dancers. Foreign merchants or other people could come to Polotsk, which contributed to the penetration of other cultures here

6. Prerequisites for the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, its territorial growth.

The formation of ON occurred in difficult conditions. The prerequisites for the emergence of ON include:

1. The basis for political unification was the development of agriculture, the growth of cities and trade.

2. The deepening of social divisions in society and social contradictions between classes led to the need to protect property and ensure public order

3. Foreign policy threat

The first capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was Novogrudok. A castle was built in the city, which was necessary to protect the principality. Mindovg became the first prince, and Voishelk and Tridenya became his successors.

The accession of the Baltic and Slavic lands to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania took place in 3 ways: voluntarily with the signing of treaties, the conclusion of dynastic marriages, and the use of military pressure. The end of the Crusaders' invasion of the East Slavic lands was marked by the Battle of Grunwald (1410)

During the reign of Gediminas, almost all of Belarus was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His son Olgerd sought to unite all the East Slavic lands, thus the Ukrainian lands also joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the territory of the state increased more than 2 times. In 1386, the son of Olgerd Jagiello, in accordance with the Union of Krevo, was crowned King of Poland in Krakow. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania actually lost its independence; the rights of the Orthodox population began to be infringed. This caused opposition from the Orthodox feudal lords. The struggle ended in 1392 with the Ostrov Agreement between Jogaila and his cousin Vytautas, according to which the latter was proclaimed Grand Duke. Subsequently, the descendants of Jogaila established themselves on the throne of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - who ruled until the Union of Lublin in 1569. It can be said that during the reign of Vytautas, the state occupied the largest territory and achieved the greatest political power.

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