Architectural structures of ancient Rome briefly. Features of ancient Roman architecture
Architecture, or architecture, is the art of constructing buildings and their complexes designed for the everyday needs of private, public life and human activities. Any building contains a vital spatial core - the interior. Its character, expressed in external form, is predetermined by its purpose, living conditions, the need for convenience, space and freedom of movement. Connected in its development with the constantly changing material needs of man, with the development of science and technology, architecture is one of the forms of material culture.
At the same time, architecture is one of the art forms. The artistic images of architecture reflect the structure of social life, the level of spiritual development of society, and its aesthetic ideals. The architectural design and its expediency are revealed in the organization of interior spaces, in the grouping of architectural masses, in the proportional relationships of parts and the whole, in the rhythmic structure. The relationship between the interior and the volume of the building characterizes the originality of the artistic language of architecture.
The artistic design of the exterior of buildings is of great importance. Like no other form of art, architecture constantly influences the consciousness of the masses of people with its artistic and monumental forms. It reveals the uniqueness of the surrounding nature. Cities, like people, have a unique face, character, life, and history. They tell about modern life, about the history of past generations.
The diversity of human social needs gives rise to a variety of types of architecture: residential, public-civil, industrial. Urban planning takes into account the nature of the area, the economy, transport conditions, and population distribution. During periods of artistic upsurge, architecture develops harmoniously in collaboration with other forms of art. Sculpture, painting, and decorative arts embody in concrete images the ideas embedded in the structure. Both architecture and fine art enrich each other in this synthesis.
Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman power - from the British Isles to Egypt. Roman art is the highest achievement and the result of the development of ancient art. It was created not only by the Romans (or Italics), but also by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Shins, inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Ancient Germany and other peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes standing at a higher level of cultural development. Roman art developed on the basis of a complex interpenetration of the original art of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the powerful Etruscans, owners of an ancient, highly developed, original artistic culture. They introduced the Romans to the art of urban planning (various versions of vaults, the Tuscan order, engineering structures, temples and residential buildings, etc.), monumental wall painting, sculptural and pictorial portraits, distinguished by a keen perception of nature and character.
In artistic skill, of course, the ancient Greek school dominated, but the forms of art in each province of the Roman state were influenced by local traditions. The Greek colonists in Southern Italy and Sicily made a particularly great contribution to the creation of Roman culture; their rich cities were centers of scientific life and artistic culture of antiquity.
The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and implemented it in larger cities. These layouts met the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and strict discipline, the desire for entertainment and pomp. In Roman cities, the needs of the free population and sanitary needs were to a certain extent taken into account; ceremonial streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here.
Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, comfortable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred nymphs), palaces, villas and simply good houses with good quality beautiful furniture - all that characteristic of a civilized society.
The Romans first began to build “standard” cities, the prototype of which were Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which the city center was built. The urban layout followed a strictly thought-out scheme. The practical makeup of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in sobriety of thinking, a normative idea of an expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account all life situations, in the attraction to accurate historical facts, in the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion.
In Roman art during its heyday, the leading role was played by architecture, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, embodying the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people.
Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into urban, rural ensembles and landscapes.
The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales, in the laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. The enormous achievement of the Romans was the satisfaction of practical everyday and social needs not only of the ruling class, but also of the masses of the urban population.
The beginning of ancient Roman art dates back to the period of the Republic (late 6th - mid 1st century BC). It reached its peak during the formation of a world slave-holding power, heterogeneous in ethnic and social composition, complex in economic and social organization.
The needs of Roman society gave rise to many types of structures: amphitheatres, baths, triumphal arches, aqueducts, etc. On Roman soil, palaces, mansions, villas, theaters, temples, bridges, and tombstones received a new architectural solution. The rationalism underlying Roman architecture was manifested in the spatial scope, constructive logic and integrity of gigantic architectural complexes, strict symmetry and clarity.
The development of Roman civilization led to significant growth and rise of the capital of the state - the city of Rome, which in the I-III centuries. BC e. had from 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. Roman cities developed around an urban center that included a forum, basilica, baths, amphitheatres, temples dedicated to local and Roman gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, equestrian statues, schools and roads.
Forum(Latin forum - square, place of court, arena in a circus) in Ancient Rome they called the square and the market, which, like the agora in Ancient Greece, were the center of cultural life. Nowadays, this word is used to describe any mass meeting or congress. The main forum of Rome was the Forum Romanum. Often, a basilica (from the Greek basilike - royal house) was erected on the forums - a rectangular structure, the internal space of which was divided by rows of columns into three or five naves. Court hearings took place in them; Citizens gathered, merchants and money changers conducted their business. Authorities could also be located here. In imperial palaces, basilicas served as throne rooms. Later, the basilica became one of the main types of Christian temple.
The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public figures of the state. Triumphal arches are a permanent or temporary monumental frame of a passage (usually arched), a ceremonial structure in honor of military victories and other significant events. The construction of triumphal arches and columns was primarily of political significance. Trajan's 30-meter column was decorated with a spiral-shaped frieze 200 meters long, depicting Trajan's military exploits, and was crowned by a statue of the emperor, at the base of which an urn with his ashes was walled up.
The most characteristic monuments of Roman architecture are aqueducts, bridges, theaters, baths (public baths), city and country residences of emperors and nobility, and government buildings. Amphitheaters and circuses in which animals were pitted, gladiator fights and public executions were staged were a feature of the cultural life of Rome. The breeding ground for these cruel spectacles was endless wars, a colossal influx of slaves from conquered lands, and the opportunity to feed and entertain the plebs through predatory wars.
Amphitheater(from the Greek amphitheatron) served as a structure for spectacles (most often gladiatorial fights), had an oval arena, around which there were seats for spectators on ledges. The most famous was Coliseum(from Latin colosseus - huge), Flavian amphitheater in Rome, erected in 75-80. n. e., accommodated up to 50 thousand spectators. In plan, the Colosseum is an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m and a height of 57 m, over which an awning was stretched on 240 masts. The amphitheater was divided into four huge tiers. Under the arena there were cages for animals and storage rooms for props. The imperial box was located at a height of 3.5 m above the arena level (78×46 m).
The theater audience, strictly observing social distinctions, was seated in rows carved from powerful stone blocks. Convenient places were intended for local commanders, and the warriors themselves went further; on stone seats; where the name of their class is engraved. A step above, priests and merchants were waiting for the performance to begin. Beggars and prostitutes in the Roman theater were content with cheap last rows. Even Ovid considered the ancient theater as a place exclusively suitable for starting intrigues, in particular love affairs.
The three-tier amphitheater in Orange, perched on a hill, still has excellent acoustics. Today, 10,000 people enjoy opera performances there every year. In 28 BC. e. Emperor Augustus built an amphitheater in Gaul - a monumental stone structure on a “concrete foundation, which had 124 exits and 192 stairs, which allowed 24,000 spectators, located in 34 rows on three tiers, to freely enter and exit. The Colosseum, the center of all 45 Roman public festivals, hosted sacrifices and gladiator fights. Initially, fights were organized in honor of the gods, but then they became the favorite entertainment of the Romans.
In Rome, magnificent buildings of public baths (terms) with hot and cold water, gymnastics areas and rest rooms were built. In many cities, houses of 3-6 floors were erected. Roman baths, that is, baths, played an important role in everyday life. They were huge buildings with vaulted ceilings, which became unique cultural and social centers. The most luxurious of the 1,700 Roman baths, the Baths of Caracalla, built in the 3rd century, accommodated up to 1,300 people. Under their concrete arches there was a swimming pool with running water the size of a small lake and a huge hall for gymnastics. In the building of the thermal baths there was a library in Greek and Latin, lobbies for relaxation, and galleries for friendly conversations. The Baths of Caracalla were decorated with a huge number of sculptural works.
During the imperial period, the layout of Roman cities improved significantly, with many beautiful squares and comfortable houses. During the reign of Nero, a fire broke out in Rome, destroying 10 of the 14 districts in which wooden buildings were located along narrow streets. After what happened, the emperor decided to rebuild Rome according to a new plan - with wide streets, stone houses and a luxurious imperial palace. To raise funds for construction, Nero accused wealthy senators of conspiracy, executed them and confiscated their property.
Unlike the Greeks, who built their buildings from superbly hewn stone slabs, the Romans erected buildings primarily from concrete: the stone or brick shell was filled with a mixture of lime and crushed stone. Hardening, this mass turned the building into a huge monolith. Concrete, one of the most important discoveries of the Romans in the field of engineering technology, was used in the construction of not only entire buildings, but also their fragments, for example, arched vaults, which became one of the fundamental elements of architecture.
A distinctive feature of the cities of the imperial era was the presence of communications: stone pavements, water pipes (aqueducts), sewers (sewers). There were 11 water pipelines in Rome, two of which are still in operation today. Roman aqueducts, bridges and roads serve people well to this day. To communicate with the main centers in the empire, the Romans built 372 stone-paved roads with a total length of about 80 thousand km.
2. FEATURES OF ANCIENT GREECE ARCHITECTURE
One of the greats said: “Architecture is frozen music.”
Ancient Greece is the cradle of European culture and arts. When looking at the artistic masterpieces of that distant era through the centuries, we hear the solemn and hymn music of the beauty and greatness of the creator, who likened himself to the Olympian gods.
Architecture in Ancient Greece developed quickly and in many ways. In the growing Greek cities, stone residential buildings, fortifications, and port structures were created, but the most important and new things appeared not in residential and commercial buildings, but in stone public buildings. It was here, and primarily in the architecture of temples, that the classical Greek architectural orders took shape.
The legacy of ancient Greek architecture underlies all subsequent development of world architecture and related monumental art. The reasons for such a sustainable influence of Greek architecture lie in its objective qualities: simplicity, truthfulness, clarity of compositions, harmony and proportionality of overall forms and all parts, in the plasticity of the organic connection between architecture and sculpture, in the close unity of architectural-aesthetic and structural-tectonic elements of buildings. Ancient Greek architecture was distinguished by the complete correspondence of forms and their structural basis, which formed a single whole. The main structure is stone blocks from which the walls were laid. The columns and entablature (the ceiling lying on a support-column) were processed with various profiles, acquired decorative details, and were enriched with sculpture. The Greeks brought the processing of architectural structures and all decorative details without exception to the highest degree of perfection and refinement. These structures can be called gigantic works of jewelry, in which there was nothing secondary for the master.
The architecture of Ancient Greece is closely connected with philosophy, because it and the basis of ancient Greek art were based on ideas about the strength and beauty of man, who was in close unity and harmonious balance with the surrounding natural and social environment, and since social life developed greatly in ancient Greece, then architecture and art had a pronounced social character.
It was this unsurpassed perfection and organic nature that made the monuments of ancient Greek architecture models for subsequent eras.
Ancient Greek architecture developed in two stylistic streams, in two orders (Doric and Ionic), which took shape in the 7th century. BC e. In architecture, an order is understood as a certain system of combination and interaction of load-bearing (supporting) and non-supporting (overlapping) elements. In ancient architecture, these are free-standing column supports and a ceiling lying on them - an entablature.
The main structural elements of the two orders are the same. The basis for them is a platform processed along the entire perimeter with steps - a stylobate. On it, along the entire outer contour of the temple, columns consisting of three parts were installed; base, trunk and capital.
Doric style the simplest, most concise in its form. The main distinguishing features of this order are severity and simplicity. Ionic the style is more complex and has more details. The main features of the Ionic style are lightness of proportions, great differentiation of forms, grace and relative decorativeness. In addition to the two main styles, ancient Greek architecture developed a third - Corinthian. Corinthian style even lighter than the Ionic one and should be considered as a secondary formation that arose on the basis of Ionic architecture.
The order system appears in its most clearly expressed form in churches. Ancient Greek temples were small in size compared to ancient Egyptian ones and were proportionate to a person. Divine services took place outside the walls of the temple, which was considered the home of the gods. In plan, the temples were a rectangle, surrounded by columns around the perimeter, with a gable roof. The entrance was decorated with a triangular pediment. In the center of the temple was a statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. The composition of Greek temples is different. Order stylistic elements are used specifically in each type of structure.
The simplest and earliest type of temple was distillate, or “temple in anta”. It consists of a sanctuary - cella, rectangular in plan, the front facade of which is a loggia with a central opening. On the sides the loggia is limited by side walls, which are called anta. Between the antas along the front pediment, two columns were placed (therefore the temple was called “distile”, i.e. “two-columned”).
The second, also relatively simple type of temple - prostyle. It is similar to the assembly one, the only difference is that the prostyle has not two, but four columns on the facade.
Third type - amphiprostyle. It's like a double style - porticoes with four columns are located on both the front and rear facades of the building.
The fourth type of temple is peripter. This is the most common type of temple. It is surrounded by columns on all sides, along the perimeter. Usually there are six columns on the front and rear facades, and the number of side ones was determined by the formula 2π + 1, where π is the number of columns on the front facade. Sometimes on the side facades there were not one, but two rows of columns. This type of temple is called dipter. There was another type of temple in Greece - round peripter, where the sanctuary - cella - had a cylindrical shape and along the entire perimeter the temple was surrounded by a ring of columns.
The Greeks used beam ceilings in their buildings, including temples. The distances between the supports were small and did not exceed 10 m. The order system of the Greeks is a post-and-beam structure. Orders were used not only in the design of external porticoes, but also in the internal volumes of buildings, in interiors.
Of exceptional importance for the subsequent development of world architecture are the principles of architectural and planning solutions in Greece, expressed most fully in ensembles.
Thus, in the ensemble of the Athens Acropolis, asymmetry is combined with a harmonious balance of masses, the interaction of individual structures with each other is thought out and the consistency in the perception of buildings outside and inside the complex is taken into account, the architects thought out the close connection of this architectural structure with the surrounding landscape. The Acropolis of Athens (“upper city”) is an elongated natural rock with a flat top. Its dimensions are about 300 m in length and 130 m in width. The ensemble is based on two successively followed principles that ancient Greek architecture followed: the harmonious balance of masses and the perception of architecture in the process of its gradual, “dynamic” development.
Greek architects paid exceptional attention to natural conditions and always sought to integrate their structures into the surrounding landscape thoughtfully and with the greatest artistic result. The “pearl” of the acropolis is the Parthenon Temple, the central building of the ensemble. This is a large peripter (8x17 columns with a height of 10.5 m). Creating an impression of harmony and majestic beauty is facilitated by the active use of sculpture both outside and inside the temple. That is why the Parthenon is one of the brightest examples in world architecture of a genuine and deep synthesis of arts.
In addition to temples, Greek architects erected many other architectural structures of a public nature: stadiums, palaestra (a hall for gymnastic exercises), residential buildings, theaters (odeons). Theaters in Greece were located on hillsides. A stage was built across the slope for the audience, below them a stage platform was erected for the choir's performances - the "orchestra", and the actors were on the stage, the "skene". The largest theater accommodated up to 25 thousand spectators.
Residential buildings often had a rectangular courtyard in the center, into which the doors and windows of the premises opened. If there were two floors, the upper one housed the gynaecium - the female part of the house. The main room - andron - was intended for feasts and meals.
During the Hellenistic period, urban planning became the main theme of architecture. New cities and numerous shopping centers are being built, construction is carried out on a large scale and at a rapid pace. There is a need to develop technical techniques and theoretical foundations for the construction of countless buildings for various purposes. They are summarized in architectural treatises, the authors of which, based on the original principles of ancient Greek art, strive to develop ways of rational construction in both architectural, planning and technical terms. At this time, a basic layout of the city was being developed, divided by a rectilinear grid of streets into equal-sized blocks. In the center of the city there were public buildings - the people's assembly, the city council, the basilica (judicial and administrative building), gymnasiums, schools, and churches. The central city square takes on the character of a market (agora). Both the square and the streets were bordered by porticoes creating shade. The contours of the city were surrounded by defensive walls.
The composition of public buildings, diverse in function, is also very different. But there is a general spatial technique that was preferred - the use of the theme of the peristyle courtyard, which in various combinations retains the significance of the compositional center of the building.
CONCLUSION
The origin of architecture dates back to the time of the primitive communal system, when the first artificially constructed dwellings and settlements arose. The simplest techniques for organizing space based on a rectangle and a circle were mastered, and the development of structural systems with supports began.
With the emergence of states, a new form of settlements emerged - the city as a center of administration and trade. The art of Ancient Rome left humanity an enormous legacy, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. For this alone he is worthy of lasting glory and the memory of his descendants. In addition, the art of Roman times left many remarkable monuments in a variety of fields, ranging from works of architecture to glass vessels. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and taken to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to whom it belonged, and the place this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the thousand-year-old world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art of the New Age.
Under the slave-owning democracy of Ancient Greece, an entire system of city-states was created. A street planning system is being developed, with a straight grid of streets and a square - the center of commercial and public life. The cultural and architectural compositional center of the city was the temple, which was erected on top of the acropolis. The classically completed type of temple was the peripterus (for example, the Parthenon in Athens).
In ancient Rome, a huge Mediterranean power that inherited the traditions of Ancient Greek architecture, buildings that expressed the power of the republic and satisfied the needs of the slave state acquired leading importance. For the construction of large buildings, the emergence of new building materials (concrete) played a major role.
Architecture of the Roman Empire in the ruins of the Roman Forum.
The conquest of Greece brought Rome a new perspective on culture and art. However, Roman architecture not only copied Greek, but also made its own contribution to the development of architecture. Ancient Roman architecture in its development also absorbed the construction culture of the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, Ancient Germany, Gaul and others conquered by the empire. Rome adopted much of the art of the Etruscans, carriers of a highly developed culture, thanks to the influence of which some constructive approaches to construction and engineering structures appeared. The beginning of the development of Roman architecture dates back to the period 6-1 centuries. BC. At the beginning of this period, Rome was a small city, and its architecture was influenced by the culture of the Etruscans, an Italic tribe. Arches and vaults with domes were borrowed from them. In those days, powerful defensive structures were created, for example, the wall of Servius (4th century BC). Until 3rd century BC. Roman architecture consisted mainly of wooden buildings with terracotta ornaments. Until 2nd century BC. In Rome, local marble had not yet been developed, and temples were built from volcanic tuff. Arched vaults made of soft tuff replaced the strong beams used in Greek buildings and served as load-bearing structural elements. The walls were decorated with plaster reliefs. The development of technologies for producing baked brick dates back to this period; a frame was built from it, and the cladding began to be made from tuff. On Capitol Hill in 509 BC. a temple was erected with three cellae of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. The ridge of the pediment was decorated with a terracotta quadriga by the sculptor Vulka. Later, the temple was rebuilt several times using columns from Greek temples.
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in Rome and elements of the order in temples in different cities of the era of Ancient Rome.
In the 2nd-1st centuries. BC. In Roman architecture they began to use a new plastic material - concrete. Vaulted structures are used in construction. At this time, the construction of courthouses, trade buildings, amphitheaters, circuses, baths, libraries, and markets began. The creation of the first triumphal arches and warehouses (portico of the Emilians - 2nd century BC) dates back to that period. Offices and Archives appeared (Tabulary. 80s of the 1st century BC). Such rapid construction and the emergence of buildings for various purposes is caused by expanding expansion, seizure of territories, an increase in the size of the state and the need for strict regulation of controlled territories.
Tabularium in Rome.
By the end of the 1st century. AD The Roman Empire was formed with sole power. The reign of Emperor Augustus gave rise to “Augustan classicism” in the architecture of the Roman Empire, which later became the basis for European architecture. At this time, they began to develop “Luna” marble, then Carrara marble. Roman architecture of that period was guided by the creations of the time of Phidias in Ancient Greece. Instead of houses made of adobe and wood, the first multi-story houses and mansions of aristocrats appeared, which were built from baked brick and concrete and faced marble. The city was decorated with Campania villas, palaces decorated with porticoes, columns, pediments, rich sculptural decoration. Fountains with stucco decoration combined with the greenery of gardens. The Roman Forum appeared, around which public buildings and temples were erected. Corinthian columns of the temple still stand at the Roman Forum Castor and Poluksa 12.5 m high.
Columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome.
Looted wealth from conquered countries caused the rise of Roman architecture, which was designed to emphasize the greatness of the empire. The structures emphasized their scale, monumentality and power. The buildings were richly decorated. Not only temples and palaces were built in the ancient style, but also baths, bridges, theaters, and aqueducts. Greek orders were used as a basis, of which preference was given to the Corinthian order, as well as the new composite one, created as a mixture of ancient Greek ones. However, in the architecture of the Roman Empire, elements of the order were used mainly as decorative, in contrast to Ancient Greece, where all parts of the order system carried a certain load and were parts of the structure. In the 1st century BC. not only in Rome, but also in provincial cities, beautiful architectural complexes appeared, such as, for example, in Pompeii. Emperor Nero gave Roman architecture a new look by destroying several blocks of the city, on the site of which the Golden House was built.
Ruins of the Golden House of Nero in Rome.
During the reign of the Flavians and Trajan (late 1st - early 2nd centuries AD), large architectural complexes were built. In conquered Athens, Hadrian built the Temple of Olympian Zeus in 135 AD. (reconstructed in 307). Under Hadrian (125), the construction of the Pantheon began - a striking building of the architecture of the Roman Empire, which has survived to this day. The Pantheon was created from volumes of a strict geometric shape: a cylindrical rotunda, a hemispherical dome, a portico with two rows of columns in the form of a parallelepiped. There is a hole in the dome through which the interior of the temple is illuminated. This work clearly displays the proportions: the diameter of the rotunda is equal to the height of the structure. The height of the dome is equal to half of a conventional sphere that could be fit into the temple structure. The Pantheon is decorated with marble slabs on the lower tier and plaster on the upper tiers. The roof was covered with bronze tiles. The Pantheon became a model for many buildings of European architecture from different historical eras.
View of the Roman Pantheon from above.
At the end of the 3rd century. AD One of the most important structures of the architecture of the Roman Empire was the defensive wall of Aurelian. Emperor Diocletian (3rd-4th centuries AD) made the city of Salona his residence and practically did not live in Rome. A well-fortified palace complex with access to the sea was built in Salona. At this time, the architecture of the Roman Empire was distinguished by austerity, clarity and less decoration. The late period (until the end of the 2nd century) of the development of Roman architecture began during the reign of Hadrian and under Antoninus Pius. These were years of fierce wars, conspiracies, political assassinations, uprisings, and the plague. In those days, triumphal arches were not erected, but many residential buildings and villas were built. Roman architecture of the late Antonines was characterized by a large amount of decoration. The Temple of Hadrian, the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum, the columns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, richly decorated with bas-reliefs, date back to that period.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum (141 BC).
With the coming to power of Emperor Constantine and after 313, with the official recognition of the Christian religion as the main one in the territory of the Roman Empire, ancient orders were used for the construction of temples. The capital was moved to the once Greek Byzantium, which was named Constantinople. Rome loses its central importance, and ancient art, moving away from its center, gradually acquires a formal character, gradually developing into medieval styles.
Temple of St. Sophia in Constantinople. Built under Emperor Constantine. 324-337
Roman architecture of the 3rd century. AD was increasingly exposed to the influence of Christianity, however, the order system was still used in the construction of temples and public buildings: large entrance staircases, multi-column porticoes, podiums, decor of high walls. During the Dominant era (284-305 AD), the appearance of Roman architecture changed: the amount of decor decreased, the clarity of volumes and proportions decreased. At this time, techniques appeared that later began to be used in Byzantine architecture: a combination of stone and brick, mosaic decoration. For example, the Temple of Jupiter was built from white stone and brick; colored marble was used for cladding; the surfaces were covered with plaster, mosaics, and plaster stucco. At the same time, the art of stone carving was fading: stucco became rougher and less detailed. The developing Byzantine art used the architectural traditions of the Roman Empire and Ancient Greece, combining them with oriental motifs. During the 5th century. Based on these trends in Roman architecture, European architecture began to take shape, bringing great works to world architecture. To this day, many of the elements of Roman architecture are used in the construction of buildings in historical styles. And with the advent of artificial materials that imitate natural ones, such as, for example, polyurethane, such construction has become more democratic, reducing the cost and the need for large labor costs.
The façade of the apartment building resembles ancient Roman buildings in its appearance.
The architecture of Ancient Rome is a logical continuation of the architecture of the Ancient Greeks. The first large buildings in Rome were made in the Etruscan style, therefore Roman architecture from the very beginning adopted the most important form of Etruscan architecture - the circular arch, that is, a semicircular stone covering thrown from one abutment to another, and folded so that the sides touch each other The individual stones that make it up are located in the direction of the radii of the circle, are held by their mutual thrust and transmit the total pressure to one and the other abutment.
The use of this architectural form gave the Romans the opportunity to give great variety to their structures, to erect huge buildings, to impart large size and spaciousness to interior spaces, and to boldly build one floor above another.
Columns were no longer suitable for supporting heavy arches, vaults and domes; the Romans replaced them with massive walls and pilasters, and the column acquired decorative significance. Although sometimes, as for example in porticos leading into a building, it continues to be used in the same way as in Greece.
As for the style of columns, the Romans did not invent anything of their own in this regard: they took ready-made Greek styles and only modified them to their taste. Thus, four orders were formed: 1) Roman Doric, 2) Roman Ionic, 3) Roman Corinthian and 4) Composite.
In addition, the Romans came up with an even more magnificent style, combining details of Corinthian and Ionic capitals in the capitals of its columns, namely, placing a horizontal volute of the second above the acanthus leaves of the first. Thus, a style emerged that was given the name “Roman” or “composite”.
During the period lasting from the middle of the 2nd century. before the fall of republican rule (i.e., until 31 BC), was marked by the appearance of the first marble temples in Rome. The temples began to look more like Greek ones, although they always retained some differences from them. The Roman temple of this and subsequent eras usually consisted of one cella of an oblong, quadrangular shape, standing on a high foundation, and to which a staircase led only from one, short, front side.
Along with similar sanctuaries of the Greek type, the Romans built, in honor of certain deities, round temples, which were their own invention, introducing into them, however, many Greek elements.
Roman forum The most brilliant period in the history of Roman architecture begins with the seizure of sovereignty over the republic by Augustus and continues until the death of Emperor Hadrian, that is, until 138 AD. ( , Mausoleum of Augustus, K )
Under Domitian, Rome was decorated with triumphal gates, perpetuating the memory of Titus’ victories over the Jews and his devastation of Jerusalem - a structure that is curious especially because in it we see for the first time a completely defined, characteristic type of Roman triumphal arches, which were built before, but not with such proportionality of parts and with less decoration, and also because the half-columns adorning these gates represent the first known example of capitals in the composite style.
Fragment of the Arch of Titus In the last period of the history of Roman architecture (from 138 to 300), each emperor tried to leave a memory of some significant building. Antoninus the Pious builds the temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome; Marcus Aurelius - a column of his name, modeled after Trayanova; Septimius Severus - a heavy triumphal gate, burdened with architectural and sculptural decorations in imitation of the Arch of Titus, as well as a small, but harmonious in proportions and nobly beautiful in detail, the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli. Caracalla endows Rome with unusually extensive and luxurious public baths, Aurelian - a colossal temple of the Sun. Under Diocletian, baths were built that were even more spacious and magnificent than the baths of Caracalla, but which, in design and location, were only chipped from them.
Based on materials
is amazing. Almost 3000 years of eventful history of the Roman lands have more than adorned the city with masterpiece architecture of varying degrees of antiquity and importance, different styles and directions of architecture. From the ruins of ancient walls, arches and temples to twentieth-century buildings, for example the construction of Termini Station. In the capital of Italy, at almost any step you can admire the harmonious and sophisticated architecture of Rome in the implementation of artistic ideas.
It is not at all easy to find out in detail the dates of construction of many buildings in the architecture of Rome - and is it even necessary to find out encyclopedic reliability in this case; since feelings often prevail over reason. But even the most poorly prepared traveler in world history can distinguish between an ancient Roman temple and a Christian basilica: there are pagan chic porticoes, columns and passages, here there is ascetic modesty of lines and an emphasis on the spiritual at the expense of the physical.
The architecture of Rome is a reflection of the main historical and cultural periods in the formation of the capital of Rome. In general, the historical architecture of Rome can be divided into a number of large time groups: ancient buildings, Middle Ages, Renaissance and modern buildings.
Architecture of Rome: Antiquity
Monuments of ancient architecture of Rome are almost the main reason for the interest of international groups of travelers, who every year take in Roman sights with almost an onslaught.
The Palatine Hill is the site of the emergence of Rome as a city - their greatest concentration per unit area. The Roman Forum and Colosseum, the Baths of Caracalla, circuses and amphitheatres, pagan altars of Saturn and Vulcan, the arches of Septimius Severus and Constantine, many temples and ruins of residential areas with amazing mosaics - this is only a small part of ancient architecture.
Connoisseurs of Christian antiquity will be delighted with a visit to the churches of Santa Constanza and San Clemente. And also from the dungeons of the Church of St. Agnes, in which the pioneers of the new religion hid from imperial persecution.
The symbol of Rome and Italy in general, acquired its current name because of the gigantic statue of the madman Nero (“colossus”) placed in front of it, but it was originally famous as the Flavian Amphitheater. Built in the first century, the amphitheater became the largest building for mass entertainment on the territory of the entire Roman Empire. The diameters of the oval structure are 156 and 188 m, the height is almost 50! It is no wonder that such open spaces could accommodate more than 50,000 Romans who wanted to see the spectacle.
Architecture of Rome: Colosseum The Colosseum survived, in fact, not flawlessly. The violent history of the region predisposed the building to accelerated deterioration (by the way, the first Roman amphitheater in the world to be preserved is located in the Tunisian El-Jem; it often plays the role of the Colosseum in cinema), but the former greatness has not disappeared: here, with their mouths open, travelers stand in front of enfilades of arches, the last of which disappears somewhere high in the sky.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Colosseum, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
The legendary architecture of Rome includes the Roman Forum - at one time the central market, and now a square that fills the center of the ancient part of the city. It is the epicenter of the social and political life of Roman citizens. It is from there that the current meaning of the word “forum” originates.
It must be borne in mind that the Forum is not the easiest example of Roman architecture to understand. The many ruins here look so much like ruins that even the imagination is helplessly silent. Therefore, you should be prepared that only the most knowledgeable or persistent will be able to fully admire the ancient architecture of Rome. As a result, you need to keep in mind that in the summer the sun burns mercilessly here.
At first there were pagan sanctuaries near the forum. With the collapse of the empire, it lost its social significance and was practically overgrown with weeds, until Christians began to build their temples on it. In the 19th and 20th centuries, archaeological excavations began here, as a result of which the forum acquired modern cultural significance.
Currently, the forum concentrates near itself many ancient architectural artifacts, for example, the Sacred Road, the Capitol, the Temple of Saturn, etc. You can approach it from Foli Imperiali street or from the Capitol, bypassing the Capitoline descent from Foro Romano street. Another road to the forum passes through the Temple of Concord, the Portico of the Blessing Gods, and the Mamertine Prison, which also makes it possible to get acquainted with these monuments of ancient architecture of Rome.
Baths of Caracalla
The bathhouse, something not at all alien to Russian people, was quite popular in Ancient Rome. But the ancient Roman baths-saunas were called differently - thermal baths. They went there to warm up, swim, and at the same time talk, sort out business issues, and find suitable partners for their ancient Roman business.
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD under an emperor who ruled under the name of Septimius Bassianus, but most famous, as is often the case with Roman emperors, by the nickname Caracalla, preserved by historians.
It is amazing that the large-scale, grandiose and luxurious construction of the Baths of Caracalla in its functionality was “only” public baths, which promised the visitor, however, many hours of varied relaxation, both bathing and swimming, and sports, and also intellectual. It was a huge public building, stunning in its dimensions and luxury of decoration. One can insist that the Baths of Caracalla are as majestic and monumental as the Colosseum or the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Baths of Caracalla, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Middle Ages
The not very prosperous Middle Ages both significantly worsened the appearance of the Eternal City during the Vandal invasions, and presented a number of attractions to the architecture of Rome. One of the most famous is the Castel Sant'Angelo on the western bank of the Tiber. Feudal turrets, loopholes and halls with high dark ceilings, combined with powerful battlements of literally impenetrable fortress walls, give a clear idea of the troubled life in those times.
It makes sense to visit the temple of Santa Maria sopra Minerva: its façade may have been restored in the 19th century, but the original medieval style of architecture in Rome has been carefully preserved. It makes sense to visit the temple of Santa Maria del Anima, built at the end of the 14th century for the needs of pilgrims in Rome.
Architecture of Rome: Castel Sant'Angelo
The unique architecture of Rome is the Castel Sant'Angelo. Construction of the Castel Sant'Angelo began in Rome in 135. Over its almost 2,000-year history, it was remodeled more than once and was used as a castle itself, and was also a tomb, the residence of popes, a storage room and, of course, a dungeon. Now in the Castle of St. Angel there is a Military History Museum, where travelers can see the Secret Archive, the Hall of Treasures, the Papal Apartments, the Loggia of Paul III, the Hall of Clement VII, the courtyard of Alexander VI and many other things - more than 50 rooms that form a real labyrinth!
The building acquired its name in 590, when, during the plague, Pope Gregory the Great saw a vision in which the Archangel Michael was sheathing his sword on the roof. This meant that the raging disaster had come to an end. It was after this that the fortress began to be called the Castle of the Holy Angel.
Renaissance
Much of the architecture of Rome that can currently be seen is related to the Renaissance period - the restoration of classical canons of harmony after the gloomy Middle Ages. By the way, Rome should be grateful to the city planners of the Renaissance for the comfortable radial arrangement of the streets. Among the buildings of this period, most attention is drawn to the architectural dominant of Rome - St. Peter's Cathedral and the Sistine Chapel, as well as many secondary churches and temples.
It is worth paying attention to the graceful domes of Renaissance buildings rising up: a number of them (for example, the highest point in Rome - the dome of St. Peter's Cathedral) can be climbed and through this you can take in a bird's eye view both historical Rome and the luxurious decoration of the interior of the cathedral . Well, at the end of the Renaissance, Baroque blossoms in the architecture of Rome, with all its ornate bas-reliefs, rounded marble Cupids and tropical gypsum flora. For baroque sensations, you should go to it with its three luxurious fountains, and you should not miss the colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica.
The heart of the Vatican and the entire Catholic community, St. Peter's Basilica is one of the main architectural landmarks of Rome. Here you can take a bird's eye view of ancient Rome, admire the interior of the cathedral from the top of the dome, attend mass and even be blessed by the pontiff.
St. Peter's Cathedral is, without embellishment, history itself, realized in stone.
The list of famous people who in one way or another had a hand in its architecture and interior will fill more than one page, and within its walls the fate of the whole world, states and peoples was decided. The history of the cathedral dates back to the 4th century with the construction of a simple basilica over the supposed burial place of the Apostle Peter. Until the 15th century, the structure was nothing special. And so in 1506, by papal order, it was planned to transform the basilica into a monumental cathedral, the center of Catholicism and a symbol of the power of the pontiff.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to St. Peter's Basilica, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Modern architecture of Rome
Modern Roman architecture also abounds in Rome, due in no small part to construction during the time of Italian fascism and the rule of Mussolini. As part of the revival of the idea of a great Rome and great Romans, the architecture of Rome at that time came out pompous, pretentious, bulky and harsh.
Most of it is concentrated on the western bank of the Tiber River and in the Prati region. One example of the architecture of Rome at the beginning of the 20th century is the Palace of Justice.
But among the ponderous new imperial buildings there are also genuine masterpieces, for example, the modernist building of Termini Station, completed in 1950, with a travertine facade and metal panel inserts, a symbol of modern, energetic Rome.
The Palace of Justice is one of the most famous architectural landmarks of Rome and Italy in general. Currently, the building is the seat of the Supreme Court of Cassation, it is located in the Prati district, near the Castel Sant'Angelo. One of its main strong features is its exterior: many decorative elements in the form of sculptures and stucco moldings are concentrated on the castle. When visiting Rome, you should definitely look at this amazing structure.
The construction of the castle began on March 14, 1888. During its construction, Giuseppe Zanarrdelli, keeper of the state seal, was present. It was he who advocated that the Palace be built in the Prati region. At that time, there were already judicial institutions in that part of Rome, but the Palace of Justice became the largest of them. For construction, platforms were needed that were made of concrete. During construction, excavations were carried out and many sarcophagi were found.
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In Ancient Rome, other interesting architectural structures for public non-residential purposes were also erected. First of all, these are, of course, temple complexes, basilicas, amphitheaters, circuses, theaters, baths, triumphal arches and columns.
Temple complexes. If we talk about Roman temple architecture, then temples were often erected in the cities of the Roman state, either in the form of built-in temple complexes on the forums, or as free-standing buildings. Initially, the Romans borrowed a standard temple from the Etruscans and introduced into its composition the Tuscan order with an entablature consisting of a single architrave; later they began to use the Ionic, Corinthian order, and during the imperial period, the composite order. In addition, the Romans borrowed strongly protruding roofs from the Etruscans. If we compare the general silhouette of Roman and Greek temples, then Roman temples are more dynamic and slender than Greek temple buildings. In addition, the Roman temple differs from the Greek one by steeper roof slopes. In plan, Roman temples differ little from Greek ones; they mostly had an elongated rectangular plan and were designed as peripterus or prostyle, but sometimes there were also round temples - monoptera. In Rome, this type includes the temple of the goddess Vesta in the Forum, the round temple of the two-faced Janus in the Forum and the temple of Venerum Barbarum (bearded Venus) in the same Forum. Unlike Greek temples, which are placed on a high stylobate, Roman temples stand on a podium with regular-sized staircases located only at the main entrance, on the western side. It was also adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans. A striking example of such a temple is the famous temple in the city of Nîmes, built in 27–24. BC, already during the reign of Octavian Augustus (Fig. IV.9).
Basilicas. A basilica is a huge building that served as a place for public meetings (trade conventions, political meetings, court hearings). In plan it is an elongated rectangle, divided into longitudinal halls - naves - by rows of columns. Moreover, the middle nave is higher than the rest and is covered with a semicircular apse niche. Depending on the size of the basilica, it can be three- or five-nave. The entire building was covered with a wooden roof. The most interesting Roman basilica was the Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum, in which the space of the main nave was covered with cross vaults. Of the most interesting Roman basilicas already from the imperial period, one can note the palace of Empress Helena and Emperor Constantine the Great in the city of Trier, rebuilt from the basilica (now this basilica has housed the Catholic Cathedral of the Assumption of Our Lady since 350 AD). There is also an earlier basilica from the era of Emperor Constantine in Trier (Fig. IV.10). In addition, we can give an example of perfectly preserved basilicas in the city of Maastricht (Holland), where in the Roman basilica of the 4th century. AD the city cathedral of St. Servasius, Bishop of Maastricht, was consecrated, as well as the Roman basilica on the Lateran Hill in Rome, which after 313 was rebuilt into the first palace of the Roman popes and into the Lateran Cathedral, consecrated in honor of St. John the Baptist (Fig. IV .eleven).
Amphitheaters served for mass spectacles. Usually in the center of the amphitheater there was an oval-type arena for gladiatorial battles. There were exits from the arena on both sides, at both ends of the arena.
Usually there was a basement floor under the arena, and service premises in its galleries. Some amphitheaters could be filled with water using aqueducts, and then gladiator battles on rafts or battles on mini-galleys were held. There were rows of spectators around the arena. In fact, the layout and architecture of Roman amphitheaters resemble modern circuses. The most grandiose amphitheater of the Roman era is the oval Flavian Amphitheater (Colosseum), built during the reign of the Flavian dynasty in the 2nd century. AD Also interesting are the famous Verona Amphitheater in the city of Verona and the amphitheater of the city of Palmyra (Vaalbek in modern Lebanon), which was built during the reign of the proconsul of the province of Syria in Palmyra, Marcus Lucius Septimius Odaenathus in 268–270. AD The last two amphitheaters continue to be used today for theater and opera festivals (Fig. IV. 12).
Circuses in the Roman state were special facilities for equestrian competitions, similar to the Greek and later Byzantine hippodromes. To this day, the remains of a large Roman circus, which could accommodate up to 250,000 spectators, have been preserved in Rome. Circuses were built longitudinal and horseshoe-shaped in plan (Fig. 4.20).
Rice. 4.20.
Roman theater unlike the Greek, it was not located on a natural slope, but on special vaults. This allowed the Romans not to depend on terrain conditions when building theaters. Typically, the Roman theater was built as a building rising above the ground, with several floors. The layout of the Roman theater was different from the Greek one. Thus, the choirs of the Roman theater were moved to the podium, and the vacated area was used to accommodate spectators. The theatrical action took place not in the orchestra, as in the Greek theater, but on the skene. On the Campus Martius in Rome, a well-preserved Roman theater from the 1st century has reached us. BC. – Theater of Marcellus (Fig. 4.21). It is interesting because in this theater all three tiers of arcades have been preserved, each of which is decorated with three order styles: the lower arcades are Doric, the upper arcades are Ionic, and the arcades of the third tier are composite.
Rice. 4.21. :
A – reconstruction; b – modern look
Finally, some of the most interesting public buildings in Rome include the baths and triumphal memorial arches and columns.
Thermal Baths– Roman baths, the most structurally and technologically complex structures of Ancient Rome. They played the role of a place for public meetings. The thermal complex included recreation rooms, gyms, and libraries. The baths consisted of three main complexes. Frigidariums are halls where there were pools with cold water, caldariums are halls where there were pools with hot water, and terpidariums are halls where pools with warm water were located. Around these halls there were libraries and sports complexes. The baths were heated using calorific heating. They had a symmetrical planning structure, which was designed for two parallel streams of people (male and female). It must be said that the giant baths were built by the state for people of small and medium income and were free. Therefore, one could see there a senator, a freedman, a slave, and a free artisan. But still, the bulk of wealthy Roman patricians preferred their own home baths to therms. The baths were open 24 hours a day. The baths of Emperor Caracalla (Fig. 4.22) and the baths of Emperor Diocletian have been preserved in Rome to this day. In the small Austrian town of Magdalenenberg, architectural fragments of a former Roman military settlement have been preserved, where you can also see both public baths and a home bath in the house of the head of the local military garrison.
Rice. 4.22.
Triumphal arches And columns usually erected in Rome to commemorate the victories of Roman arms. The height of the arches usually reached 30–40 m, for example Trajan's Column was exactly 30 m high. The most grandiose structures were erected in Rome in the early period of the empire. In the late imperial period, columns and arches had a strong decorative feel, such as the 21.5 m high Arch of Constantine near the Colosseum, built in 315 AD. in memory of the victory over Maxentius (Fig. IV.13).
The pinnacle of Roman construction activity was engineering structures. They built sewers, sewer systems, underground water pipes, aqueducts, warehouses, and public latrines in cities. In Rome, such structures as the Emilian warehouses, which stretch 500 m along the bank of the Tiber, have survived to this day. The territory of the empire was covered by a network of roads. Typically, a Roman road was built in this way: below there was a powerful cushion of sand and gravel, on which stone slabs of enormous thickness were laid on mortar (Fig. IV.14). Flat stone slabs were laid on the bridges. Many bridges have survived to this day, for example the Ponte Fabrizio (the arch span of which is 24.5 m), built in 62 BC. in Rome across the Tiber River, Trajan's Bridge over the Danube, built by the engineer Apollodorus. The length of the bridge exceeds 1 km, and it rises on 20 stone pylons 44 m high. Back in the 2nd century. BC. the total length of water pipelines in the state was about 430 km.
In the era of the late empire, fortifications began to be built in the state. Roman cities were based on the layout of the Roman military camp, the castrum, where two “streets”, the cardo and the decumanos, intersected at right angles. Early medieval Romanesque fortresses and castles were created under the strong influence of the fortress architecture of the late Roman period.
