What artistic means of comparison are the epithets of metaphor. Learning to find epithets, metaphors and comparisons

Slide 17

How did the poet manage to depict the sounds of a light morning breeze? Sound writing also plays a special role in this poem, in particular alliteration (sound repetitions of consonant sounds [w] and [s]), which help create the sound image of a light morning breeze. It is his barely audible fluttering that makes the birch trees “dishevel” and the playful nettles sway. “rustle”, “earrings”, “whispers”, “playfully”. The underlined letters convey the sounds [ш], [с], creating the sound image of a light, barely audible breeze.

Slide 18

What colors will you choose to illustrate this poem? “golden”, “blushes”, “green”, “silver”, “mother of pearl”. Conclusion: in illustrations you should use bright, colorful, festive, shiny colors.

In vocabulary, the main means of expressiveness are trails(translated from Greek - turn, turn, image) - special figurative and expressive means of language, based on the use of words in a figurative meaning.

The main types of tropes include: epithet, comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis (periphrase), hyperbole, litotes, irony.

Special lexical figurative and expressive means of language (tropes)

Epithet(translated from Greek - application, addition) is a figurative definition that marks an essential feature for a given context in the depicted phenomenon.

The epithet differs from a simple definition in its artistic expressiveness and imagery. The epithet is based on a hidden comparison.

Epithets include all “colorful” definitions, which are most often expressed by adjectives.

For example: sad and orphaned Earth(F.I. Tyutchev), gray fog, lemon light, silent peace(I.A. Bunin).

Epithets can also be expressed:

- nouns , acting as applications or predicates, giving a figurative characteristic of the subject.

For example: sorceress - winter; mother is the damp earth; The poet is a lyre, and not just the nanny of his soul(M. Gorky);

- adverbs , acting as circumstances.

For example: In the wild north it stands alone....(M. Yu. Lermontov); The leaves were tensely stretched in the wind(K. G. Paustovsky);

- participles .

For example: the waves rush thundering and sparkling;

- pronouns , expressing the superlative degree of a particular state of the human soul.

For example: After all, there were fighting fights, Yes, they say, some more!(M. Yu. Lermontov);

- participles And participial phrases .

For example: Nightingales announce the forest limits with their thundering words(B. L. Pasternak); I also admit the appearance of... greyhound writers who cannot prove where they spent the night yesterday, and who have no other words in their language except the words not remembering kinship (M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The creation of figurative epithets is usually associated with the use of words in a figurative meaning.

From the point of view of the type of figurative meaning of the word acting as an epithet, all epithets are divided into:

metaphorical (they are based on a metaphorical figurative meaning.

For example: a golden cloud, a bottomless sky, a lilac fog, a walking cloud and a standing tree.

Metaphorical epithets– a striking sign of the author’s style:

You are my cornflower blue word,
I love you forever.
How does our cow live now?
Are you tugging at straw sadness?
(S.A. Yesenin. “I haven’t seen such beautiful ones?”);

How greedily the world of the soul is at night
Hears the story of his beloved!
(Tyutchev. “What are you howling about, night wind?”).

metonymic (they are based on metonymic figurative meaning.

For example: suede gait(V.V. Nabokov); scratchy look(M. Gorky); birch cheerful tongue(S. A. Yesenin).

From a genetic point of view epithets are divided into:

- general language (deathly silence, leaden waves),

- folk-poetic (permanent) ( red sun, wild wind, good fellow).

In poetic folklore, an epithet, which together with the word it defines, constitutes a stable phrase, served, in addition to its content, mnemonic function (gr. mnemo nicon- the art of memorization).

Constant epithets made it easier for the singer and narrator to perform the work. Any folklore text is full of such, mostly “decorating”, epithets.

« In folklore, writes literary critic V.P. Anikin, the girl is always beautiful, the fellow is kind, the father is dear, the kids are small, the fellow is daring, the body is white, the hands are white, the tears are flammable, the voice is loud, bow - low, table - oak, wine - green, vodka - sweet, eagle - gray, flower - scarlet, stone - flammable, sand - loose, night - dark, forest - stagnant, mountains - steep, forests - dense, cloud - menacing , the winds are violent, the field is clean, the sun is red, the bow is tight, the tavern is Tsarev, the saber is sharp, the wolf is gray, etc.»

Depending on the genre, the selection of epithets varied somewhat. Recreation of style, or stylization of folk genres, involves the widespread use of constant epithets. So, they abound " A song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young oprichnik and the daring merchant Kalashnikov» Lermontov: red sun, blue clouds, golden crown, formidable king, daring fighter, strong thought, black thought, hot heart, heroic shoulders, sharp saber etc.

An epithet can incorporate the properties of many tropes . Based on metaphor or at metonymy , it can also be combined with personification... misty and quiet azure above sad and orphaned earth(F.I. Tyutchev), hyperbole (Autumn already knows that such a deep and silent peace is a harbinger of long bad weather(I.A. Bunin) and other paths and figures.

The role of epithets in the text

All epithets as bright, “illuminating” definitions are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness of the images of depicted objects or phenomena, at highlighting their most significant features.

In addition, epithets can:

Strengthen, emphasize any characteristic features of objects.

For example: Wandering between the rocks, a yellow ray crept into the wild cave and illuminated the smooth skull...(M. Yu. Lermontov);

Clarify the distinctive features of an object (shape, color, size, quality):.

For example: The forest, like a painted tower, Lilac, golden, crimson, A cheerful, motley wall Stands above a bright clearing(I. A. Bunin);

Create combinations of words that are contrasting in meaning and serve as the basis for creating an oxymoron: wretched luxury(L.N. Tolstoy), brilliant shadow(E. A. Baratynsky);

Convey the author’s attitude towards the depicted, express the author’s assessment and perception of the phenomenon: ...Dead words smell bad(N.S. Gumilyov); And we value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word, And we will not change the power of the word(S. N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What does this smiling mean? blessing heaven, this happy, resting earth?(I. S. Turgenev)

Figurative epithets highlight the essential aspects of what is depicted without introducing a direct assessment (“ in the blue sea fog», « in the dead sky" and so on.).

In expressive (lyrical) epithets , on the contrary, the attitude towards the depicted phenomenon is clearly expressed (“ images of crazy people flash», « a languid night story»).

It should be borne in mind that this division is quite arbitrary, since figurative epithets also have an emotional and evaluative meaning.

Epithets are widely used in artistic and journalistic, as well as colloquial and popular scientific styles of speech.

Comparison is a visual technique based on the comparison of one phenomenon or concept with another.

Unlike metaphor comparison is always binomial : it names both compared objects (phenomena, signs, actions).

For example: The villages are burning, they have no protection. The sons of the fatherland are defeated by the enemy, And the glow, like an eternal meteor, Playing in the clouds, frightens the eye.(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Comparisons are expressed in various ways:

Form of the instrumental case of nouns.

For example: Youth flew by like a flying nightingale, Joy faded away like a wave in bad weather.(A.V. Koltsov) The moon slides like a pancake in sour cream.(B. Pasternak) Leaves flew like stars.(D. Samoilov) The flying rain sparkles golden in the sun.(V. Nabokov) Icicles hang like glass fringes.(I. Shmelev) A rainbow hangs from a birch tree with a patterned clean towel.(N. Rubtsov)

The comparative form of an adjective or adverb.

For example: These eyes are greener than the sea and our cypress trees are darker.(A. Akhmatova) A girl's eyes are brighter than roses.(A.S. Pushkin) But the eyes are bluer than the day.(S. Yesenin) Rowan bushes are more misty than the depths.(S. Yesenin) Youth is more free.(A.S. Pushkin) Truth is more valuable than gold.(Proverb) The throne room is brighter than the sun. M. Tsvetaeva)

Comparative turnover with unions as if, as if, as if and etc.

For example: Like a predatory beast, the winner bursts into the humble monastery with bayonets...(M. Yu. Lermontov) April looks at the birds' flight with eyes as blue as ice.(D. Samoilov) Every village here is so loving, As if it contains the beauty of the whole universe. (A. Yashin) And they stand behind oak nets Like forest evil spirits, hemp.(S. Yesenin) Like a bird in a cage, My heart leaps.(M. Yu. Lermontov) To my poems like precious wines, Your turn will come.(M. I. Tsvetaeva) It's almost noon. The heat is blazing. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (A.S. Pushkin) The past, like the bottom of the sea, spreads like a pattern into the distance.(V. Bryusov)

Beyond the river in peace
The cherry blossomed
Like snow across the river
The stitch was flooded.
Like light snowstorms
They rushed at full speed,
It was as if swans were flying,
They dropped the fluff.(A. Prokofiev)

With words similar, similar, this.

For example: Your eyes are like the eyes of a cautious cat(A. Akhmatova);

Using comparative clauses.

For example: Golden leaves swirled in the pinkish water of the pond, Like a light flock of butterflies, it flies breathlessly towards a star. (S. A. Yesenin) The rain sows, sows, sows, It has been drizzling since midnight, Hanging like a muslin curtain outside the windows. (V. Tushnova) Heavy snow, spinning, covered the Sunless Heights, It was as if hundreds of white wings flew silently. (V. Tushnova) Like a tree silently shedding its leaves, So I drop sad words.(S. Yesenin) How the king loved rich palaces, So I fell in love with the ancient roads And the blue eyes of eternity!(N. Rubtsov)

Comparisons can be direct Andnegative

Negative comparisons are especially characteristic of oral folk poetry and can serve as a way of stylizing the text.

For example: This is not a horse's top, Not human rumor... (A.S. Pushkin)

A special type of comparison is represented by detailed comparisons, with the help of which entire texts can be constructed.

For example, the poem by F. I. Tyutchev “ Like over hot ashes...»:
Like over hot ashes
The scroll smokes and burns
And the fire is hidden and dull
Devours words and lines -

My life is dying so sadly
And every day it goes up in smoke,
So I gradually fade away
In unbearable monotony!..

Oh Heaven, if only once
This flame developed at will -
And, without languishing, without suffering any longer,
I would shine - and go out!

The role of comparisons in text

Comparisons, like epithets, are used in the text in order to enhance its figurativeness and imagery, create more vivid, expressive images and highlighting, emphasizing any significant features of the depicted objects or phenomena, as well as for the purpose of expressing the author’s assessments and emotions.

For example:
I like it, my friend,
When the word melts
And when it sings
The line is covered in heat,
So that words glow from words,
So that when they take flight,
They twisted and fought to sing,
To be eaten like honey.
(A. A. Prokofiev);

In every soul it seems to live, burn, glow, like a star in the sky, and, like a star, it goes out when it, having completed its journey in life, flies from our lips... It happens that an extinguished star for us, people on earth, burns for another thousand years. (M. M. Prishvin)

Comparisons as a means of linguistic expressiveness can be used not only in literary texts, but also in journalistic, colloquial, and scientific ones.

Metaphor(translated from Greek - transfer) is a word or expression that is used in a figurative meaning based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena for some reason. Sometimes they say that a metaphor is a hidden comparison.

For example, metaphor A red rowan fire is burning in the garden (S. Yesenin) contains a comparison of rowan brushes with the flame of a fire.

Many metaphors have become commonplace in everyday use and therefore do not attract attention and have lost their imagery in our perception.

For example: the bank has burst, the dollar is walking, my head is spinning and etc.

Unlike a comparison, which contains both what is being compared and what is being compared with, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness in the use of the word.

A metaphor can be based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, volume, purpose, sensations, etc.

For example: a waterfall of stars, an avalanche of letters, a wall of fire, an abyss of grief, a pearl of poetry, a spark of love and etc.

All metaphors are divided into two groups:

1) general language (“erased”)

For example: golden hands, storm in a teacup, moving mountains, heartstrings, love faded ;

2) artistic (individual author’s, poetic)

For example: And the stars fade diamond thrill in the painless cold of dawn (M. Voloshin); Empty skies transparent glass(A. Akhmatova); AND blue, bottomless eyes bloom on the far shore. (A. A. Blok)

Metaphors of Sergei Yesenin: fire of red rowan, cheerful birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky; or bloody tears of September, overgrown raindrops, lantern buns and roof donuts at Boris Pasternak's
Metaphor is paraphrased into comparison using auxiliary words as if, like, like, as if and so on.

There are several types of metaphor: erased, expanded, realized.

Erased - a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative meaning of which is no longer felt.

For example: chair leg, headboard, sheet of paper, clock hand and so on.

A whole work or a large excerpt from it can be built on a metaphor. Such a metaphor is called “expanded”, in it the image is “expanded”, that is, revealed in detail.

Thus, the poem by A.S. Pushkin “ Prophet" is an example of an extended metaphor. Transformation of the lyrical hero into a herald of the will of the Lord - a poet-prophet, satisfying him " spiritual thirst“, that is, the desire to know the meaning of existence and find one’s calling, is depicted by the poet gradually: “ six-winged seraph", the messenger of God, transformed the hero with his " right hand" - the right hand, which was an allegory of strength and power. By God's power, the lyrical hero received different vision, different hearing, different mental and spiritual abilities. He could " heed“, that is, to comprehend sublime, heavenly values ​​and earthly, material existence, to feel the beauty of the world and its suffering. Pushkin depicts this beautiful and painful process, “ stringing"one metaphor to another: the hero's eyes acquire eagle vigilance, his ears are filled with" noise and ringing"of life, the tongue ceases to be "idle and crafty", conveying the wisdom received as a gift, " trembling heart" turns into " coal burning with fire" The chain of metaphors is held together by the general idea of ​​the work: the poet, as Pushkin wanted him to be, must be a herald of the future and an exposer of human vices, inspiring people with his words, encouraging them to goodness and truth.

Examples of expanded metaphor are often found in poetry and prose (the main part of the metaphor is indicated in italics, its “development” is emphasized):
... let's say goodbye together,
Oh my easy youth!
Thank you for the pleasures
For sadness, for sweet torment,
For the noise, for the storms, for the feasts,
For everything, for all your gifts...
A.S. Pushkin " Eugene Onegin"

We drink from the cup of existence
With eyes closed...
Lermontov "The Cup of Life"

... a boy caught in love
To a girl shrouded in silks...
N. Gumilev " Eagle of Sinbad"

The golden grove dissuaded
Birch cheerful language.
S. Yesenin " The golden grove dissuaded…"

Sad, and crying, and laughing,
The streams of my poems ring
At your feet
And every verse
Runs, weaves a living thread,
Not knowing our own shores.
A. Blok " Sad, and crying, and laughing...."

Save my speech forever for the taste of misfortune and smoke...
O. Mandelstam " Save my speech forever…"

... seethed, washing away kings,
July curve street...
O. Mandelstam " I pray for pity and mercy..."

Now the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes.
M. Gorky " Song about the Petrel"

The sea has woken up. It played with small waves, giving birth to them, decorating them with a fringe of foam, pushing them against each other and breaking them into fine dust.
M. Gorky " Chelkash"

Realized - metaphor , which again takes on direct meaning. The result of this process at the everyday level is often comical:

For example: I lost my temper and got on the bus

The exam will not take place: all tickets have been sold.

If you go into yourself, don't come back empty-handed and so on.

The simple-minded joker-gravedigger in William Shakespeare's tragedy " Hamlet" to the main character's question about " on what basis"The young prince has lost his mind, replies: " In our Danish" He understands the word " the soil"literally - the top layer of the earth, territory, while Hamlet means figuratively - for what reason, as a result of what."

« Oh, you are heavy, Monomakh's hat! " - the king complains in the tragedy of A.S. Pushkin " Boris Godunov" Since the time of Vladimir Monomakh, the crown of Russian tsars has had the shape of a cap. It was decorated with precious stones, so it was “heavy” in the literal sense of the word. In figurative terms - “ Monomakh's hat" personified " heaviness", the responsibility of royal power, the grave responsibilities of an autocrat.

In the novel by A.S. Pushkin “ Eugene Onegin“An important role is played by the image of the Muse, who since ancient times has personified the source of poetic inspiration. The expression “the poet was visited by a muse” has a figurative meaning. But the Muse - the poet's friend and inspirer - appears in the novel in the form of a living woman, young, beautiful, cheerful. IN " student cell"It's the Muse" opened a feast of young ideas- pranks and serious arguments about life. She is the one " sang“everything that the young poet strived for - earthly passions and desires: friendship, a cheerful feast, thoughtless joy - “ children's fun" Muse, " how the bacchante frolicked", and the poet was proud of his " frivolous friend».

During her southern exile, Muse appeared as a romantic heroine - a victim of her destructive passions, determined, capable of reckless rebellion. Her image helped the poet create an atmosphere of mystery and mystery in his poems:

How often l ask Muse
I enjoyed the silent path
The magic of a secret story!..

At the turning point of the author’s creative quest, it was she
She appeared as a district young lady,
With a sad thought in his eyes...

Throughout the entire work " affectionate Muse"was true" girlfriend"poet.

The implementation of metaphor is often found in the poetry of V. Mayakovsky. So, in the poem “ A cloud in pants"he implements the popular expression " nerves cleared up" or " I'm on my nerves»:
I hear:
quiet,
like a sick person out of bed,
the nerve jumped.
Here, -
walked first
barely,
then he ran in
excited,
clear.
Now he and the new two
rushing about with desperate tap dancing...
Nerves -
big,
small,
many, -
are jumping madly,
and already
Nervous legs give way!

It should be remembered that the boundary between different types of metaphor is very arbitrary, unstable, and it can be difficult to accurately determine the type.

The role of metaphors in the text

Metaphor is one of the most striking and powerful means of creating expressiveness and imagery in a text.

Through the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases, the author of the text not only enhances the visibility and clarity of what is depicted, but also conveys the uniqueness and individuality of objects or phenomena, while demonstrating the depth and character of his own associative-figurative thinking, vision of the world, the measure of talent (“The most important thing is to be skillful in metaphors. Only this cannot be learned from another - it is a sign of talent" (Aristotle).

Metaphors serve as an important means of expressing the author's assessments and emotions, the author's characteristics of objects and phenomena.

For example: I feel stuffy in this atmosphere! Kites! Owl's nest! Crocodiles!(A.P. Chekhov)

In addition to artistic and journalistic styles, metaphors are characteristic of colloquial and even scientific styles (“ the ozone hole », « electron cloud " and etc.).

Personification- this is a type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of a living being to natural phenomena, objects and concepts.

More often personifications are used when describing nature.

For example:
Rolling through sleepy valleys,
The sleepy mists have settled,
And only the clatter of horses,
Sounding, it gets lost in the distance.
The day has gone out, turning pale autumn,
Rolling up the fragrant leaves,
Taste dreamless sleep
Half-withered flowers.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)

Less often, personifications are associated with the objective world.

For example:
Isn't it true, never again
Will we not part? Enough?..
AND the violin answered Yes,
But the violin's heart was hurting.
The bow understood everything, he fell silent,
And in the violin the echo was still there...
And it was torment for them,
What people thought was music.
(I. F. Annensky);

There was something good-natured and at the same time cozy in the faces of this house. (D. N. Mamin-Sibiryak)

Personifications- the paths are very old, their roots go back to pagan antiquity and therefore occupy such an important place in mythology and folklore. The Fox and the Wolf, the Hare and the Bear, the epic Serpent Gorynych and the Foul Idol - all these and other fantastic and zoological characters from fairy tales and epics are familiar to us from early childhood.

One of the literary genres closest to folklore, the fable, is based on personification.

Even today it is unthinkable to imagine works of art without personification; our everyday speech is unthinkable without them.

Figurative speech not only visually represents an idea. Its advantage is that it is shorter. Instead of describing an object in detail, we can compare it with an already known object.

It is impossible to imagine poetic speech without using this technique:
"The storm covers the sky with darkness
Whirling snow whirlwinds
Then, like a beast, she will howl,
She will cry like a child."(A.S. Pushkin)

The role of personifications in the text

Personifications serve to create bright, expressive and imaginative pictures of something, enhancing conveyed thoughts and feelings.

Personification as an expressive means is used not only in artistic style, but also in journalistic and scientific ones.

For example: X-rays show, the device says, the air heals, something is stirring in the economy.

The most common metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, when an inanimate object receives the properties of an animate one, as if acquiring a face.

1. Typically, the two components of a personification metaphor are a subject and a predicate: " the blizzard was angry», « the golden cloud spent the night», « the waves are playing».

« Get angry", that is, only a person can experience irritation, but " snowstorm", a blizzard, plunging the world into cold and darkness, also brings " evil". « Spend the night"Only living beings are capable of sleeping peacefully at night, " cloud" represents a young woman who has found an unexpected shelter. Marine « waves"in the poet's imagination" play", like children.

We often find examples of metaphors of this type in the poetry of A.S. Pushkin:
Not suddenly delights will abandon us...
A mortal dream flies over him...
My days have flown by...
The spirit of life awakened in him...
The Fatherland caressed you...
Poetry awakens in me...

2. Many personification metaphors are built according to the method of control: “ lyre singing», « the talk of the waves», « fashion darling», « happiness darling" and etc.

A musical instrument is like the human voice, and it too " sings", and the splashing of the waves resembles a quiet conversation. " Favorite», « darling"happens not only to people, but also to wayward ones" fashion"or the fickle one" happiness».

For example: “winter threat”, “the voice of the abyss”, “the joy of sadness”, “the day of despondency”, “the son of laziness”, “threads ... of fun”, “brother by muse, by fate”, “victim of slander”, “cathedrals wax faces ”, “language of joy”, “burden of sorrow”, “hope of young days”, “pages of malice and vice”, “sacred voice”, “by the will of passions”.

But there are metaphors formed differently. The criterion of difference here is the principle of animateness and inanimateness. An inanimate object does NOT receive the properties of an animate object.

1). Subject and predicate: “desire is boiling”, “eyes are burning”, “heart is empty”.

Desire in a person can manifest itself to a strong degree, seethe and “ boil" The eyes, showing excitement, shine and “ are burning" A heart and soul that are not warmed by feeling can become “ empty».

For example: “I learned grief early, I was overcome by persecution”, “our youth will not suddenly fade”, “noon... was burning”, “the moon is floating”, “conversations flow”, “stories spread out”, “love... faded”, “I am calling the shadow ", "life has fallen."

2). Phrases constructed according to the method of control can also, being metaphors, NOT be personification: “ dagger of treason», « tomb of glory», « chain of clouds" and etc.

Steel arms - " dagger" - kills a person, but " treason“is like a dagger and can also destroy and break life. " Tomb“This is a crypt, a grave, but not only people can be buried, but also glory, worldly love. " Chain"consists of metal links, but " clouds", intricately intertwined, forming a kind of chain in the sky.

For example: “flattery of a necklace”, “twilight of freedom”, “forest... of voices”, “clouds of arrows”, “noise of poetry”, “bell of brotherhood”, “incandescence of poetry”, “fire... of black eyes”, “salt of solemn grievances”, “ the science of parting", "flame of southern blood" .

Many metaphors of this kind are formed according to the principle of reification, when the defined word receives the properties of some substance or material: “crystal windows”, “gold hair” .

On a sunny day, the window seems to sparkle like " crystal", and the hair takes on color " gold" The hidden comparison inherent in the metaphor is especially noticeable here.

For example: “in the black velvet of the Soviet night, in the velvet of universal emptiness”, “poems... grape meat”, “crystal of high notes”, “poems like rattling pearls”.