It's called a capper for gunpowder from an artillery charge. Stamps and markings on German shells and mortar mines of the Second World War

For the first time, guns using gunpowder as a propellant appeared in the 14th century. From the walls of the fortresses, stone cannonballs were thrown from “shooting pipes” at the attackers. There was a lot of smoke, fire, and roar, but such shooting caused little damage to the attackers.

In Russia, in the Galishsh and Alexander Chronicles (1382), the use of weapons called “mattresses”, “pusk-chi”, “guns” in defense against the Tatar-Mongol hordes was described for the first time.

In 1480, during the reign of Ivan III, the “Cannon Yard” was built in Moscow, which was the first cannon factory in the world. One of the goals of its creation was to streamline the manufacture of guns, in which the parameters for strength requirements, caliber and design would be maintained. This will ensure

established the conditions for the rapid and targeted development of artillery, which was successfully used in the wars waged by Ivan III and Ivan IV.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Russian craftsmen created a new generation of guns that were loaded not from the muzzle, but from the breech. These were guns with wedge and screw-in bolts, which were the prototypes of the bolts used in modern artillery guns. In addition, the guns had a rifled barrel, which opened up the possibility of moving from cannonballs to more powerful cylindrical projectiles. However, these inventions significantly outstripped the technical production capabilities of that time, so their mass application was delayed for 150-200 years.

During the reign of Peter I, artillery underwent a serious organizational and technical transformation. Peter I divided all artillery into four types: siege, garrison (fortress), regimental and field. Organized the calibers and mass of charges and shells. The results were not long in coming. At the beginning of the 18th century. in the war with Sweden, whose army was considered invincible thanks to its artillery, Russian troops won brilliant victories near Narva and Poltava. During the capture of Narva, for example, artillery shelling was carried out continuously for 10 days. 12,358 cannonballs and 5,714 mortar bombs were fired at the fortress, 10 thousand pounds of gunpowder were consumed

The history of Russian artillery has many glorious pages. These are victories over the Prussian king Frederick II (mid-18th century), the capture of Izmail in the war with Turkey (1790), the defeat of French troops in the war of 1812, many naval battles (Battle of Chesme 1779, battles during the defense of Sevastopol in 1854, Crimean War 1853-1856, etc.).

The most intensive development of artillery occurred in the second half of the 19th century. Improvement of the technical base made it possible to completely switch to the production of rifled guns with breech loading. The first steps were taken to increase the rate of fire of guns, in particular, thanks to the creation of a high-speed piston bolt and a unitary artillery cartridge, in which the projectile and powder charge were connected into one whole using a cartridge case. But the most rapid, revolutionary development of artillery began after the invention of smokeless gunpowder (1886). Smokeless gunpowder was three times stronger than smoky gunpowder. This made it possible to increase the firing range and accuracy.

Smokeless powder also eliminated the enormous amount of smoke that, during mass shooting with black powder, created a smoke screen that did not allow targeted fire.

The development of artillery led to the creation of several types of guns, each with its own design features and purpose - these are cannons, howitzers, and mortars. Later, mortars and recoilless rifles appeared.

The guns (Fig. 10.1) were intended for firing over long distances (up to 30 km) at ground and air targets.

The caliber of guns is from 20 to 180 mm. Barrel length 40 - 70 calibers. The initial speed of the projectile is at least 600 m/s (for some tank guns it reaches 1600 m/s, for example, in the Leopard - 2 tank). The guns fire at low elevation angles (usually up to 20 degrees). The projectile's flight path is flat (sloping).

Howitzers are used to fire at hidden targets. They have a shorter barrel (10-30 calibers), fire at large elevation angles (mounted trajectory), howitzer calibers are 100 mm or more. The initial speed of a projectile is less than that of a cannon projectile. For example, the projectile speed of a 76 mm cannon is 680 m/s, and that of a 122 mm howitzer is no more than 515 m/s. The reduction in speed is achieved by reducing the ratio of the mass of the gunpowder charge to the mass of the projectile in comparison with the gun. The firing range is about 18 km.

In Fig. Figure 10.2 shows the appearance of the howitzer.

Currently, guns that combine the properties of a howitzer and a cannon (the possibility of flat and mounted firing) are becoming increasingly popular.

These are howitzers - guns. Their caliber is from 90 mm or more, the barrel length is 25-^0 calibers, the firing range is about 20 km.

Mortar-type weapons have been used since the 15th century. They had co-

short barrel (no more than 10 calibers), large caliber, fired powerful bombs with a large explosive charge and were intended to destroy particularly strong structures. The flight path had a large steepness (steep overhead trajectory). The initial flight speed of the projectile was about 300 m/s, and the flight range was relatively short. The ratio of the mass of the gunpowder charge to the mass of the projectile was even less than for a howitzer. The modern army does not have mortars. However, by the beginning of World War II, the reserves of the Red Army High Command included 280 mm caliber mortars with a firing range of 10 km (initial projectile speed 356 m/s).

To replace mortars in all armies of the world at the beginning of the 20th century. new type of guns arrived - mortars. These are smooth-bore guns for mounted firing, providing the ability to defeat the enemy located in trenches located adjacent to their positions (400 - 500 m). Today in service are mortars of calibers from 60 to 240 mm, with a mine weight from 1.3 to 130 kg and a firing range from several hundred meters to 10 km.

The initial flight speed of the mine with the smallest charge of gunpowder is only 120 m/s.

By design, the mortar is a steel pipe smooth inside, supported by a ball heel on a plate (Fig. 10.3).

Firing is carried out by lowering the mine with its tail into the barrel (large-caliber mortars are loaded from the breech). In the mine stabilizer tube

there is a tail cartridge with the main charge of gunpowder. In the bottom of the cartridge there is an igniter primer that bumps

on the firing pin when the mine reaches its lowest position, it explodes and initiates the combustion of the powder charge. The main charge of gunpowder is taken small. If necessary, an additional charge of gunpowder is placed on the stabilizer tube to increase the firing range. The mortar's rate of fire reaches 15-20 rounds per minute.

In the first quarter of the 20th century. A new type of artillery guns appeared - recoilless (dynamo-reactive) guns, designed to destroy manpower, destroy fortifications and, mainly, to fight tanks. The operating principle of a recoilless rifle is shown in Fig. 10.4.

The shell casing has holes covered with cardboard. When fired, the cardboard breaks through and through the opened holes, part of the gaseous combustion products enters the breech, in the rear of which there are nozzle holes. The resulting reaction force balances the recoil force. This eliminates the need to make complex anti-tank devices, which greatly simplifies the design of the gun. Recoilless rifles have a rifled barrel. For firing, unitary cartridges with fragmentation, high-explosive fragmentation, and cumulative grenades are used, which correspond in power to conventional projectiles. Considering that part of the energy of the powder gases is spent on recoil compensation, the initial speed

flight is about 300 m/s, the firing range is significantly less than conventional guns and shooting is most effective at visible targets. Depending on the caliber, recoilless rifles can be portable or placed on a vehicle.

Before moving on to consider the influence of various factors on an artillery shot, let us dwell on the very concept of “shot”. This term has two meanings. One of them implies the phenomenon of a shot from a firearm, and the second - the product, ammunition, with which the shot is fired.

The phenomenon of a shot is the process of ejecting a projectile due to the energy of powder gases. When fired, in a fraction of a second, powder gases having a temperature of 3000-3500 ° C develop a pressure of up to 300-400 MPa and push the projectile out. This useful type of work requires 25-30% of the energy of the powder charge.

An artillery shot as a weapon (ammunition) represents a complete set of all the elements necessary to fire one shot. It includes: a projectile, a projectile fuse, a propellant (combat) charge of gunpowder in a cartridge case or cap, a means of igniting the propellant charge (igniter capsule, ignition tube, etc.), auxiliary elements (phlegmatizer, decoupler, flame arrester, cardboard elements).

The main ballistic indicators of an artillery shot are: the maximum pressure in the gun barrel (p t) and the speed of the projectile at the barrel exit (U 0).

It was previously noted that smokeless powder burns in parallel layers on all sides of the powder element. The combination of this quality with the energy characteristics of the gunpowder, shape, grain size and sample size allows you to adjust the basic ballistic parameters of the shot and create charges with specified properties.

Gunpowder, depending on the energy indicator (heat of combustion pg), is divided into three groups:

High-calorie, having () 4200-5300 kJ/kg (1000-1260 kcal/kg). To increase the calorie content, explosives with a high heat of combustion (octogen, RDX, DINA) are introduced into their composition. High-calorie powders are used for mortar rounds;

Medium-calorie powders with () 3300-4200 kJ/kg (800-1000 kcal/kg) are used to make charges for low-power guns;

Low-calorie (“cold”) powders having<3 Г 2700-3300 кДж/кг (650-800 ккал/кг), используются для зарядов к ору­диям больших калибров. Применение «холодных» порохов для
powerful guns is caused by the desire to minimize the heat (erosion) of the internal surface of the barrel, which is directly dependent on the temperature and pressure of the shot.

The rate of gas release during the combustion of gunpowder is to a certain extent regulated by the shape of the powder elements. From the pirok-. siline powders, elements are made in the form of grains with one or seven channels, as well as in the form of tubes (Fig. 10.5 A). Tubes, plates, tapes and rings are prepared from ballistic powders (Fig. 10.5 b)

Channel grains have a progressive combustion character, since the burnout of gunpowder from the surface of the grain and channels leads to an increase in the combustion area. Tubular gunpowders are close to a constant gas release rate. Ribbons and rings (mortar powders) have a regressive combustion pattern.

Powders with a progressive gas release rate are used in long-barreled guns (cannons), since in order to impart high speed to the projectile over a significant length of the barrel, the pressure must be close to the maximum.

For guns with short barrel lengths, tubular powders are used. This is due to the fact that the maximum pressure in a short

bone guns should last a shorter period of time and its value may be lower than in cannons.

In mortars, the initial speed of the mine is low and, therefore, there is no need to create high pressure with a long period of its retention. Therefore, gunpowder with a regressive combustion pattern is quite suitable for mortar powder charges.

Depending on the chemical nature and form, artillery powders are marked as follows:

Grained pyroxylin powder is designated by shot,

the numerator of which shows the thickness of the burning arch in tenths of a millimeter, and the denominator is the number of channels. For example: 7/7 - vault thickness 0.7 mm, seven channels; 14/7 - vault thickness 1.4 mm, seven channels; 7/1 - vault thickness 0.7, one channel;

Tubular gunpowder is also designated by shot, but with the addition of the letters TP. For example: 10/1TP - arch thickness 1 mm, one channel, tubular;

Ballistic tubular powders do not have the letter index TP, since they are not manufactured in the form of grains, but they do have the letter index H, for example: 30/1Н denotes tubular nitroglycerin powder with a burning arch thickness of 1 mm and one channel;

Belt gunpowder has the letter index L and a number indicating the thickness of the burning arch in hundredths of a millimeter. For example: NBL-35 - nitroglycerin ballistic tape with a burning arch thickness of 0.35 mm;

Ring-shaped gunpowder has a letter index K and three digital indicators, two of which are written in the form of a fraction (numerator - internal, denominator - external diameter, mm) and the third, separated from the fraction by a line, indicates the thickness of the burning arch in hundredths of a millimeter, for example, NBK30/65-12;

Nitroglycerin ballistic ring powder with an internal diameter of 30 mm. external 65 mm and the thickness of the burning arch is 0.12 mm.

Depending on the gun system, caliber and task performed, different grades of gunpowder are used. All powder charges certainly have two main elements - a sample of gunpowder and an igniter. According to the mounting arrangement, charges are divided into constant and variable. Both can be full or reduced. Constant charges are used in unitary cartridges (Fig. 10.6), which represent factory-assembled artillery shots in the form of a projectile and a powder charge combined with a shell casing, and cannot be changed before firing. Typically, unitary cartridges are used for small and medium caliber guns.

In some cartridge-loading shots with a combat charge of grained powder, central ones are used to ensure simultaneous ignition of the gunpowder throughout the entire volume of the charge; perforated paper tubes filled with hollow cylinders of black powder (Fig. 10.6 b). When a flame extinguishing agent is introduced into the tube, it also acts as a flame arrester.

As the caliber increases, the unitary cartridge becomes inconvenient for loading due to its large mass and size. In this case, cased and caseless separate loading is used.

With separate case loading, a projectile is first sent into the gun barrel, and then - a cartridge case with a portion of gunpowder, which is located in caps (bags made of flammable fabric). In large-caliber guns (ship guns, coastal defense), in which caseless separate loading is carried out, a sample of gunpowder is placed in the chamber in caps without a case.

Separate charging options are shown in Fig. 10.7.

Moreover, the weight can be changed immediately before firing in accordance with the combat mission being solved. The design of mortar powder charges is shown in Fig. 10.8. The figure shows that the amount of gunpowder in a mortar shot has a main charge and an additional charge in the form of caps placed on the shank of the mine, the number of which varies depending on the given firing range.

Percussion, grating or electrical excitation primers are used as igniters in artillery and mortar rounds. Igniter capsules are usually mounted in an igniter sleeve, which has increased ignition ability due to black powder pressed into the sleeve.

For the purpose of quick and complete ignition, additional igniters are used in cap-loading charges, which are cakes of black powder pressed or poured into the cap.

In addition to the two main components (the sample and the igniter), additional elements can be included in the charge - reflux gasser, copper reducer and flame arrester. The first two are used to reduce the height of the trunk. A flash suppressor is used to extinguish muzzle and backfire. The muzzle flame represents hot luminous gaseous products, as well as the glow from the afterburning of products of incomplete oxidation.

The length of the muzzle flame, depending on the gun system, the properties of the gunpowder and meteorological conditions, can be from 0.5 to 50 m, and the width - from 0.2 to 20 m.

The flame from a 76-mm cannon at night can be seen from an airplane 200 km away.

Naturally, this significantly unmasks artillery combat positions, especially during night firing.

Backfire is the flame that occurs when the breech of a gun is opened. It is especially dangerous when fired from tank guns. The fight against muzzle and backfire is carried out by introducing muzzle and backfire flame arresters into the charge. The muzzle flash suppressor is usually a cap with powdered potassium sulfate, taken in an amount of 2-15% of the mass of gunpowder, located in the upper part of the charge.

Backfire flame arresters represent a sample (about 2% of the weight of the gunpowder charge) of flame-extinguishing powder (pyroxylin powder containing 45-50% of a flame-extinguishing substance, for example potassium sulfate) placed in a cap, located in the lower part of the charge.

The ballistic performance of a shot depends on a number of factors, the decisive ones being the design of the gun and the nature of the powder charge (weight, speed and volume of gas release during combustion, maximum pressure in the gun barrel, etc.).

In table 10.2 shows the firing characteristics of some gun systems. The table shows that when moving from cannons to howitzers, the firing range decreases. This is natural, since in a howitzer shot the mass of the powder charge in relation to the mass of the projectile is 2-A times less compared to the ratio in a cannon shot. The maximum firing range for the guns considered does not exceed 40 km.

The question arises: is it possible to create long-range artillery systems?

One of the reasons preventing a significant increase in firing range is air resistance to the flight of the projectile. Moreover, the degree of resistance increases with increasing projectile speed. For example, the estimated flight range of a 76-mm cannon projectile in airless space is 30-40 km, while in practice, due to air resistance, this distance is reduced by 10-15 km.

In 1911, the famous Russian artilleryman Trofimov proposed to the Main Artillery Directorate of the Tsarist Army to build a cannon that would have a firing range of 100 km or more. The main idea of ​​long-range was to launch a projectile to a high altitude, where the atmosphere is very rarefied, there is no resistance and the projectile travels a long distance without hindrance. However, this proposal did not receive support in the Main Artillery Directorate. And seven years later, the Germans fired at Paris from a cannon from a distance of more than 100 km. Moreover, the principle of ensuring long-range capability completely repeated Trofimov’s idea. The long-range gun was a weapon with a total mass of 750 tons, a projectile caliber of 232 mm, a barrel length of 34 m, and an initial projectile speed of 2000 m/s. The projectile was fired at a high angle (about 50°), pierced the dense layers of the atmosphere, rising approximately 40 km, and by this time had a speed of 1000 m/s. In a rarefied atmosphere, the projectile flew 100 km and descended along the descending branch of the trajectory, covering another 20 km of distance.

Thus, the total range was 120 km. However, firing from such a gun required disproportionate consumption of gunpowder. A projectile weighing 126 kg required a gunpowder charge of 215 kg, i.e. the ratio of gunpowder charge to projectile mass was close to two, whereas for conventional guns it is 0.2-0.4.

In addition, the gun barrel could withstand no more than 50-70 shots and after that the 34-meter barrel needed to be replaced.

All of the above casts doubt on the rationality of creating long-range artillery cannons.

The merciless “god of war” in armed conflicts of the first half of the twentieth century was artillery. Not an elegant, fast fighter plane or a formidable tank, but a simple and unpretentious-looking mortar and cannon destroyed fortifications, firing points and command posts in a tornado of deadly fire, quickly and mercilessly destroyed the enemy who had risen to attack (they accounted for half of all killed and wounded in World War II), paved the way for their tanks and motorized infantry.

((direct))

Among all the components of artillery equipment, ammunition should be considered the most important. Ultimately, it is the projectile (mine, bullet) that is the “payload” for the sake of delivering which to the target the entire huge complex, consisting of people, guns, artillery tractors, cars, communication lines, spotter aircraft, etc., works.

Astronomical figures

Low shooting accuracy was compensated for in that era by the huge consumption of ammunition (according to the standards, 60–80 shells were supposed to be used to suppress one machine gun point). As a result, even in terms of the simplest characteristic - total weight - artillery shells were significantly superior to the weapon with which they were brought down on the enemy’s head.

Thus, established by order of the People's Commissariat of Defense No. 0182 (by a strange irony of history, this order was signed on May 9, 1941), the ammunition load for the most popular 122-mm howitzer in the Red Army was 80 rounds. Taking into account the weight of the projectile, charge and closure (shell box), the total weight of one ammunition load (about 2.7 tons) was greater than the weight of the howitzer itself.

However, you can’t fight much with just ammunition. As a rule, for an offensive operation (which corresponds to 10–15–20 days in calendar terms), the planned consumption of ammunition was 4–5 rounds of ammunition*. Thus, the weight of the required ammunition was many times greater than the weight of the guns involved. Unfortunately, the Second World War was not limited to one or two operations, and ammunition consumption began to be measured in absolutely astronomical figures.

In 1941, the Wehrmacht spent about 580 kilotons of ammunition of all types on the Eastern Front, which is approximately 20 times the total weight of all artillery systems operating on the front (and even ten times the weight of all German tanks and self-propelled guns). And subsequently, both the production of ammunition in Germany and their consumption became even greater. The production of ammunition in the USSR for the entire period of the Great Patriotic War is estimated at a crushing figure of 10 million tons.

Collage by Andrey Sedykh

Here it is also necessary to remember that a ton is different from a ton. If the weight of a gun is the weight of relatively cheap ferrous metal (the carriage elements are made of simple low-alloy steel), then expensive brass, copper, bronze, and lead are spent on the production of an artillery round; the production of gunpowder and explosives requires a huge consumption of chemicals, which are scarce in war conditions, expensive and highly explosive. Ultimately, the cost of producing ammunition during the Second World War was comparable to the total cost of producing everything else (tanks, guns, airplanes, machine guns, tractors, armored personnel carriers and radars).

Oddly enough, it was precisely this most important information about the material preparation for the war and its progress that was traditionally kept silent in Soviet historiography. Those who want to verify this for themselves can open, for example, the 2nd volume of the fundamental 6-volume “History of the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union” (M., Voenizdat, 1961). To describe the events of the initial period of the war (from June 22, 1941 to November 1942), the team of authors needed 328 thousand words in this volume. And why isn’t there! The labor initiatives of home front workers and the uplifting plays of Soviet playwrights are listed; neither the vile machinations of the faithless allies (that is, the USA and Great Britain), nor the leading role of the party are forgotten... But the specific figure for ammunition consumption in the operations of the Red Army appears only once (“ during the defensive battle of Stalingrad, 9,898 thousand shells and mines were delivered to the troops of the Stalingrad and Don fronts"), and even then without the detail required within the framework of a scientific monograph. Not a word at all about the consumption of ammunition in the operations of 1941! More precisely, there are words and there are many of them, but without numbers. Usually the words are: “having used up the last shells, the troops were forced to...”, “an acute shortage of ammunition led to...”, “already on the third day the ammunition was almost completely exhausted...”

We will try, as far as possible within the framework of a newspaper article, to partially fill this omission.

To whom has history given little time?

Let us immediately note that Comrade Stalin loved and appreciated artillery, and fully understood the role and importance of ammunition: “Artillery decides the fate of the war, mass artillery... If you need to fire 400-500 thousand shells a day to smash the enemy’s rear, smash the enemy’s forward edge in order to he was not calm, so that he could not sleep, it was necessary not to spare shells and cartridges. More shells, more ammunition, fewer people will be lost. If you skimp on cartridges and shells, there will be more losses...”

These remarkable words were spoken at the April (1940) Meeting of the Red Army's senior command staff. Unfortunately, such a correct statement of tasks was not properly reflected in the real state of affairs with which the Soviet artillery approached the threshold of the Great War a year later.

As we can see, while surpassing Germany in the number of guns of all main types, the Soviet Union was inferior to its future enemy both in the total amount of accumulated ammunition reserves and in the specific number of shells per barrel. Moreover, it was precisely this indicator (the number of accumulated ammunition per unit of gun) that turned out to be the ONLY one by which the enemy had a significant quantitative superiority over the Red Army (of course, we are talking about the main components of material preparation for war, and not about some ungulate rasps) .

And this is all the more strange considering that Germany was in a particularly difficult situation in accumulating ammunition for a future war. Under the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty, the victorious countries set strict limits for it: 1000 artillery rounds for each of the 204 75 mm guns and 800 rounds for each of the 84 105 mm howitzers. And it's all. A meager (compared to the armies of the great powers) number of guns, 270 thousand (less than Comrade Stalin proposed to use in one day) medium-caliber artillery rounds and zero large-caliber rounds.

Only in the spring of 1935 did Hitler announce Germany's withdrawal from the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; There were just over four years left before the start of the World War. History gave Hitler little time, and nature gave him even fewer raw materials. As is known, the extraction and production of copper, lead, tin, saltpeter and cellulose in Germany is not very good. The Soviet Union was in an incomparably better position, but by June 1941, Germany had accumulated about 700 kilotons of “payload” (shells) of medium-caliber artillery (from 75 mm to 150 mm), and the Soviet Union - 430 kilotons. 1.6 times less.

The situation, as we see, is quite paradoxical. The following idea is generally accepted: Germany had enormous scientific and technical potential, but was limited in raw materials, while the “young Soviet republic” had just embarked on the path of industrialization and therefore could not compete on equal terms in the field of “high technology” with German industry. In fact, everything turned out to be exactly the opposite: the Soviet Union produced an incomparably larger number of more advanced tanks, surpassed Germany in the number of combat aircraft, guns and mortars, but at the same time, possessing huge reserves of non-ferrous metal ores and raw materials for the chemical industry, it lagged significantly behind in mass production and accumulation of ammunition.

How KV was “lowered” to the level of the German “four”

In the general situation with the supply of ammunition to the Red Army on the eve of the war, there was a failure that is completely difficult to explain with reasonable arguments. The troops had very few armor-piercing rounds for the 76 mm cannon. Specifically, this “very little” is expressed by the figure of 132 thousand armor-piercing 76-mm rounds available as of May 1, 1941. In terms of one divisional or tank 76-mm gun, this means 12.5 rounds per barrel. And this is on average. But in the Western Special Military District, which found itself in the direction of the main attack of two Wehrmacht tank groups, the corresponding figure was only 9 armor-piercing shells per barrel (the best situation - 34 AR shells per barrel - turned out to be in the Odessa district, that is, exactly where there were no not a single German tank division).

Ammunition for:	Germany		USSR
	Total (million pieces)	For one barrel (pcs.)	Total (million pieces)	For one barrel (pcs.)
81 mm (82-, 107 mm) mortars	12,7	1100	12,1	600
75 mm (76 mm) field guns	8,0	1900	16,4	1100
105 mm (122 mm) howitzers	25,8	3650	6,7	800
150 mm (152 mm) howitzers	7,1	1900	4,6	700
Total artillery shots	43,4	2750	29,9	950
Total artillery rounds and mines	56,1	2038	42,0	800

The shortage of armor-piercing 76-mm rounds has largely “nullified” two significant military-technical advantages of the Red Army: the presence in the rifle division’s armament of 16 “divisions” of F-22 or USV, capable of penetrating the frontal armor of any German tank in the summer of 1941, and long-barreled “three-inch” guns on new types of tanks (T-34 and KV). In the absence of armor-piercing shells, the latest Soviet tanks “sank” to the level of the German Pz-IV with a short-barreled 75-mm “cigarette butt”.

What was missing to organize mass production of 76-mm armor-piercing rounds? Time? Resources? Production capacity? The T-34 and KV tanks were adopted by the Red Army on December 19, 1939. The F-22 divisional 76-mm cannon was put into service even earlier - in 1936. At a minimum, from this moment on, we should be concerned with the production of ammunition that would allow us to fully realize the combat potential of these weapon systems. The production capacity of the Soviet economy made it possible by June 1941 to accumulate 16.4 million high-explosive fragmentation rounds for 76-mm regimental, divisional and mountain guns and another 4.9 million rounds for 76-mm anti-aircraft guns. Total - 21.3 million 76-mm artillery rounds. At the same time, it should also be taken into account that an armor-piercing shot is in no way superior to a high-explosive fragmentation shot in cost and resource intensity, and an anti-aircraft shot is much more complex and more expensive than an armor-piercing shot.

The most convincing answer to the question about the ability of Soviet industry to establish mass production of armor-piercing shells can be considered the presence of 12 million armor-piercing rounds for 45-mm cannons at the beginning of the war. And even this quantity was still considered insufficient, and in the ammunition production plan for 1941, a separate line was prescribed for the production of 2.3 million armor-piercing 45-mm rounds.

Only on May 14, 1941, the alarming situation with the shortage of 76-mm armor-piercing rounds was realized by the country's leadership. On this day, a resolution was adopted by the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the VKP(b), according to which at plant No. 73 alone it was planned to increase the production of 76-mm BR rounds to 47 thousand per month. The same decree ordered the production of ballistic missiles for the 85-mm anti-aircraft gun (at a rate of 15 thousand per month) and the heavy 107-mm hull gun. Of course, in the few weeks remaining before the start of the war, it was not possible to radically change the situation.

Everything is relative

“So that’s why German tanks crawled to Moscow and Tikhvin!” - the hasty reader will exclaim and will be deeply wrong. Everything is learned by comparison, and comparing the number of ballistic missile shells with the number of artillery barrels is only one of many evaluation criteria. After all, the projectile is not intended to grind down a gun barrel, but to hit the enemy. Armor-piercing shells are not fired “at areas”, “fire curtains” are not set up, barrage fire is not conducted, and they do not have to be spent in millions. Armor-piercing shells are used when firing a direct shot at a clearly visible target.

In the German invasion army, there were about 1,400 targets that would have been worth spending a three-inch armor-piercing projectile on (strictly speaking, even fewer, since among the Pz-IV medium tanks included in this figure there were a number of early series vehicles with 30 mm frontal armor ). Dividing the actually available shells by the number of tanks, we get an impressive figure: 95 pieces of 76-mm armor-piercing shells for one medium German tank or self-propelled gun with reinforced frontal armor.

Yes, of course, war is not solitaire, and in war you cannot ask the enemy to move medium tanks to the firing positions of 76-mm “divisions”, and other lightly armored little things - closer to anti-tank “forty-fives”. But even if circumstances force us to spend scarce 76-mm BR shells on any armored tracked vehicle that appears in the sights (and there were no more than four thousand of them in the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front, including machine-gun wedges and light self-propelled guns), then even then, purely arithmetically, in our There are 33 projectiles available for one target. If used skillfully, it is quite enough to guarantee defeat. “Very little” this will be only in comparison with the gigantic scale of production of armor-piercing 45-mm shells, of which by the beginning of the war three thousand pieces had been accumulated per German tank.

The above “arithmetic” is too simple and does not take into account many important circumstances, in particular the real distribution of the available ammunition resource between various theaters of operations (from Brest to Vladivostok) and central artillery supply depots. On the eve of the war, 44 percent of the total stock of artillery rounds was concentrated in the western border districts; the share of 45-mm artillery rounds (all types, not just ballistic missiles), concentrated in the western districts, amounted to 50 percent of the total resource. A significant portion of 45-mm rounds were not found in infantry (rifle) divisions, but in tank (mechanized) units and formations, where light tanks (T-26 and BT) and armored vehicles BA-6/BA-10 were armed with 45-mm guns . In total, in the five western border districts (Leningrad, Baltic, Western, Kiev and Odessa) there were almost 10 thousand “forty-five” guns under armor, which even exceeded the number of towed 45-mm anti-tank guns, of which there were “only” 6870 units in the western districts.

"Mud-clay"

On average, each of these 6,870 guns carried 373 armor-piercing 45 mm shells; In the districts themselves, this figure varied from 149 in Odessa to 606 in Western. Even counting at the very minimum (not taking into account the presence of their own tanks, not taking into account the troops and weapons of the Leningrad and Odessa districts), on the morning of June 22, 1941, German tanks were expected to meet 4997 anti-tank “forty-fives”, in the charging boxes of which 2.3 million armor-piercing rounds were stored . And another 2551 divisional 76-mm cannon with a very modest supply of 34 thousand BR rounds (an average of 12.5 per gun).

It would be appropriate to recall the presence in the three border districts of 2201 anti-aircraft guns of 76 mm and 85 mm caliber, and 373 hull 107 mm guns. Even in the complete absence of BR rounds, they could be used to fight tanks, since the energy of these powerful guns made it possible to accelerate a high-explosive fragmentation or shrapnel projectile to speeds sufficient to penetrate the armor of German light tanks at a kilometer range.** As well as It was to be expected that a particularly large number of artillery rounds for anti-aircraft guns had been accumulated (more than 1,100 per 76-mm anti-aircraft gun in the western districts).

Two weeks after the start of the war, on July 5, 1941, signed by Lieutenant General Nikolai Vatutin, who assumed the duties of Chief of Staff of the North-Western Front (on the eve of the war - Head of the Operations Directorate, Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Red Army), the “Instructions for combating tanks” were issued. enemy”, which instructed “to prepare mud and clay, which is thrown into the viewing slots of the tank.” And if Vatutin’s desperate order can still be classified as a tragic curiosity, then the infamous Molotov cocktails in July 1941 were quite officially adopted by the Red Army and were produced by dozens of factories in millions of quantities.

Where have other, incomparably more effective means of fighting tanks than “mud-clay” and bottles gone?

*For example, in the original (dated October 29, 1939) plan for the defeat of the Finnish army on the Karelian Isthmus, the following ammunition consumption was planned: 1 ammunition for combat in the border zone, 3 ammunition for breaking through a fortified area (Mannerheim Line) and 1 ammunition for the subsequent pursuit of a retreating enemy

**As practice has shown, the most effective was the use of shrapnel shells with the fuse set “on impact”; in this case, in the first microseconds of interaction between the projectile and the armor, the impact of the steel body of the projectile led to cracking of the cemented surface of the armor plate, then, after the fuse and expelling charge were triggered, the lead shrapnel pierced the armor. The use of HE shells to combat armored vehicles was possible in two versions. In one case, the fuse was set to “non-explosion” or simply replaced with a plug; penetration of the armor occurred due to the kinetic energy of the projectile. Another method involved shooting at the sides of the tank at high angles; the projectile “slipped” along the surface and exploded, while the energy of the shock wave and fragments was enough to penetrate the side armor, the thickness of which on any German tanks in the summer of 1941 did not exceed 20–30 mm

Stamps and markings on German shells and mortar mines of World War II

Stamps on the bottom of a German armor-piercing shell

Marks on German shells - these are various letters, numbers, signs - are stamped on the surface of the shell. They are divided into service and control marks.
The acceptors' marks are control marks and are the same on all parts of the projectile. Look like a stylized Nazi eagle and the inscription " WaA" (Waffen Amt) under the swastika. Next to the letters WaA there is a number - the military acceptance number.

Service marks carry information about the manufacture, various features of the projectiles, their purpose, and the type of charge.
Stamps are placed on the casing of German mines and shells, on the bodies of head fuses, on cartridges, on primer bushings, tracers, and detonators. Instead of stamps, detonators and tracers were often marked with paint.
On shells and mines, marks are placed on both the internal and external surfaces.
The main significance is the marking on the outer casing of German shells and the conical part of mortar mines made during the war. These marks consist of a combination of numbers separated by spaces, for example 92 8 10 41 or 15 22 5 43 . In the absence of markings on German shells, such digital marks provide information about the type of filling of the shell and the date the shell or mine was equipped. The brands given as an example mean:
92 or 15 - explosive type;
8 22 - equipment date;
10 or 5 - a month of equipment;
41 or 43 is the year of equipment.

Fuses and marks on them

The marks on them are placed on the body in one or two lines. They indicate the type of fuse, the company that manufactured it, the batch number of the fuse and the year of its manufacture.
Some fuses have additional marks informing about the type of projectile for which they are intended, the body material, the name of the installation and the deceleration time.
Eg " KL. AZ 23 Pr. bmq 12 1943" stands for:

KL. AZ 23 - fuse sample;
Pr. - body material (plastic);
bmq - manufacturer;
12 - batch;
1943 - year of manufacture.

Or brands" Bd. Z.f. 21 cm Gr. 18 Be. RhS 433 1940" denote:

Bd. Z. - bottom fuse;
f. 21 cm Gr. 18 Be. - type of projectile (21cm concrete-piercing projectile model 18);
RhS - company;
418 - batch number;
1942 - year of manufacture;
The most common marks are the following, indicating the installation or deceleration time of the fuse:
I - traveling position;
O or OV - without deceleration;
mV - setting for deceleration;
mV 0.15 or (0.15) - deceleration 0.15 sec;
k/V or K - setting to the lowest deceleration;
l/V or L - setting to the greatest deceleration;
1/V - setting to the first deceleration;
2/V - setting to the second deceleration.

On the cartridges, the stamps are applied on the bottom cut. They carry information about the sleeve index, the type of material from which it is made, the purpose of the sleeve, the manufacturer, batch and year of manufacture. For example, the marks " 6351 St. 21 cm Mrs. P 141 1941" means the following:

6351 - sleeve index;
St. - the material from which the sleeve is made, in this case steel;
21 cm Mrs. 18 - sample gun (21cm mortar sample 18);
141 - batch;
1941 - year of manufacture.

Most steel sleeves are laminated, which makes it difficult to determine the material from which the sleeve is made. All sleeves made of brass after the index do not have an abbreviation St., and all sleeves made of steel, regardless of the nature of the anti-corrosion coating, are marked with the abbreviation St.(Stahl)

Capsule bushings

German ammunition used primers and electric bushings. The external difference is that capsule ones have a blind bottom cut, while electric ones have a hole in the center of the bottom cut into which the contact rod is placed. The stamps on the bushings are placed on the bottom surface of their body. The stamps indicate the bushing index, what material it is made of, the company, batch number and year of manufacture. For example, the marks "C/22 St. BMW 133 42 " denote:

C/22 - bushing index;
St. - the material from which the bushing body is made, in this case steel;
bmq - company;
133 - batch;
42 - year of manufacture.

All steel bushings have the abbreviation " St."(Stahl).
On formatted steel capsule or tin-plated electric ones, white markings are often placed instead of stamps.
Stamps or white markings on the tracers were applied on the protruding part. They are often placed on the surface of key recesses. The stamps indicate the company, batch number and year of manufacture. For example, the brand " RDF 171 42" Means:

Rdf - company;
171 - batch;
43 - year of manufacture.

Stamps on the detonator

stamps on the bottom of the detonator

On detonators, stamps were placed on the bottom of the aluminum shell. Three-letter code of the manufacturer and designation of the explosive with which the detonator is equipped. For example, " Np. 10"(nitropenta 10%) means that the detonator is equipped with PETN, phlegmatized with 10% mountain wax (ozokerite).
In addition to the standard and general stamps and markings shown, on some parts of the projectiles, most often on the cylindrical part of the body, there are additional special stamps that have a special meaning

Painting of German shells and mines

Painting Painting of shells and mines has two purposes, protecting the shell of the projectile from corrosion and providing easily perceptible information about the type, purpose and effect of the ammunition. Fuses with a plastic body and an iron shell are painted to protect the glasses from corrosion, and are also painted to protect them from corrosion.

Coloring of German mines, shells and fuses:

Painted in dark green protective color:
A) all primary and special-purpose ground artillery shells, except all armor-piercing and propaganda shells and two types of 37-mm fragmentation-tracer grenades intended only for ground fire.

b) all mines with steel shell
V) fuses with a plastic body covered with a thin iron shell.

Painted black- all armor-piercing shells, all calibers, systems and devices.

Painted yellow- all fragmentation ammunition of anti-aircraft and aviation artillery, except for 37-mm fragmentation-tracer grenades intended for ground firing from anti-aircraft guns; such shells are painted in a dark green protective color.

Painted red:
A) all mines with a shell made of steel or ductile iron;
b) Propaganda shells, the head part of which is painted white.

Standard markings of German shells and special distinctive features

Standard markings include conventional combinations of letters and numbers found on the elements of a shot in order to determine all the necessary data on them or on the shot as a whole for their official operation.
Standard markings are available on shells and mines, on the cartridge cases of cartridge-loading shots and the caps of their combat charges, and on the caps of variable combat charge bundles. Often this marking is duplicated by labels attached to the cap of the variable charge and on the closure of the ammunition, regardless of their design.
The markings are applied in white, black or red paint.
On all shells, with the exception of armor-piercing shells of all calibers, painted black, and 20mm fragmentation and armor-piercing incendiary-tracer shells, markings are applied with black paint and only on the cylindrical part and head. Armor-piercing shells of all calibers have similar markings, but are red.
20mm fragmentation-incendiary-tracer and 20mm armor-piercing incendiary-tracer shells, like all shells of this caliber, are marked only on the cylindrical part, the former being red and the latter being white, which serves as an additional distinctive feature of incendiary shells of this caliber.
In addition to the standard black markings on the cylindrical part and head, shells of separate cartridge-loading shots have additional white markings on the bottom section.
The weight category, or ballistic mark, is placed in the form of a Roman numeral on the cylindrical part of the projectile on both sides and only on projectiles of 75mm caliber and above.

Meaning of ballistic signs:

I - Lighter than normal by 3-5%
II - Lighter than normal by 1-3%
III - Normal +- 1%
IV - Heavier than normal by 1-3%
V - Heavier than normal by 3-5%
There are no standard markings on armor-piercing tracer projectiles with a tungsten carbide core.
The standard markings on mines are painted black, and their meaning is completely similar to the meaning of the markings on shells.
The standard markings on cartridge-loading shot casings are applied with black paint on their body. The same markings are applied to the caps or semi-caps of the combat charge of these shots.
The standard markings on the caps of variable-combat charge bundles differ from the markings on the caps of the combat charge of cartridge-loading rounds only in that the former additionally have an indication of the bundle number.
Standard markings on closures with cartridge-loading rounds indicate only their number, caliber of shells and the purpose of the latter, and on closures with combat charges of separate cartridge-loading rounds only their purpose. See labels for more details.
Special distinguishing features are very diverse. they play an important role and are applied to various elements of shots in the form of colored stripes, letters or numbers to indicate the characteristics of the equipment, design or use of ammunition. The location of their application and conventional meanings are shown in the figure "Special distinctive features"

LABEL

Labels are attached to the closure with the elements of the shot or complete shots in order to obtain all the information about the ammunition without opening the closure, which is often sealed, and therefore opening it to inspect the ammunition without any special need for this subsequently requires additional work to put it in proper order.
Labels can be multi-colored or single-colored. Colored ones are used when capping cartridge-loading rounds for small-caliber systems (up to 30mm inclusive), and their different colors are related to the design features of the shells and, therefore, to the combat use of certain rounds. The conventional color meaning of such labels is given in the corresponding configuration tables.
On closures with elements of shots or complete shots of caliber 37mm and higher, single-color labels are used, the content of which varies. Below, as an example, are shown the most common labels and the meaning of the data given in them.

Labels on the closure with elements of shots of separate cartridge loading

a) With a projectile

1-caliber and projectile sample;
2 - fuse sample;
3 - there is no smoke-producing block in the bursting charge;
4 - symbol of explosive
5 - material of the leading belt
6 - ballistic sign
7 - place, day, month and year of the final equipment of the projectile and the sign of the person responsible for the equipment.

B) With combat charges

1 - abbreviated designation of the weapon to which the combat charges are intended;
2 - number of warheads;
3 - weight of gunpowder in each combat charge;
4 - brand of gunpowder;
5 - factory, year of manufacture of gunpowder and batch number;
6 - place, day, month and year of manufacture of the charge and sign; person responsible for production;
7 - symbol of the nature of gunpowder;
8 - sleeve index.

Etiquette on closure with cartridge loading shot

1 - Caliber and sample of the projectile and purpose of the shot
2 - fuse sample
3 - grade of gunpowder
4 - factory, year of manufacture of gunpowder and batch number
5 - place, day, month and year of shot assembly and sign of the person in charge
6 - sample of a smoke-generating bomb
7 - symbol of explosive
8 - material of the leading belt on the projectile
9 - ballistic sign
10 - symbol of the nature of gunpowder
11 - sleeve index

To quickly and accurately determine the purpose of ammunition, its calibers and other basic characteristics necessary for proper configuration and operation, branding, painting and marking of ammunition are used.

Data on the manufacture of the projectile body, cartridge case, fuse, and ignition means are applied in the form of marks, and information about the type and equipment of the projectile, the manufacture of gunpowder and combat charge are applied in the form of markings and distinctive coloring.

Branding

Stamps are signs (letters, numbers) extruded or stamped on the outer surface of projectiles, fuses or tubes, cartridges and ignition means.

Artillery shells have main and backup marks (Fig. 1).

The main marks include signs showing the plant number 3, batch number 4 and year of manufacture 5 , shell (bottom) of the projectile, metal smelting number 1, stamp of the technical control department of the plant 6, stamp of the military representative of the GRAU 8 and Brinell sample imprint 2.

Stamps are applied on the outer surface of the projectile by the manufacturer in accordance with the drawing. Their location can be different and depends on the caliber of the projectile, the metal and the design of its shell.

If the projectile has a screw head or screw bottom, then the factory number, batch and year of manufacture of these elements are also applied to them.

For armor-piercing tracer shells, the batch number, quality control department stamp and military representative's stamp are placed on the leading belt. This is explained by the fact that these marks are applied after heat treatment of the body. Duplicate marks are applied at factories that produce equipment for projectiles and serve in case of loss of markings. These include: code of the explosive (smoke-forming) substance 7 with which the projectile is equipped, and weight (ballistic) marks 9.

The meaning of marks on mines is the same as on artillery shells.

They are located on the tail section and on the mine stabilizer tube.

The contents and meaning of marks on warheads, missile parts and rocket candles do not differ from the generally established marks on shells of shells and mines.

The marks on fuses and tubes (Fig. 2) indicate:

· fuse brand 1 (established abbreviated name);

· manufacturer code 2 (number or initial letters);

· production batch number 3;

· year of manufacture 4.

In addition, on the rings of pyrotechnic remote fuses and tubes, the batch number of pressing the remote composition 5 is indicated.

On head fuses, stamps are applied on the side surface of the body. On bottom fuses that have a tracer - along the circumference of the body flange, and in the absence of a tracer - directly on the bottom section of the body. On remote fuses and tubes, similar marks are located on the outer surface of the housing plate so that they can be seen when the sealing cap is screwed on.

Stamps on cartridge cases (Fig. 3) and capsule bushings (Fig. 4) are placed only on the bottom.

Ammunition painting

The coloring of ammunition is divided into protective and distinctive.

Preservative painting serves to protect metal from corrosion. In peacetime, the outer surface of all shells and mines with a caliber of more than 37 mm is painted with gray paint or another paint specified by the technical specifications. The exceptions are practical shells, which are painted black, and propaganda shells and mines, which are painted red. Projectiles of calibers of 37 mm and less, as well as the centering bulges and leading bands of all projectiles, are not painted.

In addition, for projectiles intended for unitary loading shots, the junction of the projectile with the cartridge case is not painted. All unpainted elements of shells and mines are coated with colorless varnish.

In wartime, protective painting, as a rule, is not applied to shells and mines with a caliber of up to 203 mm. A lubricant is used as an anti-corrosion coating, which must be removed before firing at the firing position.

Distinctive coloring is applied to some shells, mines, casings, fuzes and primer bushings.

On shells and mines, distinctive coloring is usually applied in the form of colored ring stripes.

Distinctive stripes applied to the head of the projectile (mine) or under the upper centering thickening indicate the type of projectile and make it easier to recognize them by purpose.

The colors, location and meaning of distinctive markings on shells and mines are given in Table. 1.

Rice. 2. Stamps on fuses and tubes

To distinguish streamlined sub-caliber projectiles from other armor-piercing tracer projectiles, their 35 mm warhead is painted red.

Table 1

For fragmentation and smoke shells, the bodies of which are made of steel cast iron, a continuous black annular strip is applied above the lower centering thickening or leading belt. Thus, a steel cast iron smoke projectile will have two black stripes - one on the head and the other above the lower centering thickening. All other shells are easily recognized by their appearance and do not have a distinctive color.

On cartridge cases of unitary loading shots assembled with a reduced charge, a solid black ring stripe is applied above the marking. The same stripe applied to the cartridge case for a shot of separate cartridge loading indicates that the cartridge case contains a special charge intended for firing an armor-piercing tracer projectile.

A distinctive color is applied to fuses and tubes if there are several samples that are similar in appearance, but different in their effect on the target or purpose.

A distinctive color is applied to capsule bushings only after they have been restored. After the first restoration, one white stripe 5 mm wide is applied along the chord of the bottom cut of the capsule bushings, and after the secondary restoration, two white parallel stripes, each 5 mm wide, are applied.

Ammunition indexing

All artillery weapons, including ammunition, are divided into ten sections (types).

Department numbers have a two-digit number and begin with the number 5. If there is another number at the beginning of the department number, then this means that this item is not under the jurisdiction of the GRAU.

Shots, shells, mines, fuses, tubes and their capping are assigned to the 53rd department; charges, cartridges, ignition means, auxiliary elements of shots and their closure - to the 54th department; small arms ammunition and hand grenades - to the 57th department. Each item is assigned a short symbol - an index.

In ammunition, indices are assigned to artillery rounds, their elements and closures.

Indexes can be full or abbreviated.

The full index consists of two numbers in front, one - three letters in the middle, and three numbers to the right of the letters.

For example, 53-UOF-412. The first two digits indicate the weapons department to which the sample belongs, the letters indicate the sample type (in most cases, they are the initial letters of the sample name), the last three digits indicate the sample number.

If a shot or its element (projectile, charge) is adopted for firing from a specific weapon (mortar), then it is assigned the same number as the weapon. If the shot element is intended for firing from different guns of the same caliber, then a zero is placed instead of the last digit of the index. For example: 53-G-530.

The meanings of the letters included in the ammunition indices are given in table. 2.

Weapons department no.	Letter designations	Name of items
	U	Unitary cartridge
IN	Separately loaded shot
F	High Explosive Grenade
ABOUT	Frag grenade
OF	High explosive fragmentation grenade
OR	Fragmentation tracer projectile
OZR	Fragmentation-incendiary-tracer projectile
BR	Armor-piercing tracer projectile
BP	HEAT rotating projectile
BC	Cumulative non-rotating projectile
G	Concrete-piercing projectile
D	Smoke shell
	Incendiary projectile
WITH	Lighting projectile
A	Propaganda projectile
PBR	Practical armor-piercing tracer projectile

In the case when a new model of ammunition is adopted for service, similar in purpose and name to an existing model for a given weapon, but having features that affect ballistics or operational properties. one to three letters are placed at the end of the index.

For example, a 100-mm field gun mod. 1944 had an armor-piercing tracer pointed-head projectile index 53-BR-412. A 100-mm armor-piercing tracer projectile with a blunt point and a ballistic tip is being adopted. Unlike the first one, it is assigned the index 53-BR-412B. Later, the same gun was equipped with an armor-piercing tracer projectile with improved armor penetration (a projectile with armor-piercing and ballistic tips), which was assigned the index 53-BR-412D.

The abbreviated index differs from the full index in that it does not have a first two-digit number. For example, BR-412D; UOF-412U.

The markings on shots, shells, mines, cartridges and closures are marked with an abbreviated index, and the markings on caps and ammunition cases, as well as in technical documents, are marked with a full index.

Marking

Markings are inscriptions and symbols painted on ammunition and its closure.

Markings are applied to shells, mines, cartridges, caps and their sealing with special black paint. Practical equipment painted black is marked with white paint.

Marking of projectiles. Markings are applied to the head and cylindrical parts of the projectile (Fig. 5). On the head part there is information about the equipment of the projectile. These include: code of the explosive 6 with which the projectile is loaded, number of the loading plant 1, batch 2 and year of the equipment 3. On the cylindrical part there is an abbreviated name (index) 8, projectile caliber 4 and ballistic (weight) marks 5. For armor-piercing tracer projectiles except of the above data, under the code of the explosive, the mark of the bottom fuse 9 is applied, with which the projectile is brought into its final loaded form.

Codes are used to abbreviate explosive, smoke-producing and toxic substances.

The most common explosives used to fill projectiles have the following codes:

· TNT – t;

· TNT with a smoke-reinforcing block - TDU;

· TNT with dinitronaphthalene – TD-50, TD-58;

· TNT with hexogen – TG-50;

· TNT, hexogen, aluminum, golovax – TGAG-5;

· ammotol – A-40, A-50, A-60, A-80, A-90 (the figure shows the percentage of ammonium nitrate);

· ammotol with TNT stopper – AT-40, AT-50, etc.;

· phlegmatized hexogen – A-IX-1;

phlegmatized hexogen with aluminum powder – A-IX-2

On smoke shells, instead of the explosive code, the smoke-forming substance code 7 is placed.

The weight (ballistic) sign applied to the projectile shows the deviation of the weight of a given projectile from the table weight. If the projectile has a table weight or a deviation from it upward or downward of no more than 1/3%, then the letter H is written, which means the weight is normal. If the weight of the projectile deviates from the table by more than 1/3%, then this is reflected by the “plus” or “minus” signs. For each sign, a weight fluctuation is given within 2/3% of the table value (Table 3).

Table 3. Values ​​of weight marks marked on projectiles

Note. Shells with the LG and TZh marks are allowed only in wartime with special permission from the GRAU.

Marking on the sleeve. Markings are applied to the body of the cartridge case with the charge by the artillery base that assembled the unitary loading shot or the charge of the separate loading shot.

The markings indicate: abbreviated shot index 2, caliber and abbreviated name of the artillery system from which shot 3 is intended, grade of gunpowder 4, batch number 5 and year of manufacture of gunpowder 6, powder factory code 7, batch number 8, year of assembly 9 and number of the base (arsenal) 10, which collected the shot.

Instead of a shot index, a charge index is applied to the cartridge case for a shot of separate cartridge loading.

If the charge is assembled with a phlegmatizer, then the letter “F” is placed below the shot assembly data 11. In some cases, the markings on the cartridge case may be supplemented with the inscriptions 1: “Full variable”, “Reduced”, “Special”, etc.

Marking on the closure. Markings on the sealed box containing the shots indicate:

– on the front wall of the box – abbreviated designation of gun 1, for which the shots are intended to be fired, type of combat charge 2, type of projectile 3, weight sign 4, number of shots in the box 5, batch of shots assembled, year of assembly and number of the base that collected the shots 6 , brand of head fuses 7 screwed into shells, factory number, batch and year of manufacture of fuses 8, month, year and number of base 9, which carried out bringing the shots into their final loaded form; if the shots are stored in an incompletely loaded form, then the fuse marking is not applied to the front wall of the box;

– on the end wall of the box – shell index 10, loading plant number 11, batch 12 and year the shells were loaded 13, explosive code 14, if the box contains shots with armor-piercing tracer shells, then after the explosive code the brand of the bottom fuse with which the projectile was fired is indicated in a fully equipped state;

– on the lid of the box there is a danger sign and a load discharge 15.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

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Tutorial

TD-50, TD-58

A-40, A-50, A-90 (figure - % ammonium nitrate content)

Indexes of some projectiles

Table 2.

Mass deviation signs marked on the projectile

Table 3.

Mass deviation signs	Weight deviation from the table, %
	Easier by more than Easier from to Easier from to Easier from to Easier from to Lighter or heavier to Harder from to Harder from to Harder from to Harder from to Heavier by more than

The markings on the sleeves are applied with black paint on the side surface and indicate:

1. “Reduced” - name of the charge.

3. 122-D30 - caliber and gun index.

4. 4/1 2/0-0 - brand of gunpowder; batch number, year of manufacture of gunpowder and code of the gunpowder factory.

5. 1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly, you assembled the shot.

Gunpowder is assigned a symbol called a gunpowder grade. The brand of gunpowder is indicated by a fraction, the numerator of which shows the thickness of the burning arch of grain in tenths of a millimeter, and the denominator is the number of channels in the grain.

For example: 9/7 - thickness of the burning vault 0.9 mm, seven-channel.

After the numbers come the quality indicators of gunpowder:

1. SV - fresh.

2. Per - rework.

3. Fl - phlegmatized.

4. TR - tubular.

2.1. Approximate markings on shells

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Fig.2. Cumulative projectile BK6 (BK6M)

122 - projectile caliber;

H - sign of mass deviation;

Fig.3. BK13 cumulative projectile

00 - equipment factory code;

0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

H - sign of mass deviation;

A-IX-I - explosive code;

Fig.4. High-explosive fragmentation projectile OF-462

00 - equipment factory code;

0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

“+” - sign of mass deviation;

T - equipment code;

Notes: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the letter Zh, for example OF-462Zh.

2. The OF-24 high-explosive fragmentation projectile differs from the OF-462 projectile in the presence of an adapter sleeve and the type of explosive.

3. The OF-56 high-explosive fragmentation projectile differs from the OF-462 projectile in the design of the body (solid body) and the type of explosive (high-power).

Fig.5. Lighting projectile S-463

00 - equipment factory code;

0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

“+” - sign of mass deviation;

102-B - lighting composition code;

Notes: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the index S-463ZH.

Fig.6. C4 illumination projectile

00 - equipment factory code;

0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

“+” - sign of mass deviation;

P - code of the lighting composition;

Note: 1. Projectiles with an iron-ceramic leading belt have the index S4Zh.

Fig.7. Smoke shell D4

00 - equipment factory code;

0-00 - batch number and year of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

“+” - sign of mass deviation;

R-4 - smoke-forming substance code;

Fig.8. Propaganda projectile A1

0 - warehouse number;

0 - batch number;

0-0-0-00 - number of leaflets,

date of equipping the projectile;

122 - projectile caliber;

H - sign of mass deviation;

AGIT - equipment code;

Notes: 1. The projectile body is painted red.

2. The T-7 tube on the safety and ballistic caps has a black ring stripe.

2.2. Approximate markings on sleeves

Fig.9. Special charge

1 - sleeve;

2 - reinforced cover;

3 - cardboard cylinder;

4 - normal cover;

5 - package of gunpowder (9/7+12/1 TR);

6 - igniter;

7 - flame arrester (VTX-10);

8 - capsule sleeve;

9 - braid ring;

10 - lubricant PP-95/5;

9/7 and 12/1 TR - grades of gunpowder;

VTX-10 - brand of flame arrester;

arrow and number of the base that produced

shot assembly.

Fig. 10. Full charge

1 - sleeve;

2 - reinforced cover;

3 - normal cover;

4 - decoupler;

5 - package of gunpowder (12/7+12/1 TR);

6 - igniter;

7 - flame arrester (VTX-10);

8 - capsule sleeve;

9 - braid ring;

10 - lubricant PP-95/5;

122-D30 - gun caliber and index;

12/7 and 12/1 TR - grades of gunpowder;

2/0-0 - batch number, year of manufacture

gunpowder code and gunpowder factory code;

1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly

arrow and number of the base that produced

shot assembly.

Fig. 11. Reduced alternating charge

1 - sleeve;

2 - reinforced cover;

3 - normal cover;

4 - decoupler;

5 - equilibrium beams (9/7);

6 - nonequilibrium beam (9/7);

7 - main package (4/1);

8 - igniter;

9 - flame arrester (VTX-10);

10 - capsule sleeve;

11 - braid ring;

12 - lubricant PP-95/5;

122-D30 - gun caliber and index;

4/1 and 9/7 - grades of gunpowder;

2/0-0 - batch number, year of manufacture

gunpowder code and gunpowder factory code;

1-0-00 - batch number, year of assembly

arrow and number of the base that produced

shot assembly.

3. Capping ammunition

Capping boxes are designed for storing and transporting ammunition and shot elements.

Complete sets of shots are placed in sealing boxes for shots of separate cartridge loading. To ensure tight packing of shot elements, each box has a set of wooden inserts and fittings. The boxes are closed with a lid attached to the box frame with metal hinges and gramophone-type locks. The boxes are painted with protective paint, over which markings are applied about the combat purpose of the shot and the production data of its elements. All loose closures and inserts for them, as well as cartridge cases of combat charges, are subject to mandatory return for reuse.

Fuses are stored and transported in hermetically sealed galvanized iron boxes placed in wooden boxes.

3.1. Approximate markings on the closure

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Fig. 13. Marking on the side of the box

The markings on the side of the box indicate:

1. OF-462Zh - projectile index.

2. 0-0-0 - factory code, batch number and year of equipping the projectile.

3. T - explosive code.

The markings on the box lid indicate:

1. A triangle with a number inside is a danger sign and a load discharge.

4. Handling of ammunition during transportation

Transportation of ammunition can be carried out by rail, water, road, air, horse-drawn and pack transport.

Transportation of ammunition by road in the military is the main type of transportation.

Cars, trailers and other vehicles should be loaded with ammunition in such a way that they do not exceed the load capacity established for them.

Ammunition is transported only in standard and working order.

Boxes with ammunition may be placed in the body both across the vehicle and along it, in the direction of travel, taking into account more complete use of the vehicle's carrying capacity.

Boxes with ammunition in all cases are placed with the lids up and carefully secured to protect them from shocks, shifts, impacts and falls.

It is prohibited to place ammunition boxes higher than the sides, more than half the height of the top row box.

For the transportation of ammunition, technically sound vehicles (with working silencers) are allocated, which are provided with fire extinguishers and a felt mat.

Vehicles with ammunition are equipped with red flags on the left side to indicate the danger of the cargo.

Car drivers must be thoroughly briefed on the rules for transporting ammunition before leaving for a trip.

When transporting ammunition by road, it is prohibited:

1. Exceed the set speed.

2. Refuel loaded cars or transfer gasoline from the tanks of one car to the tanks of another.

3. Warm up the car engine with an open flame.

4. Transport ammunition together with flammable liquids.

5. Drive vehicles into areas, under sheds, and into ammunition storage areas.

6. Stop vehicles with ammunition in populated areas.

7. Stop for rest and rest closer than 50 m from the road.

8. Smoking on vehicles loaded with ammunition or within 25 m of them.

9. Lighting an open fire within 100 m of vehicles with ammunition.

10. Transport ammunition in vehicles that are not equipped with fire extinguishing equipment.

5. Handling ammunition at the OP

Ammunition is supplied to the firing position in a fully loaded form (except for rocket artillery shells), high-precision rounds - only in capped form. The senior battery officer receives ammunition, organizes its unloading by gun crews and fills out a table of the availability and consumption of ammunition.

Ammunition is unloaded in compliance with safety requirements.

Prohibited:

1. throw boxes of ammunition;

2. drag, turn;

3. place them on the side wall;

4. carry on your back and shoulders.

Each box of ammunition is unloaded and transported to the stowage site with the lid up and at least two gun numbers.

At the firing position, ammunition is stored in dry niches of gun trenches and cellars, laid on pads. Niches and cellars must be equipped so that the ammunition contained in them is protected from the shock wave of a nuclear explosion, from bullets and shrapnel, and covered with local materials from rain, snow, sand, dust and sunlight.

The consumable stock of ammunition in a closed firing position is laid out and stored in the niches of the gun trench in the amount of 0.25 - 0.5 bq (for high-power guns - in the amount of 0.15 - 0.3 bq).

Charges for high-power guns are stored in hermetically sealed containers.

At an open firing position, the designated amount of ammunition is laid out in niches and on the platforms of gun trenches.

If there is time, the cellars are connected to the gun trenches by communication passages.

Spent ammunition is replenished from the cellars.

In niches and on the platforms of gun trenches, ammunition is stored in stacks, capped with the lids up, with open locks, freed from the upper fittings and spacer bars, or laid out from the cap. In the latter case, the ammunition is placed on poles (linings) or on a bedding made of local materials and covered on top with a tarpaulin or other materials that protect them from rain, dust and sunlight.

In cellars, ammunition is stored in sealed containers with closed locks. The maximum height of the ammunition stack should be 0.5 m less than the depth of the cellar or niche of the gun trench.

Store ammunition in crew shelters prohibited .

The senior battery officer is responsible for the correct and safe placement and storage of ammunition at the firing position and compliance with all safety requirements when firing.

When handling ammunition at a firing position, it is prohibited:

1. Disassemble ammunition.

2. Place shells, mines, charges in cartridge cases and unitary shots vertically.

3. Impact fuses and ignition means, as well as striking ammunition against each other.

4. Carry by hand more than one uncapped shot or projectile (mine) of 82 mm caliber or more.

5. Carry uncapped, fully loaded shells (mines) of 152 mm caliber or more without supporting devices.

6. Carry ammunition in a faulty closure.

The following shots are not allowed to fire:

1. Having elements prohibited for combat use.

2. Not listed in the Firing Table for this gun.

3. Without markings and with erased markings.

The following shells (mines) are not allowed to fire:

1. With a fuse delivered to the firing position without mounting or safety caps (caps).

2. With the fuse head bushing unscrewed (at least partially).

3. With unscrewed fuses and tubes.

4. With fuses (having a traveling mount), delivered to the firing position with the installation of combat action.

5. With fuses affected by solid rust on the outer surface of the body.

6. With traces of impacts and soot on the body and fuse.

7. With screwed fuses, dropped from a height of 1 m, as well as shells dropped from any height onto the bow.

8. Finally equipped, exposed to an explosion, fire, bombing or artillery shelling.

9. With cracks on the body, with cavities on the centering thickenings.

10. Having an explosive leak through the threaded connections in the projectile.

11. With wobbly stabilizers, as well as with bent or broken stabilizer feathers, with bent ballistic tips (for armor-piercing projectiles).

The following ammunition is not allowed to fire:

1. With cartridges that have bruises that prevent loading, as well as those with cracks on the bottom or on the body (cases with cracks on the muzzle that do not violate the tightness of the combat charge are allowed).

2. In cartridge cases and unitary cartridges with unscrewed primer bushings.

3. With drop-out reinforced lids and showing signs of dampness of gunpowder and caps.

4. Soaked and also with torn caps.

5. Unitary cartridges with a skewed projectile that prevents loading, as well as with a rotating projectile in the case.

The specified ammunition, except for shells and cartridges with unscrewed fuses and primer bushings, is set aside for shipment to an artillery weapons depot.

When preparing ammunition you must:

1. Remove grease from projectiles and cartridge cases.

2. Remove rust from projectile bodies.

3. Tighten the head fuses or tubes, as well as the primer bushings, if they are partially unscrewed (tighten the primer bushing only with a standard key from the spare parts).

4. Remove nicks on the leading flanges of the projectiles and on the flanges of the cartridge cases.

Prepare specific samples of ammunition in accordance with the technical description and operating instructions.

First remove the grease from the projectiles with scrapers, and then with a rag or tow, slightly moistened with white spirit (gasoline, solvent).

When preparing mines, pay special attention to removing grease from stabilizers and fire transfer holes.

When removing grease from shells and cleaning them from rust, do not violate the markings on shells, mines and cartridges.

For cleaning, ammunition is removed from the cap and placed on poles, pads or an empty cap one box high.

To eliminate minor malfunctions (tightening fuses, removing nicks), as well as to replace primer bushings (ignition charges), a place is allocated at the firing position (no closer than 50 m from gun or mortar trenches and ammunition magazines) in a specially prepared trench or behind natural cover .

Handling ammunition during firing.

1. When loading shells, do not drop them or hit the head part on the barrel breech or carriage.

2. It is allowed to unscrew the safety caps from the tubes and fuses, the installation caps from the impact fuses, install the fuses, open the hermetic sealing of the warheads and assemble the charges immediately before firing.

3. If, when removing the installation or safety caps, damage to the membrane is discovered, then shells with such fuses are not allowed to be fired.

4. It is prohibited to make any combinations of packages and additional bundles of gunpowder that are not provided for in the Shooting Tables. After making up an alternating charge, be sure to put the normal cap into the sleeve and add it until the charge beams are pressed.

5. It is prohibited to fire with a reinforced cover, except for the charges provided for in the Artillery System Firing Tables.

7. Ignition charges for mines must be sent into the stabilizer tube until the cartridge case stops at the cut of the stabilizer tube. The packaging of additional mortar round bundles must be in good working order.

8. Faulty shells are stored and sent to the warehouse on the instructions of the head of the missile and artillery weapons service.

9. Unused additional bundles of charges must be placed in a serviceable iron or wooden box at a distance of 10 - 20 m from the gun.

Handling ammunition after shooting.

1. It is prohibited to transport loaded guns (except for combat vehicles),

2. Separately loaded guns that remain loaded after firing are unloaded only by firing. Other guns, as well as mortars, are allowed to be unloaded by removing the shot from the barrel while observing safety precautions.

3. At the end of firing, fuses and tubes of shells prepared for loading must be installed at the factory settings, and the removed caps must be put on. To ensure tightness, the threads of the safety caps must be lubricated before screwing on.

4. The removed additional bundles and reinforced covers of the prepared charges are placed in the sleeve, and the joints between the reinforced cover and the walls of the sleeve are covered with the lubricant remaining on the cover.

5. Shots for which the safety caps (caps) have been removed from the tubes and fuses or the caps of the charges have been opened must be expended first the next time the fire is opened.

6. The remaining bundles of gunpowder, spent cartridges, safety caps and empty caps with a full set of fittings after completing the charges are handed over to the missile and artillery weapons service.

7. For spent brass cartridges, after finishing firing, it is necessary to clean the inner surface of powder deposits using local materials (sand, water, rags, etc.), and then wipe dry. The shells, cleaned of carbon deposits, are lubricated over the entire surface inside and outside with a thin layer of lubricant, placed in empty boxes and secured with liners.

8. After finishing firing, steel cartridges are not washed with water, but after wiping with a rag, they are lubricated with any lubricant.

6. Bringing ammunition to its final loaded state

Incompletely loaded artillery rounds are brought into their final loaded form by screwing the fuses into the shells before they are released for firing.

Bringing the shots (shells) to their final loaded form with cored fuses is carried out in a dugout, cabin or ditch with a depth of at least 1.5 m and a base area of ​​1.5 x 1.5 m.

When screwing in and punching fuses, there should be no more than one projectile in the cabin, dugout or ditch.

Before screwing in the fuse, the blank plug is unscrewed from the shell point, while the clamping screw (where available) is loosened. Then the thread of the goggle is wiped with a dry cloth to remove excess lubricant.

Pay special attention to removing grease, dust and sand from the explosive cut.

After removing the lubricant, the fuse intended for it is screwed into the shell end, and the threaded threads of the fuse are pre-lubricated with projectile lubricant or gun lubricant. When screwing in the fuse, do not allow lubricant to come into contact with the explosive cut.

The fuse is screwed in with a special key until the fuse is pressed tightly against the head end of the projectile. In this case, hitting the key is not allowed.

The screwed fuse in the shell of the projectile is secured with a clamping screw included in the projectile. In steel shells that do not have clamping screws, the fuses are secured by punching into the joint at four opposite points equidistant around the circumference of the joint. Punching should be done only by pressure using hand-held PKV-U devices or mechanical machines.

In steel cast iron shells, the fuses are not cored, but are screwed into varnish No. 67.

Fuses intended for loading projectiles are preliminarily inspected. Fuzes without installed marks, with cracks and dents on the body (mechanical damage), with clogged threads, dented safety caps and damaged membranes are not allowed for equipment.

7. Installation of fuses and tubes

Installation of fuses and tubes is carried out using service keys from the gun spare parts kit immediately before firing after a command received from the battery command post or the senior artillery commander (chief) by the crew number - the installer.

Table of fuses settings for 122 mm G D-30

Table 4.

Brand of explosion body (tube)	Required projectile action		Shooting setup	Field (factory) installation
Cap
	Cumulative				The cap is on
	Cumulative
	Cumulative				The cap is on
	Cumulative
	Shrapnel High explosive Ricochet or high-explosive with deceleration. Smoke (when firing a D4 projectile).	“Adult Osk.” “Adult Fugue.” “Adult Deputy.” “Adult Osk.”			The cap is screwed on, the tap is on “O”.
	Air gap.	“Fuse 00” (number of divisions).		Ring on “UD”.
	Illumination when firing the S-463Zh (S-463) projectile. Propaganda when firing an A1 projectile (A1D, A1ZhD).	“Tube 00” (number of divisions).	The safety cap has been removed. Ring for the commanded number of divisions.	Ring for 165 parts. The safety cap is screwed on.
	Illumination when firing a S4Zh (S4) projectile.	“Tube 00” (number of divisions).	The safety cap has been removed. The ballistic cap is rotated by the commanded number of divisions.	The installation groove and the protrusion are aligned. The safety cap is screwed on.
	Air gap.	“Around with RV. Explosive number of divisions), low (high)”. “Around with RV. Fuze 80".	Accordingly communication with the team.	On “H” or	Switch “N”, distance ring on “UD”, safety nitial number The pack is on.
	Air gap.	“Around with RV. Explosion number of divisions), low (high)". “Around with RV. Fuse on impact.”	Accordingly communication with the team.	On “H” or	Switch to “H”, spacer ring to “8”, safety cap on.
	Air gap.	“Sh1 shell. Tube 00 (number of divisions)”. “Sh1 shell. Kar-flow.”	Accordingly communication with the team.		The distance ring is on “P”, the safety cap is on.

8. Composition of charges

The composition of combat charges is carried out immediately before firing after a command received from the battery command post or the senior artillery commander (chief) with the crew number - charging.

Table of charges for 122 mm G D-30

Table 5.

Charge name	Charge composition	Compilation
Special	One package	Remove the reinforced cover.
Full	One package	Remove the reinforced cover (when firing cumulative projectiles).
Decreased	Basic package + uneven But spring beam + three upper equilibrium beams.
First	Basic package + uneven But spring beam + two equilibrium beams.	Remove the top equilibrium bundle.
Second	Basic package + uneven But spring beam + equilibrium beam.	Remove the top two equilibrium bundles.
Third	Basic package + uneven But spring bun.	Take out three equilibrium bundles.
Fourth	Basic package.	Take out three equilibrium beams and one nonequilibrium one.

9. Measurement of charge temperature.

The charge temperature is measured with a battery thermometer in one of the central drawers of the stack every 1-2 hours.

To ensure the same temperature of the charges, boxes with shots or cartridges with charges laid out from boxes should be securely covered during the day to protect them from heating by the sun, and from cooling at night.

Charge covers for all guns must be of the same type.

To measure the temperature of the charges, remove the reinforced and normal caps from the cartridge case of one of the charges and insert a thermometer into the cartridge case between the gunpowder bundles, after which the lids are inserted into the cartridge case. The sleeve with the thermometer is placed in the middle between the other sleeves. Thermometers are placed in the charges, if possible, no later than an hour and a half before firing. The thermometer reading is taken no earlier than 10 minutes after placing the sleeve with the thermometer in the stack.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST

1. Ground artillery ammunition. Textbook. Part 1. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1970. - 120-124, 145-150, 168-229 p.

2. Firing tables for flat and mountain conditions of the 122 mm D-30 howitzer. TS RG No. 000. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1993. - 6-8, 246, 267-271, 274-285 p.

3. Addition No. 2 to TS RG No. 000. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1992. - 7, 106-109, 111 p.

4. Guide to the combat work of artillery fire units. - M.: Military Publishing House, 2002. - 124-132 p.

1. PAINTING OF AMMUNITION………………………………………………………......3

2. MARKING OF AMMUNITION……………………………………………………3

2.1. Approximate markings on shells……………………………..6

2.2. Approximate markings on cartridges……………………………..14

3. CAPING AMMUNITION………………………………………………………17

3.1. Approximate markings on the closure……………………………17

4. HANDLING AMMUNITION DURING TRANSPORTATION……18

5. HANDLING AMMUNITION AT THE OP……………………………19

6. BRINGING AMMUNITION TO FINALLY LOADED FORM………………………………………………………………………………………..24

7. INSTALLATION OF FUSES, PIPES…………………………….25

8. COMPOSITION OF CHARGES……………………………………………27

9. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE OF CHARGES……………………………...27

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST…………………………………………………………….28

Educational edition

Valery Dmitrievich Parfenov,

lieutenant colonel, senior lecturer of the shooting and fire control cycle

ARTILLERY WEAPONS

MARKING, PAINTING AND CAPING OF AMMUNITION. HANDLING AMMUNITION AT THE FIRE POSITION AND DURING TRANSPORTATION. INSTALLATION OF FUSES, PIPES. COMPOSITION OF CHARGES. CHARGE TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT. BRINGING AMMUNITION TO FINALLY LOADED FORM.