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The concept of paradigm in the development of science. T. Kuhn's teaching on the scientific revolution (T. Kuhn “The Structure of the Scientific Revolution”)

Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and political teaching associated with the name of Confucius (551-479 BC). In China this teaching is known as the “School of Scholars”; Thus, tradition has never elevated this ethical and political teaching to the activity of a single thinker.

Confucianism arose as an ethical, socio-political doctrine in the Chunqiu Period (722 BC to 481 BC) - a time of deep social and political upheaval in China. During the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official state ideology and retained this status until the beginning of the 20th century, when the doctrine was replaced by the “three principles of the people” of the Republic of China. Already after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, during the era of Mao Zedong, Confucianism was condemned as a teaching that stood in the way of progress. It was only in the late 1970s that the cult of Confucius began to revive, and Confucianism now plays an important role in the spiritual life of China.

The central problems that Confucianism considers are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should have, etc.

Formally, Confucianism was never a religion, because it never had the institution of a church. But in terms of its significance, the degree of penetration into the soul and education of the consciousness of the people, the impact on the formation of behavioral stereotypes, it successfully fulfilled the role of religion.

Confucius

Confucius was born in 551 BC. His father was the great warrior of his time, famous for his exploits Shu Lianhe. Shu Lianhe was no longer young at the time Confucius appeared.

By that time he already had nine daughters, which made him very unhappy. He needed a worthy successor to the ancient aristocratic family. The eldest son Shu Lianhe was very weak from birth and the warrior did not dare to make him his heir. Therefore, Confucius had to become the heir. When the boy was two years and three months old (the Chinese count the age of a child from the moment of conception), Shu Lianhe died. Shu Lianhe's two previous wives, who hated the heir's young mother, did not restrain their hatred of her, and, having snatched her son from the atmosphere of squabbles and scandals, the woman returned to her hometown.

However, her parents did not agree to accept her into the house, which she disgraced by marrying before her two older sisters, and even to a much older man. Therefore, the mother and little Confucius settled separately from everyone else. They lived a very secluded life, but the boy grew up cheerful and sociable and played a lot with his peers. Despite poverty, his mother raised him to be a worthy successor to his famous father. Confucius knew the history of his family, dating back centuries. When Confucius was seventeen years old, his mother, who at that time was barely thirty-eight years old, died.

With great difficulty, Confucius found his father's grave and, in accordance with religious rites, buried his mother nearby.

Having fulfilled his filial duty, the young man returns home and lives alone. Due to poverty, he was forced to do even women's work, which his deceased mother had previously done. At the same time, Confucius remembered his belonging to the upper strata of society. Carrying out the duties of the father of the family, Confucius enters the service of the wealthy aristocrat Ji, first as a warehouse manager, then as a household servant and teacher. Here Confucius first became convinced of the need for education.

Confucius served until he attained maturity, the feeling of which came to him at the age of thirty. He would later say: “At fifteen I turned my thoughts to study. At thirty I became independent. At forty I was freed from doubt. At sixty I learned to distinguish right from wrong. At seventy I began to follow the desires of my heart and did not violate the ritual."

By the age of thirty, his basic ethical and philosophical concepts had developed, mainly relating to the management of the state and society. Having more clearly formulated these concepts, Confucius opens a private school, the first students appear, some of them accompanied their Teacher throughout their lives. Wanting to use his teachings in practical activities, Confucius joins the king expelled by the highest aristocracy and flees to a neighboring kingdom. There he meets the adviser to the powerful king Jing Gong, Yan Ying, and, talking with him, makes a very good impression. Taking advantage of this, Confucius seeks a meeting with the king himself, and, talking with him, shocks Jing Gong with the depth and breadth of his knowledge, the courage and unusualness of his judgments, the interestingness of his views, and expresses his recommendations for governing the state.

Returning to his native kingdom, Confucius becomes a famous person. For personal reasons, he refuses several opportunities to become an official. However, he soon agrees to the invitation of King Ding-gun and, moving up the career ladder, takes the post of Sychkou (chief adviser to the king himself). In this position, Confucius became famous for his many wise decisions. Soon, the king's entourage, concerned about his increasing influence, forces him to “voluntarily” leave his post. After this, it was time for Confucius to travel.

For fourteen long years, surrounded by students, he traveled around China, becoming even more famous. However, his desire to return to his homeland intensifies, and soon, with the assistance of one of his former students, Confucius returns home with great honors as a very respected person. Kings resort to his help, many of whom call him into their service. But Confucius stops searching for an “ideal” state and pays more and more attention to his students. Soon he opens a private school. In order to make it more accessible, the Teacher sets a minimum tuition fee. After teaching at his school for several years, Confucius dies in his seventy-fourth year. This happened in 478 BC.

Filial piety xiao

Filial piety (xiao 孝) is one of the central concepts in Confucian ethics and philosophy. Originally meant respect for parents; then spread to all ancestors. And since the ruler in Confucianism was given the place of “parent of the entire people,” the virtue of xiao affected the entire socio-political sphere. Violating xiao principles was considered a serious crime.

5 Types of Xiao:

▪ Manager and subordinate

▪ Father and son

▪ Husband and wife

▪ Older and younger brothers

▪ 2 friends

In most relationships, with the exception of friendships, preference is given to elders. Particularly important is the child’s attitude towards his parents, including the deceased.

The theory of xiao was enshrined textually in the treatise Xiao jing (Canon of Filial Piety), attributed to Confucius. It recounts a conversation between a teacher and his favorite student, Tseng Tzu. Because this text was distinguished by its intelligibility and comparative simplicity (a total of 388 different characters), it was used as a textbook for reading in primary education since the Han Dynasty.

Ideas of filial piety still govern many areas of Chinese society.

Relationships

Harmonious relationships are a very important element of Confucianism. From relationships arise various responsibilities: for children and parents, managers and subordinates, teachers and students. If the younger ones must be loyal to the elders, then the elders must show benevolence, etc. Such relationships still permeate East Asian nations.

The goal of Confucian teaching is social harmony achieved through the efforts of every member of society.

Noble husband

Jun Tzu, a noble man, a perfect man, a man of the highest moral qualities, a wise and absolutely virtuous man who makes no mistakes.

The concept of a “noble husband” has two interconnected meanings for Confucius - belonging by birthright to the highest strata of society, to the nobility and an example of human perfection. Belonging to the nobility in itself does not guarantee perfection, although it presupposes it, because it gives a person the opportunity for self-development. To achieve perfection, a lot of spiritual work on oneself is necessary, which is difficult to expect from poor commoners who are not capable of assimilating wisdom. It turns out that human perfection is, in principle, accessible to everyone, but it is the responsibility of the upper strata of society, on which the life of the state depends.

A noble husband knows the value of knowledge and studies all his life, for the most important vice is not to love to learn.

The opposite of a noble husband is xiao ren (literally “little people”), who are unable to comprehend ren.

Correcting names

Confucianism attached great importance to the teaching of zheng ming (about the “correction of names”), which called for putting everyone in society in their place, strictly and accurately defining the duties of everyone, which was expressed in the words of Confucius: “The sovereign must be the sovereign, the subject must be the subject, the father must be father, son - son." Confucianism called on sovereigns to rule the people not on the basis of laws and punishments, but with the help of virtue, an example of highly moral behavior, on the basis of customary law, and not burden the people with heavy taxes and duties.

One of the most prominent followers of Confucius - Mencius (4-3 centuries BC) - in his statements even admitted the idea that the people have the right to overthrow a cruel ruler by uprising. This idea was ultimately determined by the complexity of socio-political conditions, the presence of strong remnants of primitive communal relations, acute class struggle and strife between the kingdoms then existing in China.

Government

Who rules according to virtue,
Like the northern star:
Stands in its place
In the circle of other constellations.

The elevation of the ruler in the state was carried out through the signs of Heaven (the cult of which was then emerging in China) and was carried out by officials and from officials (if they were Tsing Tzu). “A noble man (ruler) fears three things, the command of Heaven, great people and the perfectly wise.” Thus, the ruler was constantly under the threat of the “perfectly wise”, who, at their own discretion, could make an outcast out of the ruler. But on the other hand, the ruler was endowed with zhen (philanthropy) according to Confucius.

The bureaucracy, being the bearer of Li in the state, received its faithful patron in Confucianism, and gave it the right to legally overthrow a ruler that did not suit them (the bureaucracy often used this), through a favorable interpretation of rules or natural phenomena.

One of the real embodiments of the ideals of Confucianism was the system of state examinations, designed to put true human virtues in the service of society. For the first time in the history of mankind, the task of attracting the most worthy citizens to the service, who combined high spirituality, wisdom, experience and social activity, was set and generally solved at the state level.

The methods of selecting and training officials were adopted from China and countries that have experienced the powerful influence of its unique culture. Over the centuries, they have formed their personnel “corps”, in accordance with the Chinese experience.

Confucianism and Legalism.

1. Confucianism- the oldest philosophical school that considers person first of all as a participant in social life. The founder of Confucianism is Confucius(Kung Fu Tzu), lived in 551 - 479. BC e., the main source of teaching is the work Lun Yu("Conversations and Judgments").

The main issues addressed by Confucianism:

How should people be managed? How to behave in society?

Representatives of this philosophical school advocate soft management of society. As an example of such management, the power of the father over his sons is given, and as the main condition - the attitude of subordinates to their bosses as sons to their father, and the boss to his subordinates as a father to his sons. Confucian Golden Rule behavior of people in society says: Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.

2. Teachings of Confucius contains a number fundamental principles:

Live in society and for society;

Give in to each other;

Obey your elders in age and rank;

Obey the emperor;

Restrain yourself, observe moderation in everything, avoid extremes;

Be humane.

3. Confucius pays great attention to the question what a boss should be like(supervisor). The leader must have the following qualities:

Obey the emperor and follow Confucian principles;

To govern on the basis of virtue ("badao");

Have the necessary knowledge;

Serve the country faithfully, be a patriot;

Have great ambitions and set high goals;

Be noble;

Do only good for the state and others;

Take care of the personal well-being of subordinates and the country as a whole. In its turn, subordinate must:

Be loyal to the leader;

Show diligence in your work;

Constantly learn and improve yourself.

The teachings of Confucius played a major role in unifying Chinese society. It remains relevant today, 2500 years after the life and work of the author.

4. Another important social teaching of Ancient China was legalism (school of lawyers, or Fajia). Its founders were Shan Yang(390 - 338 BC) and Han Fei(288 - 233 BC). During the era of Emperor Qin-Shi-Hua (3rd century BC), legalism became the official ideology.

The main question of legalism (as well as Confucianism): how to govern society?

Legalists advocate governing society through state violence, based on laws. Thus, legalism is the philosophy of strong state power.

5. Main postulates of legalism are the following:

Man has an inherently evil nature;

The driving force behind human actions is personal selfish interests;

As a rule, the interests of individual individuals (social groups) are mutually opposed;

To avoid arbitrariness and general hostility, government intervention in social relations is necessary;

The state must encourage law-abiding citizens and severely punish the guilty;

Basic the incentive for lawful behavior of most people is fear of punishment;

Basic the distinction between legal and illegal behavior and laws must be issued;

The laws should be the same for everyone, and punishment should be applied to both commoners and high officials (regardless of rank) if they violated the laws;

State the apparatus should be made up of professionals (that is, bureaucratic positions should be given to candidates with knowledge and business qualities, and not be inherited);

The state is the main regulatory mechanism of society and, therefore, has the right to intervene in public relations, the economy, and the personal lives of citizens.

Confucianism

Confucius did not leave a single recorded speech. His teaching was based on the Tao, but it is a teaching of a social nature.

Confucius developed the principles of government. Until now, these principles lie in the ideology of China. The fundamental idea is the Idea of Heaven. The sky is the first ancestor endowed with intelligence. The whole life of Man is predetermined by Heaven.

Man, according to Confucius, is initially virtuous. He has the following virtuous impulses:

Love for people

Justice

Sincerity

Love for parents

A person's selfishness interferes with his expression of love. Selfish people are worthless, virtuous people are noble.

The doctrine of the state is based on the principle of striving for good. The main thing is not the law, but virtue.

It was believed that the Emperor was appointed by Heaven specifically to make the people good.

General features of Chinese philosophy:

Anthropocentrism

Cosmocentrism

Cult of Heaven

Principles of Non-Action and Striving for Harmony

Idealization of Antiquity

Confucianism

Ancient Chinese Confucianism is represented by many names.

The main ones are Kung Fu Tzu, Mencius and Xun Tzu.

Kui Fu-tzu. .Forefather of ancient Chinese philosophy Kun

Fu Tzu (in Russian - Confucius) lived in 551-479. BC. His

homeland - the kingdom of Lu, father - the ruler of one of the districts of this

secondary kingdom. The family of Confucius was noble, but poor; in childhood he

had to be both a shepherd and a watchman, and only at the age of 15 did he convert

your thoughts for studying. Confucius founded his school at the age of 50. U

he had many students. They wrote down thoughts like their teacher,

and their own. This is how the main Confucian work arose

“Lun Yu” (“Conversations and Instructions”) is a work of perfect

unsystematic and often contradictory, the collection is mainly

moral teachings, in which it is very difficult to see the philosophical

composition. Every educated Chinese learned this book by heart.

in childhood, he was guided by it throughout his life. Myself

Confucius worshiped antiquity and ancient books.

He especially praised the Shi Jing, telling his students that this

the book can inspire, broaden your horizons, bring you closer to others

people, teach how to restrain one's dissatisfaction, she is able

show “how one should serve the father at home, and outside the home - the sovereign, and also

tell the names of animals, birds, herbs and trees" (1, 172).

Heaven and spirits. In his ideas about heaven and spirits, Confucius followed

traditions. The sky for him is the highest power. Heaven watches over justice

news on earth, stands guard over social inequality. Fate

the teachings of Confucius himself depend on the will of heaven. He himself knew the will

heaven at the age of 50, it was then that he began to preach. However, the sky

Confucius differs from the sky "Shi Jing" with its shandi

abstraction and impersonality. Sky of Confucius - fate, fate, Tao.

Sharing the cult of ancestors, Confucius at the same time taught to stay away from

Serve people, is it possible to serve spirits? (1.158).

Society. Confucians are social activists. In the spotlight

Confucianism problems relationships between people, problems

education, management problems. Kung Fu Tzu, as it should be

social reformer, was dissatisfied with the existing one. However

his ideals are not in the future, but in the past. The cult of the past is characteristic

a feature of the entire ancient Chinese historical worldview.

Comparing his present with past times and idealizing them, Kuhn

Fu Tzu said that in ancient times they did not pay attention to little things and

behaved with dignity, were straightforward, learned to

improve themselves, avoid people with rude expressions and ugly

manners, avoided a society where there was no order.

Now “there are few people who understand morality” (1.166), the principles

they do not follow duty, they do not correct evil, they study for the sake of fame,

and not for the sake of self-improvement, they engage in deception, disrupt their

anger at others, start quarrels, do not know how and do not want to correct their

errors, etc.

However, idealizing antiquity, Kung Fu-tzu rationalizes and

the doctrine of morality. Flattering myself with the hope that he resurrects

old, Kung Fu Tzu creates new.

Ethics. Confucianism is primarily a teaching about morality.

Confucian ethics is based on concepts such as "reciprocity",

“golden mean” and “philanthropy”, which make up the whole

"the right path" (tao), which should be followed by anyone who wishes to

live happily, i.e. in agreement with oneself, with other people and

with Heaven. “Golden mean” (zhong yun) - the middle in people’s behavior

between extremes, such as caution and

incontinence. The ability to find the middle is not given to everyone. In our example

most people are either too careful or too

unrestrained. The basis of philanthropy is ren - “respect for

parents and respect for older brothers” (1.111). "He who sincerely

strives for philanthropy, will not commit evil” (1, 148). Concerning

“reciprocity”, or “caring for people” (shu), then this is the main moral

commandment of Confucianism. In response to the wishes of one of our own

students “in one word” to express the essence of their teachings Kung Fu Tzu

answered: “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” (1, 167),

Tsiksh-tzu. Kung Fu Tzu gave a detailed image of a person,

following Confucian moral precepts. This is Junzi - “good-

dear husband." Kung Fu-tzu contrasts this “noble

husband" to a commoner, or "low man". This is xiao-ren. This

the opposition runs through the entire book of Lun Yu.

The first follows duty and law, the second thinks only about how

get a better job and benefit. The first one is demanding of himself,

the second - to people. The first should not be judged by trifles and he can

entrust big things, but the second cannot be entrusted with big things, and

You can judge him by the little things. The first one lives in harmony with others

people, but does not follow them, the second one follows others, but does not

lives in harmony with them. The first is easy to serve, but difficult to deliver.

for him joy (for he rejoices only in what is due), for the second it is difficult

to serve, but it is easy to provide cheap joy. The first one is ready to go

death for the sake of humanity and one’s duty to the state and

people, the second commits suicide in a ditch.

“A noble man fears three things: he fears the command of Heaven, the great

people and words of the absolutely wise. A low man does not know the command

The sky and is not afraid of it, despises tall people occupying high

position; ignores the words of a wise man" (1, 170).

“Noble husband” in Confucianism is not only ethical, but also

political concept. He is a member of the ruling elite. He controls

by the people. Hence such social qualities of Junzi as the fact that

“A noble man is not wasteful in kindness, forcing him to work, not

causes anger, is not greedy in desires; in greatness is not proud, causing

respect, not cruel” (1, 174). Unlike the toiling commoner, “a noble husband does not

like a thing" (1, 144): his life is not reduced to one function, he

comprehensively developed personality.

Control. Kung Fu Tzu saw the key to governing the people in strength

moral example of superiors to inferiors. If the top

follow the “Tao”, then the people do not complain. "If the sovereign properly

relates to relatives, philanthropy flourishes among the people. If

the sovereign does not forget about his friends, there is no meanness among the people” (1, 155). Pledge

Kung Fu-tzu also saw the obedience of the people to the authorities in widespread

spreading xiao and di. "There are few people who, being

respectful to parents and respectful to older brothers, love

speak out against your superiors” (1.140). Despite all its differences

from junzi, xiao-ren is capable and inclined to imitate the first.

Therefore, “if you strive for good, then the people will be good.

The morality of a noble man is (like) the wind; morality of a low person

(like) grass. The grass bends where the wind blows" (1, 161).

The obedience of the people consists first of all in the fact that they obediently

works for the ruling class. If the top behaves properly

Thus, then “from all four sides people with children will come towards them

behind their backs" (1.162), and the ruling class will not need to

engage in farming.

"Correction of names." “Correction of names” (“zheng ming”) -

the culmination of the Confucian cult of the past. Kung Fu Tzu admitted

that “everything flows” and that “time runs without stopping” (1, 157). But

Moreover, we must take care that everything in society remains

unchanged. Therefore, the Confucian correction of names meant

is not really bringing, as we would now say, public

consciousness in accordance with the changing social existence, and

an attempt to bring things into line with their former meaning. That's why

Kung Fu-tzu taught that a sovereign must be a sovereign, a dignitary -

dignitary, father - father, and son - son... And all not by name, but by

actually. In case of all deviations from the norm, one should follow it

come back.. This is the teaching of the most influential spiritual movement in China

played a significant role in maintaining stagnation and immobility

of all social and cultural life in Ancient and Medieval

China. For example, being a son meant following all the rituals

filial piety, which included, along with

rational and humane much is excessive. Let's say after my father's death

the eldest son did not dare change anything in the house and family for three

Knowledge. The Confucian doctrine of knowledge is subordinated to social

problems. For Kung Fu-tzu, to know “means to know people” (1, 161).

Knowledge of nature was of little interest to him. He was quite satisfied

that practical knowledge possessed by those who are directly

communicates with nature, farmers and artisans. Kung Fu Tzu

allowed the possibility of innate knowledge. But such knowledge

rarely occurs. Kung Fu-tzu himself, according to him, did not possess such knowledge.

“Those who have innate knowledge stand above all” (1, 170). A

“followed by those who acquire knowledge through learning” (there

same). We need to learn from both the ancients and our contemporaries. The teaching must

be selective: “I listen to a lot, choose the best and follow it.”

Studying wrong views is harmful. The teaching must be supplemented

thinking: “to study and not think is a waste of time”

(1, 144). Knowledge consists both of a set of information (“I observe

a lot and keep everything in memory"), and in multilateral ability

consider a question, even an unfamiliar one, in a method.

It was in the latter that Kung Fu-tzu saw the main thing. For him he knows

* knowledge is, first of all, the ability to reason: “Do I have knowledge?

No, but when a low person asks me (about something), then (even

if I don't know anything, I can consider this question from two

sides and tell [him] everything” (1, 157).

Positive in Confucianism. From what has been said it may seem

that the teachings of Kung Fu Tzu did not contain anything positive.

However, everything is learned by comparison. Positive in Kung Fu Tzu

was that he saw the main means of controlling the people in force

example and in persuasion, and not in naked coercion. To the question: “How

you are looking at the murder of people devoid of principles in the name of

approaching these principles? - Kung Fu-tzu replied: “Why,

while running the state, kill people? If you strive for good,

then the people will be good” (1, 161).

In this the Confucians decisively disagreed with the representatives

schools of fa jia (legalists, or legalists), who, having rejected

patriarchal concept of society Kung Fu-tzu (the ruler is the father,

people-children), tried to build a state exclusively on

the principle of violence and fear of those who cruelly punish even for small

violations of laws.

Mencius. Mencius lived much later than Kong Fuzi. He is his student

grandson. The approximate years of Mencius's life are 372-289. BC. WITH

The name of Mencius is associated with the book of the same name in seven chapters.

Mencius further strengthened Confucius' teaching about Heaven as impersonal

objective necessity, fate, which, however, stands guard over the good.

What was new with Mencius was that he saw the most adequate

reflection of the will of Heaven in the will of the people. This gives reason to talk about

some democracy of Mencius. He represented the universe

consisting of "qi", meaning by this life force, energy that

in man must be subordinated to will and reason. “Will is the main thing, but

qi is secondary. That’s why I say: “Strengthen your will and don’t

bring chaos to qi” (1, 232). The most characteristic moment of the teaching

Mencius is his thesis about the innate goodness of man.

Anthropology. Mencius disagrees with those who thought that man

by birth and by nature evil or even neutral in relation to good

and evil. Mencius disagrees with another Confucian, Gaozi, who

said that “[human] nature is like a raging stream of water:

if you open [the way for him] to the east, it will flow to the east, you open [for him

way] to the west - will flow to the west. Human nature is not divided

into good and bad, just as water in its [flow] does not

distinguishes between East and West" (1, 243). Mencius objects: wherever the water

no flow, it always flows down. This is the same "nature's desire"

a person for good” (1, 243). In this endeavor, all people are equal.

The innate desire of every person for good Mencius

proved that all people by nature are characterized by such feelings as

compassion is the basis of humanity, a sense of shame and indignation -

the basis of justice, a sense of respect and honor - the basis

ritual, a sense of truth and untruth: the basis of knowledge. Unkindness

human being is as unnatural as the upward movement of water.

This requires special difficult living conditions, for example, crop failure

and hunger. “In good years, most young people are

good, and in times of famine - evil. This difference does not occur

from the natural qualities that heaven gave them, but because [hunger]

forced their hearts to plunge [into evil]" (1, 245).

Knowing one's good nature is equated by Mencius with

knowledge of Heaven. There is no better service to Heaven than opening in your soul

the beginning of goodness and justice. Teaching about the natural equality of people,

Mencius nevertheless justified their social inequality by needs

division of labor. “Some strain their minds. Others are annoying

muscles. Those who exert their minds control people. Managed

Celestial Empire" (1, 238).

Historical concept. Mencius's worldview is more

historical than the worldview of Kung Fu Tzu. At first, animals and birds crowded

of people. Then we already know the patron of agriculture, the legendary

The first ancestor of Zhou, Hou-tzu, taught people how to sow and reap crops. But

and then in their relationships people were not much different from

animals, until a certain Xie taught people moral standards:

love between father and son, sense of duty between the sovereign and

subjects, the difference in duties between husband and wife,

maintaining order between elders and younger ones, loyalty between friends.

But all this was just the improvement of good natural qualities

people, and not their creation contrary to nature (and so will think

Xunzi, more on that later).

Economic views. Mencius criticized the new system

land use in China - the gong system, under which peasants

paid a constant tax based on the average threatening for several

years, which is why in case of crop failure they are forced to pay already

unaffordable tax, they went bankrupt and died. This Mencius system

contrasted the previous Zhu system, when peasants, along with

with their fields they cultivated the communal field, which Mencius

the first, as far as we know, was called well, since

the arrangement of fields under the Zhu system resembled a hieroglyph,

denoting a well. Under the Zhu system, crop failure hit both

for the peasants and for those whom they supported with their labor, since

“nowadays the occupations of the people do not provide enough funds to ensure

their parents and feed their wives and children. In a good year he

constantly suffers hardships, and in a bad year is doomed to death.”

(1, 230). In such conditions a person cannot be kind. Smart

the ruler can encourage the people to strive for good only after

how to provide him with a means of subsistence.

Control. As a Confucian, Mencius likened relationships

between members of the state and relations between children and parents.

Van must love the people as his children, and the people must love

sovereign, like a father. “Honoring your elders, spread [this

reverence] and on older other people. Loving your children, spread

[this love] for other people's children, and then it will be easy to control

Celestial Empire" (1, 228).

Mencius is against the dictatorship of law. "Is it when in power

humane ruler, entangle the people in the nets [of the law]?

Mencius asks.

Xunzi. When Mencius died, Xunzi was already in his twenties.

But we know nothing about their possible meetings. Xunzi

received a good education. His name is associated with the same name

work. Focus on Xunzi as a Confucian

problem of man and society.

However, it cannot be said that Xunzi completely neglected

thinking about the universe. On the contrary, his picture of the world is the basis

his ethical and political teachings. This allows us to talk seriously about

Xunzi as a philosopher.

Debunking Heaven. Sharing the traditional idea that

that the earth and especially the sky are the sources of the birth of things, Xun Tzu

deprived the sky of any supernatural qualities. Everything is in nature

occurs according to the laws of nature itself. "One after another the stars make

a full circle [through the sky]; the light of the Moon replaces the radiance of the Sun; are replaced

each other's four seasons; the forces of yin and yang and cause great

changes; winds blow and rain falls everywhere; through harmony

from these forces things are born; they receive [from heaven] everything they need,

to exist and improve” (2, 168). The "movement" itself

the sky has permanence" (2, 167).

From this constancy of natural phenomena, Xunzi makes two

important conclusion. First, nothing is “proceeding from the spirit.”

That people think that things come from the spirit is due to the fact that

taught Xun Tzu that they see only the result of the process, not the process itself

process, they do not see what is happening inside. Without imagining

of these internal invisible changes, a person associates obvious

changes with the activity of the spirit or heaven.

The second conclusion concerns the role of Heaven. The constancy of Heaven, being

compared with the instability of social life, speaks of

that Heaven does not and cannot influence what happens to

by people, these are the fruits of the actions of the person himself. "Because the

the natural conditions in which man lives are the same as those that existed

in an era of peace and order, but unlike those times, troubles come

and misfortunes, do not complain to heaven: these are the fruits of the actions of man himself.”

Anthropology. Xunzi's materialism is also expressed in his teaching

about man: in man “first there is flesh, and then there is spirit” (2, 168). Xunzi

Unlike Mencius, he taught that man is naturally evil. One of the chapters

Treatise "Xunzi" is called "On the Evil Nature of Man." Having brought

Almost simultaneously with the philosophical books of Lao Tzu and his disciples, another group of philosophical works appeared in China, dating back to the founder of another dominant religion in China - Kong Tzu, or Confucius. The philosophy of Confucius and the school that originated from him are fundamentally different from the philosophical system of Lao Tzu. They reflected the views and interests of service officials.

Classic Confucian books break down into the "Pentateuch" ("Wu-ching") and "Four Books" (“Sy-shu”). Not all of these books can be considered religious. Some of them have nothing to do with religion. The classical “Pentateuch” - even now the main canon of the Confucian religion - consists of the following works: the oldest book - "I Ching"(“Book of Changes”) - a collection of magical formulas and spells; "Shu-ching"(“Ancient History”) - the history of the legendary emperors (there is little religious content in it); "Shi Ching"(“Book of Chants”) is a collection of ancient poetry, partly of cosmological and mythological content (in the last of the four parts of the collection “Shi Ching” there are also purely religious songs or hymns performed in connection with religious rites and sacrifices); "Li-ji"(“Book of Ceremonies”) - a description of numerous rituals, not all of which, however, have religious significance; last book, "Chun-qiu"(“The Book of Spring and Autumn”) is a chronicle of one of the Chinese principalities, very short, dry, lapidary, and does not contain any religious elements.

"Sy-shu"(“The Four Books”) consists of the following books: "Yes-xue"(“Great Teaching”) - the doctrine of human self-improvement, set forth by Confucius by one of his students; "Zhong-yun"(“The Book of the Middle”) - teaching about the need to maintain harmony in everything and not go to extremes; "Lun-yu"- a book of sayings and aphorisms of Confucius and his disciples; "Meng Tzu"-- the teachings of the philosopher Mencius, the most outstanding of Confucius's later students.

What is the essence of Confucian writings? Leaving aside the narrative part, that is, historical stories and chronicles, and considering only those that are directly related to religion, we find that even in them there are very few religious-mystical elements. The main content of the teachings of Confucius is the teaching about the rules of behavior, about the right life. This system of political and private ethics. Confucius himself had little interest in issues of metaphysics, cosmogony, and mysticism and directed his main attention to the practical side of the teaching. He, by the way, unlike some other legendary founders of religions, is a completely historical figure; his biography is quite well known; he was a prominent dignitary in the Principality of Lu (years of life, according to tradition, 551-479 BC). True, not everything that is attributed to Confucius was actually written by him, and of what was written by him, not everything has reached us in the original edition, but the character of this philosopher was reflected quite clearly in the books. This is a system of purely practical norms of behavior. This is a teaching about good government, about the conscientious performance of public service, as well as about the correct order in family life.

4. Teachings of Kung Tzu

The classical Confucian books are divided into the “Pentateuch” (“Wu-ching”) and the “Four Books” (“Si-shu”). Not all of these books can be considered religious. Some of them have nothing to do with religion. The classical “Pentateuch” - even now the main canon of the Confucian religion - consists of the following works: the oldest book - “I Ching” (“Book of Changes”) - a collection of magical formulas and spells; "Shu-ching" ("Ancient History") - the history of the legendary emperors (there is little religious content in it); “Shi-ching” (“Book of Chants”) is a collection of ancient poetry, partly of cosmological and mythological content (in the last of the four parts of the collection “Shi-ching” there are also purely religious songs or hymns performed in connection with religious rites and sacrifices) ; “Li-ji” (“Book of Ceremonies”) - a description of numerous rituals, not all of which, however, have religious significance; the last book, “Chun-chiu” (“Book of Spring and Autumn”), is a chronicle of one of the Chinese principalities, very short, dry, lapidary, and does not contain any religious elements.

"Sy-shu" ("Four Books") consists of the following books: "Da-xue" ("Great Teaching") - the doctrine of human self-improvement, set forth according to Confucius by one of his students; “Zhong-yun” (“Book of the Middle”) - the teaching of the need to maintain harmony in everything and not go to extremes; "Long Yu" - a book of sayings and aphorisms of Confucius and his disciples; "Meng Tzu" is the teaching of the philosopher Meng Tzu, the most outstanding of the later students of Confucius.

5. Confucianism as a religion

Based on this, an opinion has developed, especially among modern educated Chinese, that Confucianism is not a religion at all. This is, on the one hand, a philosophical system, and on the other hand, a code of public and private morality.

This opinion is, of course, wrong. Among the Confucian books there are those that undoubtedly contain ideas about the supernatural, about spirits, the doctrine of the other world, etc. On the other hand, Confucius himself performed religious rituals very conscientiously and taught them to be steadfast in their implementation. After his death, he himself was deified, and in his honor the emperor himself performed religious rites. At the beginning of the 20th century. There were about 1,500 temples in honor of Confucius in China.

However, one cannot deny the essential uniqueness of Confucianism as a religion. Not only that the teachings of Confucius were purely practically oriented, but also the very organization of Confucianism, as it developed starting from the Han era (206 BC - 220 AD), represents a lot of specific and differs sharply from other religions known to us. Suffice it to say that neither in ancient nor in modern Confucianism did there exist a professional priesthood as a special social stratum. The implementation of rituals legitimized by Confucianism fell on the shoulders of government officials, heads of families and clans.

6. Cult of ancestors

The most important of them was the cult of ancestors, which became the main content of the Confucian cult. This ancestor cult, not considered the official religion of China, has in fact become a major component of Chinese religious beliefs and practices. Each family had its own family temple or chapel, where rituals of the family cult were performed at certain times. Each clan - shi - had its own ancestral temple (Miao or Uzun-Miao, now often called Tsytan), dedicated to the ancestors of this clan. Each larger clan group - son (surname) - had, in turn, a temple dedicated to the common ancestor of the family. Sacrifices and prayers in these temples were performed either by the head of the family or by the elders of the clans. In ancient times, small temple houses were placed near the graves of the dead and sacrifices were made there. But already during the Han Dynasty, the construction of ancestral temples (Miao) was subject to strict rules, depending on the social status of a person. Commoners could not build special Miao at all and had to make sacrifices to their ancestors right in their homes. Officials could build one miao, nobles - three, princes - five, the emperor could have seven miao.

According to legend, initially a doll or statue depicting the deceased was placed in the temple. Since the Han era, the doll began to be made from a long piece of white silk fabric, folded and tied in the middle like a human figure; it was called hun-bo. Subsequently, the image of the ancestor was replaced by a tablet - zhu - in the form of a black wooden tablet with an inscription in red hieroglyphs. These tablets, which came into general use since the Song era (960-1260), are usually kept in the Miao. In order to place the soul of the deceased in the zhu tablet, they resort to special complex rituals and invocations. Immediately after the funeral, a special scribe makes an inscription on the tablet, all family members kneel, and the following invocation is read: “In such and such a year, month and day, the orphaned son of such and such dares to turn to his parent such and such with the following words: your body buried, but may your spirit return to your home temple; The tablet for the spirit has already been prepared, may your venerable soul leave the old abode (body), may it follow to the new (miao) and may it remain inseparably.” After a series of further rituals, stretching over several years, the zhu with the soul of the deceased is finally installed in the temple.

Zhu tablets are kept in special cabinets on a long table at the northern wall of the temple opposite the entrance, and during rituals and sacrifices they are taken out from there, placed on the table and sacrifices - food, drinks - are placed in front of them. These rituals are performed at certain times of the year or in the event of some family or tribal events: weddings, the death of a family member, the birth of a child, the departure of the head of the family, etc.

For example, one of the moments of the wedding ceremony is that the father of the groom, accompanied by his entire family, enters the temple of the ancestors, sets up a sign, makes a sacrifice, says a spell to bring down their spirits to the sacrifice, and addresses the ancestors: “So-and-so year, month and date, I, a respectful descendant of (name), dare to bring to the attention of the venerable deceased great-great-grandfather of my (name; further ancestors are renamed, up to and including parents) the following: my son such and such, who has reached the age of majority and has not yet been married, has to marry the daughter of so-and-so; reverently offering you wine and fruits, I respectfully inform you that today a natsai (matchmaking ritual - S.T.) and an inquiry about the name of the bride are being performed.”

Similar prayer appeals to ancestors are also performed in connection with other family events, as well as on holidays, on certain calendar dates. For example, in the middle month of each of the four seasons (quarters) a family sacrifice is supposed to be performed. Shortly before this, the head of the family goes to the temple of the ancestors and, kneeling in front of the tablets taken out of the cabinets, says: “I, respectful grandson, such and such, today, on the occasion of the middle of such and such a season, have to make a sacrifice to you, the deceased, - parent , grandfather, great-grandfather, great-great-grandfather, parent, grandmother, great-grandmother, great-great-grandmother; I dare to transfer your report cards to the house hall and invite your souls to come there for the benefit of the sacrifices, which will be made with full respect.”

According to the religious beliefs of the Chinese, the most important duty of a person is filial piety (xiao) and honoring ancestors. One of the Confucian writings says: “Always show full respect to parents; deliver their favorite food; grieve when they are sick; to be deeply saddened at their death; to offer sacrifices to them, the departed, with (religious) solemnity—these are the five duties of filial piety.” From a religious point of view, for the Chinese, the worst thing that can happen to a person is not to leave behind male offspring who could make sacrifices and take care of the well-being of their deceased ancestors. In this regard, there are also rituals to propitiate the spirits of those dead for whom there is no one to care. Periodically, sacrifices and feeding of the souls of these dead who have no living descendants are performed.

The state cult in China was addressed mainly to the ancestors of the emperor. The emperor communicated with them in various state affairs. One of the Confucian works says: “If a sovereign is to undertake an important matter, he must first go to the temple of his ancestors to notify them of what he wants to do, must resort to fortune-telling and see if the heavenly signs are favorable; if everything foreshadows a favorable outcome of the matter, the sovereign can safely undertake it.”

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Whose name has become a household name. It symbolizes the basic principles of culture

Celestial Empire. We can say that Confucius and his teachings are the heritage of Chinese civilization. The philosopher was revered even in communist times, although Mao Zedong tried to oppose him with his own theories. It is known that traditional China built the main ideas of its statehood, social relations and relationships between people precisely on the basis of Confucianism. These principles were laid down in the sixth century BC.

Confucius and his teachings became popular along with the philosophy of Lao Tzu. The latter based his theory on the idea of a universal path - “Tao”, along which both phenomena, living beings, and even inanimate things move in one way or another. The philosophical teachings of Confucius are the complete opposite of the ideas of Lao Tzu. He was not very interested in abstract ideas of a general nature. He devoted his entire life to developing principles of practice, culture, ethics and politics. His biography tells us that the philosopher lived in a very turbulent time - the so-called “Era of Warring Kingdoms”, when human life and the well-being of entire societies depended on chance, intrigue, military luck, and no stability was even foreseen.

Confucius and his teachings became so famous because the thinker actually left the traditional religious morality of the Chinese intact, only giving it a rationalized character. By doing this, he tried to stabilize both social and interpersonal relationships. He built his theory on the “five pillars”. The basic principles of the teachings of Confucius are “Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, Xin.”

The first word roughly means what Europeans would translate as “humanity.” However, this main Confucian virtue is more like the ability to sacrifice one’s own good for the sake of the public, that is, to sacrifice one’s interests for the sake of others. “And” is a concept that combines justice, duty and a sense of duty. “Li” is necessary in rites and rituals that give order and strength to life. “Zhi” is the knowledge necessary to control and conquer nature. “Xin” is trust, without which real power cannot exist.

Thus, Confucius and his teaching legitimized the hierarchy of virtues, which, according to the philosopher, comes directly from the laws of heaven. It is not for nothing that the thinker believed that power has a divine essence, and the ruler is the prerogative of a higher being. If the state is strong, the people prosper. That's exactly what he thought.

Any ruler - monarch, emperor - is a “son of Heaven”. But this can only be called the master who does not do arbitrariness, but fulfills the commands of heaven. Then divine laws will apply to society. The more civilized the society and the more refined the culture, the further they are from nature. Therefore, art and poetry must be something special and refined. Just as an educated person differs from a primitive person, so culture differs from obscenity in that it does not glorify passion, but teaches restraint.

This virtue is not only useful in family and neighborhood relationships, but also good for governance. The state, family (especially parents) and society - this is what a member of society should think about first of all. He must keep his own passions and feelings within strict limits. Anyone should be able to submit, listen to elders and superiors, and come to terms with reality. These are, in brief, the main ideas of the famous Confucius.

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