Earth's climates.  Geography Showing the position of climatic zones on a map, comparing climatic indicators of individual territories Cold climatic zones

On Earth, it determines the nature of many features of nature. Climatic conditions also greatly influence people’s lives, economic activities, their health and even their biological characteristics. At the same time, the climates of individual territories do not exist in isolation. They are parts of a single atmospheric process for the entire planet.

Climate classification

Earth's climates, which have similar features, are combined into certain types, which replace each other in the direction from the equator to the poles. In each hemisphere there are 7 climatic zones, of which 4 are main and 3 are transitional. This division is based on the distribution of air masses around the globe with different properties and characteristics of air movement in them.

In the main belts, one air mass is formed throughout the year. In the equatorial zone - equatorial, in the tropical - tropical, in the temperate - air of temperate latitudes, in the Arctic (Antarctic) - arctic (Antarctic). The transitional zones located between the main ones are alternately entered in different seasons of the year from the adjacent main belts. Here, conditions change seasonally: in summer they are the same as in the neighboring warmer zone, in winter they are the same as in the neighboring colder zone. Along with the change in air masses in the transition zones, the weather also changes. For example, in the subequatorial zone, hot and rainy weather prevails in summer, and cooler and drier weather in winter.

The climate within the belts is heterogeneous. Therefore, the belts are divided into climatic regions. Above the oceans, where sea air masses are formed, there are areas of oceanic climates, and above the continents - continental climates. In many climatic zones on the western and eastern coasts of the continents, special types of climate are formed, differing from both continental and oceanic. The reason for this is the interaction of marine and continental air masses, as well as the presence of ocean currents.

Hot ones include and. These areas constantly receive a significant amount of heat due to the high angle of incidence of the sun's rays.

In the equatorial belt, the equatorial air mass dominates throughout the year. The heated air constantly rises in conditions, which leads to the formation of rain clouds. There is heavy rainfall here every day, often with . The amount of precipitation is 1000-3000 mm per year. This is more than the amount of moisture that can evaporate. The equatorial zone has one season of the year: always hot and humid.

In tropical zones, a tropical air mass dominates throughout the year. In it, air descends from the upper layers of the troposphere to the earth's surface. As it descends, it heats up, and even over the oceans no clouds form. Clear weather prevails, in which the sun's rays strongly heat the surface. Therefore, on land the average in summer is higher than in the equatorial zone (up to +35 ° WITH). Winter temperatures are lower than summer temperatures due to a decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight. Due to the lack of clouds, there is very little rainfall throughout the year, so tropical deserts are common on land. These are the hottest areas of the Earth, where temperature records are recorded. The exception is the eastern shores of the continents, which are washed by warm currents and are influenced by trade winds blowing from the oceans. Therefore, there is a lot of rainfall here.

The territory of subequatorial (transitional) belts is occupied by a humid equatorial air mass in summer, and dry tropical air in winter. Therefore, there are hot and rainy summers and dry and also hot - due to the high position of the Sun - winter.

Temperate climate zones

They occupy about 1/4 of the Earth's surface. They have sharper seasonal differences in temperature and precipitation than hot zones. This is due to a significant decrease in the angle of incidence of sunlight and increased complexity of circulation. They contain air of temperate latitudes all year round, but there are frequent intrusions of arctic and tropical air.

The Southern Hemisphere is dominated by an oceanic temperate climate with cool summers (from +12 to +14 °C), mild winters (from +4 to +6 °C) and heavy precipitation (about 1000 mm per year). In the Northern Hemisphere, large areas are occupied by continental temperate and. Its main feature is pronounced temperature changes across the seasons.

The western shores of the continents receive moist air from the oceans all year round, brought from the western temperate latitudes; there is a lot of precipitation here (1000 mm per year). Summers are cool (up to + 16 °C) and humid, and winters are wet and warm (from 0 to +5 °C). Moving from west to east into the interior of the continents, the climate becomes more continental: the amount of precipitation decreases, summer temperatures increase, and winter temperatures decrease.

A monsoon climate is formed on the eastern shores of the continents: summer monsoons bring heavy precipitation from the oceans, and winter monsoons, blowing from the continents to the oceans, are associated with frosty and drier weather.

The subtropical transition zones receive air from temperate latitudes in winter, and tropical air in summer. The continental subtropical climate is characterized by hot (up to +30 °C) dry summers and cool (0 to +5 °C) and somewhat wetter winters. There is less precipitation per year than can evaporate, so deserts and deserts predominate. There is a lot of precipitation on the coasts of the continents, and on the western shores it is rainy in winter due to westerly winds from the oceans, and on the eastern shores it is rainy in summer due to the monsoons.

Cold climate zones

During the polar day, the earth's surface receives little solar heat, and during the polar night it does not heat up at all. Therefore, the Arctic and Antarctic air masses are very cold and contain little. The Antarctic continental climate is the most severe: exceptionally frosty winters and cold summers with sub-zero temperatures. Therefore, it is covered by a powerful glacier. In the Northern Hemisphere, the climate is similar, and above it is Arctic. It is warmer than Antarctic waters, since ocean waters, even covered with ice, provide additional heat.

In the subarctic and subantarctic zones, the Arctic (Antarctic) air mass dominates in winter, and air of temperate latitudes in summer. Summers are cool, short and humid, winters are long, harsh and with little snow.

Climate is the long-term weather regime typical for a given place.

Weather is a set of processes occurring in the atmosphere at a given time over a certain territory.

The climate, like all meteorological elements, is zonal. In each hemisphere, according to B.P. Alisov, there are seven climate zones. The main feature of the belt is the dominance of certain types of air masses.

An air mass is a large volume of air that has relatively uniform properties and moves as one unit.

There are four zonal types of air masses depending on the areas of formation: equatorial, tropical, temperate, Arctic/Antarctic. They differ primarily in temperature. All types of air masses except equatorial are divided into marine and continental subtypes depending on the nature of the surface over which the air is formed.

Basic climatic zones: equatorial, tropical, temperate, Arctic and Antarctic are characterized by the predominance of one type of air masses all year round. Transitional zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic and subantarctic - are characterized by seasonal changes in air masses.

In the equatorial zone, temperatures are high all year round (24–28 °C), and there is a lot of precipitation - about 2000 mm. Seasonal fluctuations in average monthly temperatures and precipitation are insignificant. The subequatorial belt is characterized by seasonal changes in air masses: the summer monsoon brings equatorial air, in winter continental tropical air dominates. Summer is hot and humid, in winter the temperature drops slightly (about 20 ° C), there is no precipitation.

The tropical zone is dominated by a tropical air mass. Temperature in summer is 30–35 °C, in winter about 20 °C. there is almost no precipitation.

The subtropical climate is formed under the influence of seasonal changes in air masses: tropical air (TA) in summer, temperate air (TC) in winter. The continental subtropical climate is arid, with hot (about 30 °C) dry summers, cool (0–5 °C), relatively wet (200–250 mm of precipitation) winters. The climate of the western coasts of the continents is called Mediterranean, since it is most typical for the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by relatively hot (more than 20 °C) dry summers and mild (about 10 °C) wet (500–700 mm) winters. The climate of the eastern coasts of the continents is monsoon, it is best expressed in Eurasia. In summer, a stable monsoon from the ocean prevails, it is hot (25 ° C), and humid. Winters are relatively cool (0–5 °C) and relatively dry, due to the monsoon from the land.

In the temperate zone, a moderate air mass prevails throughout the year. The continental temperate climate is developed only in the Northern Hemisphere - in Eurasia and North America. On average, July temperatures vary from +10 to +12 °C in the north and up to +30 °C in the south, January temperatures from –5 in the west to –25–30 °C in the center of the continents. Annual precipitation decreases from west to east from 700–600 mm to 300 mm. According to the degree of continental climate, climate varieties are distinguished from moderate continental to sharply continental. The climate of the western coasts of the continents is formed under the influence of sea temperate air (mMA), brought by the prevailing westerly winds, which is why it is called maritime temperate climate. It is characterized by cool summers (+10 in the north, +17 °C in the south), mild winters with temperatures from 0 to +5 °C. There is a lot of precipitation - 800–1000 mm. The climate of the eastern coasts of the temperate continents is monsoon. It is well expressed in Eurasia: in the Primorsky Territory and Northeast China. In the monsoon climate zone, there is a seasonal change in air masses: warm and humid air mass in summer, and very cold and dry continental temperate air (CMA) in winter. The temperature is about +20 °C in summer and –10–20 °C in winter. Total precipitation ranges from 500 to 1000 mm.

The subarctic and subantarctic belts are characterized by seasonal changes in air masses: HC in summer, arctic air (AW) in winter. Continental, including sharply continental climate observed in the Northern Hemisphere in northern Eurasia and North America. It is characterized by cool, damp summers with temperatures less than 10–12 °C and severe (up to –40–50 °C), long winters with little snow. Precipitation amounts to 200–100 mm. Marine (oceanic) climate is observed in northern Europe, in the Arctic Ocean, and around Antarctica. This climate is characterized by cool summers (3–5 °C) and relatively mild winters (–10–15 °C). Precipitation falls up to 500 mm, fog is constant.

In the Arctic and Antarctic zones (Antarctica, Greenland, islands of the Canadian archipelago) continental climate. It is characterized by negative temperatures throughout the year and precipitation of less than 100 mm. An oceanic climate is observed in the Arctic. Temperatures are negative, precipitation is 100–150 mm.

Climate is one of the physical-geographical characteristics of an area, and thus it is determined primarily by the geographic location of the latter, that is, latitude, distribution of land and sea, and the nature of the land.

In shaping the climate of any area, its altitude above sea level plays an important role, and the climate of sea coasts and island countries is played by ocean currents.

There are several climate classifications. There are strictly scientific, detailed classifications of the climates of the entire globe, there are classifications for individual geographical areas and even for individual countries.

The simplest and most well-known classification, which is used by most people, although it is not officially recognized and is not complete, is the following. Climates are distinguished between cold, temperate and hot - according to the temperature regime; in addition, each of the three main types of climate can, depending on the precipitation and humidity regime, be additionally characterized as marine (humid, with an even temperature change) or continental (dry, with sharp temperature fluctuations ).

This is a simplified, approximate classification of earth's climates, which does not include many important climatic features, for example, the monsoon zone or high mountain regions, etc.

There are a number of classifications created by famous climatologists: W. Keppen, B.P. Alisov, A.A. Grigoriev, M.I. Budyko, L.S. Berg et al.

An interesting and at the same time simple classification of climate regimes in the northern hemisphere was proposed by the scientist M.I. Budyko. This classification takes into account, in addition to temperature and humidity regimes, also the radiation balance. It provides only five climate modes:

arctic, with the presence of snow cover, negative air temperatures and a negative or close to zero radiation balance;

tundra, with average monthly temperatures from 0 to 10 degrees. with a positive radiation balance;

forest zones, with average monthly temperatures of more than 10 degrees. with a positive radiation balance and sufficient humidification, when evaporation is at least half the evaporation value (the maximum possible evaporation);

arid zones(steppes and dry savannas), where, with a positive radiation balance, evaporation ranges from one tenth to half the evaporation value;

deserts, where, with a positive radiation balance, evaporation is less than one tenth of evaporation.

In different geographical zones there may be several climatic regimes during the year, for example, in winter - arctic, in summer - arid zones.

63 Question. Classification of the Earth's climates V.P. Köppen.

Answer:

The Köppen climate classification is one of the most common systems for classifying climate types.

The classification was developed by Russian and German climatologist Vladimir Petrovich Koeppen in 1900 (with some further changes made by him in 1918 and 1936). It is based on the concept that the best criterion for the type of climate is what plants grow naturally in a given area.

Classification of climates based on temperature and precipitation regimes. There are 5 types of climatic zones, namely: A - humid tropical zone without winter; B - two dry zones, one in each hemisphere; C - two moderately warm zones without regular snow cover; D - two zones of boreal climate on continents with sharply defined boundaries in winter and summer; E - two polar regions of snowy climate. The boundaries between zones are drawn according to certain isotherms of the coldest and warmest months and according to the ratio of the average annual temperature and annual precipitation, taking into account the annual course of precipitation. Within zones of types A, C and D, climates with dry winters (w), dry summers (s) and uniformly humid (f) are distinguished. Based on the ratio of precipitation and temperature, dry climates are divided into steppe climates (BS) and desert climates (BW), polar climates into tundra climates (ET) and perpetual frost climates (EF).

This gives us 11 main climate types (see below). For further detail, 23 additional features and corresponding indices (a, b, c, d, etc.) are introduced based on details in the temperature and precipitation regime. Many types of climates according to the Köppen climate classification are known by names associated with the vegetation characteristic of this type.

Letter designations for the Köppen climate classification:

(names may be repeated, since the Koeppen diagram does not coincide with the belt diagram)

A - tropical and equatorial

B - dry, subequatorial, tropical

C - temperate, subtropical and continental

D - continental, subarctic (boreal)

E - polar, subarctic, arctic

Af - tropical forest climate

Aw - savannah climate

BS - steppe climate

BW - desert climate

Cs - warm temperate climate with dry summers (Mediterranean)

Cw - climate is moderately warm with dry winters

Cf - climate is moderately warm with uniform moisture

Ds - climate is moderately cold with dry summers

Dw - climate is moderately cold with dry winters

Df - moderately cold climate with uniform moisture

ET - tundra climate

EF - permanent frost climate

Additional letters: third for the hottest month, fourth for the coldest month of the year

i - extreme heat: 35 °C and above

h - very hot: 28 - 35 °C

a - hot: 23 - 28 °C

b - warm: 18 - 23 °C

l - average: 10 - 18 °C

k - cool: 0 - 10 °C

o - cold: −10 - 0 °C

c - very cold: −25 - −10 °C

d - painfully cold: −40 - −25 °C

e - permafrost: −40 °C and below

For example:

BWhl (Aswan, Egypt) - desert climate with July temperatures 28-35 °C, and January: 10-18 °C

Dfbo (Moscow, Russia) - moderately cold (continental) with July temperatures of 18-23 °C, and January: −10-0 °C

Cshk (Antalya, Turkey) - Mediterranean climate with July temperatures 28-35 °C, and January: 0-10 °C

64 Question. Differences in climate classification according to L.S. Berg and B.P. Alisov.

Suggested answer:

Outstanding Soviet scientist L. S. Berg developed the following classification of Earth's climates. He identified two large groups:

1. Lowland climates

2. Highland climates.

Among the climates of the lowlands, L. S. Berg identifies eleven types:

1. The climate of the tundra is in the Arctic and Antarctic.

2. Taiga climate

3. Temperate forest climate

4. Monsoon climate - on the Amur, in Manchuria (Northeast China), Northern China, Southern Sakhalin and Northern Japan.

5. Steppe climate

6. Desert climate with cold winters

7. The climate of Mediterranean countries - on the southern coast of Crimea, southern Australia, California. Here the summers are hot, and the winters, although warm, are rainy.

8. Subtropical forest climate - in Southern China, Southern Japan, Northern India, Transcaucasia, South Africa, Southeast USA and the La Plata region in South America.

9. Desert climate with warm winters - in the Sahara, the deserts of Arabia and Australia, the Atacama Desert in Chile.

10. The climate of the tropical forest-steppe (savannah region) - in Venezuela, Guiana, south of the Amazon, in tropical America, in northern Australia, on the Hawaiian Islands.

Tropical rainforest climate - in the Amazon basin, eastern Central America, the Greater Antilles, southern Florida, tropical Africa, New Guinea and the Philippine Islands.

The climates of the uplands, as we have already mentioned, repeat the main types of climates of the lowlands. In addition, at higher elevations there is a climate of perpetual frost.

B. P. Alisov proposed to distinguish climatic zones and regions based on the conditions of general atmospheric circulation. He identifies seven main climatic zones: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate and two polar (one in each hemisphere) as zones in which climate formation occurs all year round under the predominant influence of air masses of only one type: equatorial, tropical, temperate ( polar) and arctic (in the southern hemisphere of the Antarctic) air.

Between them, Alisov distinguishes six transition zones, three in each hemisphere, characterized by seasonal changes in the prevailing air masses. These are two subequatorial zones, or tropical monsoon zones, in which equatorial air predominates in summer and tropical air in winter; two subtropical zones, in which tropical air dominates in summer and temperate air in winter; subarctic and subantarctic, in which temperate air predominates in summer and Arctic or Antarctic air in winter. The boundaries of the zones are determined by the average position of climatological fronts. Thus, the tropical zone is located between the summer position of tropical fronts and the winter position of polar fronts. Therefore, it will be occupied mainly by tropical air all year round. The subtropical zone is located between the winter and summer positions of the polar fronts; therefore, in winter it will be under the predominant influence of polar air, and in summer - tropical air. The boundaries of other zones are determined similarly.

65 Question. Classification of climates B.P. Alisova (equatorial, subequatorial).

Answer:

Equatorial belt. Continental and oceanic types of equatorial climate. These types of climate are very similar due to the dominance of homogeneous equatorial air. Temperatures throughout the entire zone are high all year round (+24... + 28 °C), and air humidity is high. There is a lot of precipitation - about 2000 mm. A significant amount of precipitation is caused not only by high absolute and relative air humidity, but also by its moisture-unstable stratification. Vertical instability is facilitated by the fact that the moist adiabatic gradients in it are less than the vertical temperature gradients. Seasonal fluctuations in average monthly temperatures on land (3-4°) and precipitation are insignificant. Two small maximum temperatures and precipitation (they are the result of thermal convection) occur after the days of the equinoxes, a slight decrease in temperatures and a decrease in precipitation occur after the days of the solstices. Daily temperature fluctuations on land reach 10-15°C. This is a zone of low pressure, rising air currents, and weak winds. In the narrow equatorial strip, weak westerly winds predominate. Over land that warms up quickly, convection develops during the day, powerful cumulonimbus clouds form, and in the afternoon there is heavy rain, usually accompanied by thunderstorms (the so-called zenithal rains). Over the sea, showers and thunderstorms occur at night. This is the main difference between the oceanic climate and the continental one; in addition, it has a very small daily and annual temperature range (2-3°C); excessive moisture. In the equatorial climate, moist evergreen forests grow on land.

Subequatorial belts. They are characterized by seasonal changes in air masses: the summer monsoon brings EV, the winter monsoon (trade wind) - TV.

Mainland monsoon climate. On land in summer it is hot (26-27°C) and humid, like at the equator, about 1500 mm of precipitation falls, the amount of which decreases with distance from the equator to 250-300 mm. In the same direction, the duration of the dry winter season increases from 2-3 months to six months. In winter, the temperature is about + 18... + 20°C, the humidity of the TV is low, there is no precipitation. In spring, the air temperature rises quickly and reaches a maximum of 30°C or more at the end of the dry season, for example in India - in May to 34-35°C. This is explained by a complex of reasons: the close to zenithal position of the Sun and a cloudless sky, which causes an abundance of solar radiation, as well as insignificant heat losses for evaporation, since after a dry winter the water reserves in the soil are small. Therefore, excess heat is spent on heating the air. As a result, there are three thermal seasons: a very hot spring, a hot summer-autumn period and a warm winter. This type of climate with wet summers and dry winters is called monsoon climate. Humidity is close to normal and slightly less than one. Variably humid sparse deciduous forests and savannas grow (from tall grass to xerophytic shrub and desert).

The climates of the continental coasts in the subequatorial zones differ little from the continental monsoon climate.

On the western coasts of the continents, due to the coastal position and cold currents, temperatures in all seasons are 2-3°C lower than inside the continents. The amount and regime of precipitation are the same.

The climate of the eastern coasts of the continents differs from the continental one in that in winter the mTV (trade wind) flows from the tropical high-pressure belts from the ocean, but it is stably stratified. Therefore, there is almost no precipitation on the low coasts, and only on the mountainous coasts on the slopes of eastern exposure there is insignificant precipitation, the amount of which decreases with the height of the mountains. An example is the climate of the eastern coast of Brazil. Humidity conditions and natural vegetation zones are generally similar to inland areas.

The oceanic climate is characterized by more even temperatures (25-22 °C), humid summers, dry winters. Annual precipitation is about 1500 mm. Tropical cyclones with hurricane-force winds and downpours often occur here in late summer and early autumn.

66 Question. Classification of climates B.P. Alisova (tropical).

Answer:

Tropical zones. Mainland tropical climate. It is developed on most of the continents. KTV dominates there all year round. Temperature in summer is +30... + 35°C, in winter about + 20°C. The daily air temperature range is 30-40°C, and on the sandy surface it reaches 80°C. The annual amplitude of air temperature is 10-15°C, which is less than the daily one. There is almost no precipitation. The lack of precipitation in winter is associated with lowering, adiabatic heating and drying of air in the high pressure zone. In summer there is no precipitation due to low relative humidity and high condensation levels. Only near the borders with subtropical zones in winter is cyclonic activity weakly developed and 100-200 mm of precipitation falls. At the borders with subequatorial belts, the same amount of precipitation falls in summer due to the penetration of the summer equatorial monsoon. Moisturizing is negligible. Such a climate is called arid and even extra-arid. The greatest tropical deserts in the world are located here: the Sahara, the deserts of Arabia (Rub al-Khali, Greater and Lesser Nefud), Australia (Great Sandy, Great Victoria, Simpson deserts), the semi-desert of the Kalahari (in Africa).

The climate on the western coasts of the continents is peculiar, where MTV prevails all year round. It moves along the eastern peripheries of subtropical oceanic highs from the colder temperate latitudes towards the equator over cold currents. In this regard, temperatures are usually low - about +20°C in summer and +15°C in winter. When moving to low latitudes, the air warms up and moves away from saturation. Oceanic pressure maxima with an inversion layer at a low altitude do not contribute to the formation of clouds due to the effect of latitude - about 1000 m. The inversion is enhanced by cold currents and the rise of cold waters in the coastal upwelling zone, which is why the air near the ocean surface is colder than in upper layers. Inversion prevents the development of convection. However, the mW carried by strong daytime breezes to the coast contains a lot of water vapor. This increases the relative air humidity here to 83-85% and leads to the formation of dew and fog on the coasts at night. Humidity is negligible, so coastal deserts extend here. To designate the climate of coastal deserts washed by cold currents, the term “garua climate” is used (Spanish garua - dense drizzling fog).

On the eastern coasts of the continents, along which warm currents flow and above which the air receives a lot of moisture, the climate is different: high temperatures - +25...+28°C in summer, about +20°C in winter, quite a lot of precipitation - up to 1000 mm, especially in summer. Excessive moisture. In the humid climate of the tropical zone, evergreen tropical forests grow.

The oceanic climate of the tropical zone is formed in areas of high pressure with an inversion layer and stable winds. There is spatial heterogeneity of climatic conditions, manifested in the regime of all elements. In the east of the oceans, above cold currents, air temperatures are +20...+ 15°C, there is little precipitation; in the west of the oceans, due to warm currents, temperatures rise to +25...+20°C, precipitation becomes 500–1000 mm. Tropical hurricanes are typical.

The listed climate zones lie mainly within the boundaries of the hot thermal zone, limited by annual isotherms of +20°C (winter temperatures +15°C). In these zones, temperature differences are very insignificant, therefore the main signs of seasonal changes in nature are the amount and regime of precipitation. The development of vegetation is limited here not by temperature, but by precipitation, and not just by its annual quantity, but by the duration of dry and wet periods. The extent of natural plant zones is different: sometimes latitudinal, sometimes meridional; it is also subject to the regularities of moisture conditions.

67 Question. Classification of climates B.P. Alisova (subtropical).

Answer:

Subtropical zones. The climate is formed under the influence of seasonal changes in air masses: HF in summer, which is formed in the belt itself under the influence of high insolation, and HC in winter, coming from temperate latitudes.

The continental subtropical climate is arid, with hot (about +30°C) dry summers and cool (0... +5°C), relatively wet (200-250 mm) winters, with unstable frontal weather. Humidification is insufficient, so natural zones of deserts, semi-deserts, and dry steppes predominate. In Eurasia, this climate is developed in the center of the continent, far from the oceans, especially in basins. In North America, it formed on the Colorado Plateau and southern Great Basin Highlands as a result of their orographic isolation from marine influence.

The climate of the western coasts of the continents is called Mediterranean, since it is most typical of the Mediterranean coast (Southern Europe, Western Asia, North Africa), although there are areas with such a climate on other continents. It is characterized by relatively hot (more than + 20°C) dry summers with anticyclonic weather conditions, mild (about +10°C) wet (500-700 mm) winters with frontal precipitation and unstable weather. Vegetation – dry-loving evergreen hard-leaved forests and shrubs. Currently, vineyards, citrus plantations and other subtropical crops predominate.

The climate of the eastern coasts of the continents is monsoon, best expressed in Eurasia. In summer, a stable monsoon from the ocean (mTV) prevails, it is hot (+25°C), and humid. At the end of summer - beginning of autumn, typhoons from the sea with gusty winds and heavy precipitation are frequent. Winter is relatively cool (on average 0... +5°С, but in some places below 0°С) and relatively dry, since the monsoon from the land from seasonal baric highs, in particular from the Asian one, brings HF. But near the coasts and on the islands, frontal precipitation occurs even in winter. Total precipitation is about 1000 mm. Sufficient hydration. Vegetation – variable-humid deciduous broad-leaved and mixed forests. The degree of agricultural development is high.

The oceanic climate in terms of precipitation resembles the Mediterranean - summers are relatively dry, winters are wet with frontal precipitation. The temperature in summer is about 20°C, in winter 15°C.

The subtropical zone as a whole is characterized by predominantly positive (according to long-term data) temperatures throughout the year. However, in winter, short-term temperature drops to negative values ​​and even snowfall are possible here, especially in a monsoon climate. On the plains it melts quickly; in the mountains it can persist for up to several months. The exception is the largest and highest (4-5 km) highland in the world, Tibet, located in this belt. It is characterized by a special type of sharply continental climate: cool summers, harsh winters, and little precipitation. Highland deserts are developed in the highlands.

68 Question. Classification of climates B.P. Alisova (moderate).

Answer:

Temperate zones. In these belts, HC dominates throughout the year, but invasions of both TV (especially in summer) and AW (in summer and winter) are possible. In these belts, the radiation balance is peculiar: in summer it is positive due to the rather high altitude of the Sun and the significant length of the day, in winter it is negative due to the low altitude of the Sun, short daylight hours, and the high reflectivity of snow. A characteristic feature of the belts is intense cyclonic activity on fronts both between the TV and the SW, the SW and the AW, and between the MSW and the SW. It is associated with instability of weather conditions, especially in winter.

Continental climate – moderate continental and sharply continental; expressed only in the northern hemisphere - in Eurasia and North America. The CUV dominates, and MUV invasions from the west are not uncommon. On average, the temperature of the warmest summer month of July varies from +12°C in the north to +25... + 28°C in the south, the coldest - January - from -5°C in the west to -25...-30° C in the center of the continents, and in Yakutia even below –40°C. Low winter soil and air temperatures and small amounts of snow in Eastern Siberia support the existence of permafrost. Annual precipitation decreases from west to east from 700-600 mm to 300 mm and even to 200-100 mm in Central and Central Asia. In North America, precipitation decreases from east to west. In summer there is more precipitation than in winter, and this difference is more significant in the center of the continents, especially in Eastern Siberia, due to the very dry anticyclonic winter. Precipitation of frontal origin predominates: in summer it falls from the local SWM, in winter – from the incoming warmer SWW. In summer, convective precipitation also occurs, and in front of the mountains (for example, in front of the Tien Shan, Altai) there is orographic precipitation. Due to the large extent of the belt from north to south, it is often distinguished into a northern boreal part with cool summers and relatively harsh winters (coinciding with the taiga) and a southern subboreal part with warm summers and relatively mild winters. According to the degree of continentality of the climate, expressed primarily by the annual temperature amplitude, its varieties are distinguished: from moderate continental to sharply continental. Humidification varies from excessive in the north to severely insufficient in the south. Therefore, there is a rich range of natural vegetation zones: taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.

The climate of the western coasts of the continents is formed under the influence of the hydrocarbons formed over warm currents and brought by the prevailing westerly winds. That's why it is called a maritime climate. It is characterized by cool summers (+10°C in the north, +17°C in the south), mild winters with temperatures from 0 to +5°C. In winter in the north, temperatures drop to negative values ​​and snowfalls are common. There is a lot of precipitation - 800-1000 mm, in front of the mountains up to 1500 mm (southwest of Scandinavia) and even 3000 mm (western slopes of the Cordillera and Andes). The predominant precipitation is frontal and orographic. Excessive moisture. Coniferous and broad-leaved forests grow.

The climate of the eastern coasts of Asia is monsoon. There is a seasonal change in air masses here: in summer there is a warm and humid IHC, in winter there is a very cold and dry IHC from the Asian High. Accordingly, the temperature is about +20°C in summer and –10... –20°C in winter. The amount of summer precipitation is 10-20 times greater than winter, and its total amount varies from 500 to 1000 mm depending on the orography: there is more precipitation on the eastern slopes of the mountains. There is excessive moisture, mixed and coniferous forests grow. This climate is best expressed in the Primorsky Territory of Russia and Northeast China. In North America, the circulation of air masses is monsoonal, but the climate is uniformly humid.

The oceanic climate is expressed in the north of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and in the southern hemisphere. In summer temperatures are about + 12...+ 15°C, in winter +5... +8°C. Precipitation falls throughout the year, its annual amount is about 1000 mm. In the southern hemisphere, in the temperate zone, the oceanic climate with mild summers, mild winters, heavy frontal precipitation, westerly winds, and unstable weather (“roaring” forties latitudes) almost completely dominates. Temperatures here are lower than in the northern hemisphere.

69 Question. Classification of climates B.P. Alisova (subarctic, arctic, antarctic).

Answer:

Subarctic and subantarctic belts. They are characterized by seasonal changes in air masses: in summer, hydrocarbons are common here, and in winter, air masses are widespread.

Continental, including sharply continental, climate is observed only in the northern hemisphere in the north of Eurasia and North America. Air circulation is monsoonal. In summer, AW comes from the Arctic Ocean, which, under polar day conditions, is transformed into SWW. In winter, from the baric Asian and Canadian highs, southern winds bring very cold SW, which, under polar night conditions, cools even more and acquires the properties of SW. Summer is short, cool, with temperatures less than +10...+12°C and damp. Winter is severe (–40...–50°С), long, with little snow. In this belt - in Yakutia in the intermountain basin - the cold pole of the northern hemisphere is located - the village. Oymyakon, where the winter temperature was recorded at -71°C. The belt is characterized by large annual temperature amplitudes - up to 60-70°C. Precipitation – 200-100 mm, frontal – on the Arctic (Antarctic) front. Permafrost, excessive moisture, and large swamps are widespread. Typical zones are tundra and forest-tundra.

Marine (oceanic) climate is found in northern Europe, in the coastal seas of the Arctic Ocean (Barents, Greenland Seas), around Antarctica. Characterized by cool summers (+3...+5°С), floating sea and continental ice, relatively mild (–10...–15°С) winters. Precipitation is up to 500 mm, fog is constant. Tundra stretches along the coasts of the northern continents and islands. In the southern hemisphere, on the islands around Antarctica there are meadows with sparse herbaceous vegetation.

Arctic and Antarctic belts. They have a continental climate: in Antarctica, Greenland, and the islands of the Canadian archipelago. There are negative temperatures here all year round. In Antarctica, at the Vostok inland station, at an altitude of more than 3 km, an absolute minimum temperature of –89.2°C was recorded. Precipitation is less than 100 mm. Ice deserts are typical. Oceanic climate is observed mainly in the Arctic. Temperatures here are negative, but during the polar day they can reach +2°C. Precipitation is 100-150 mm, but when cyclones penetrate there it becomes more. The islands are characterized by tundra with sparse moss and lichen cover.

Climate plays a huge role in the nature of the Earth. The moisture content of the area depends on it. It determines the nature of vegetation, fauna, soil cover, the regime of rivers, lakes, seas, glaciers, the formation of certain rocks, and influences the formation of relief. Climate must be taken into account in people's economic activities, especially in agriculture, as well as in construction, industry, and transport. Climate and weather are of great importance for human health and activity.

70 Question. Optical phenomena in the atmosphere (halos, rainbows, glories, crowns, halos)

Climate- This is a long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular area. It manifests itself in the regular change of all types of weather observed in this area.

Climate influences living and inanimate nature. Water bodies, soil, vegetation, and animals are closely dependent on climate. Certain sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also very dependent on climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface; atmospheric circulation; the nature of the underlying surface. At the same time, climate-forming factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of a given area, primarily on geographical latitude.

The geographic latitude of the area determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, obtaining a certain amount of heat. However, receiving heat from the Sun also depends on proximity to the ocean. In places far from the oceans, there is little precipitation, and the precipitation regime is uneven (more in the warm period than in the cold), cloudiness is low, winters are cold, summers are warm, and the annual temperature range is large. This climate is called continental, as it is typical for places located in the interior of continents. A maritime climate is formed over the water surface, which is characterized by: a smooth variation in air temperature, with small daily and annual temperature amplitudes, large clouds, and a uniform and fairly large amount of precipitation.

The climate is also greatly influenced by sea ​​currents. Warm currents warm the atmosphere in the areas where they flow. For example, the warm North Atlantic Current creates favorable conditions for the growth of forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of the island of Greenland, which lies at approximately the same latitudes as the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is outside the zone of influence of the warm current, is available all year round covered with a thick layer of ice.

A major role in climate formation belongs to relief. You already know that with every kilometer the terrain rises, the air temperature drops by 5-6 °C. Therefore, on the high mountain slopes of the Pamirs the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is located just north of the tropics.

The location of mountain ranges greatly influences the climate. For example, the Caucasus Mountains trap moist sea winds, and their windward slopes facing the Black Sea receive significantly more precipitation than their leeward slopes. At the same time, the mountains serve as an obstacle to cold northern winds.

There is a dependence of climate on prevailing winds. On the territory of the East European Plain, westerly winds coming from the Atlantic Ocean prevail throughout almost the entire year, so winters in this territory are relatively mild.

Regions of the Far East are under the influence of monsoons. In winter, winds from the interior of the mainland constantly blow here. They are cold and very dry, so there is little precipitation. In summer, on the contrary, winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. In autumn, when the wind from the ocean subsides, the weather is usually sunny and calm. This is the best time of year in the area.

Climatic characteristics are statistical inferences from long-term weather observation series (25-50 year series are used in temperate latitudes; in the tropics their duration may be shorter), primarily on the following basic meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, temperature and air humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. They also take into account the duration of solar radiation, visibility range, temperature of the upper layers of soil and reservoirs, evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, height and condition of snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and ground hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.) . In the 20th century The climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, the amount of heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, and heat consumption for evaporation. Complex indicators are also used, i.e. functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Climate zones

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, frequency, etc. are called climate standards: corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as a deviation from these norms.

Maps with climate indicators are called climatic(temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on temperature conditions, prevailing air masses and winds, climatic zones.

The main climatic zones are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• Arctic and Antarctic.

Between the main zones there are transitional climatic zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subantarctic. In transitional zones, air masses change seasonally. They come here from neighboring zones, so the climate of the subequatorial zone in summer is similar to the climate of the equatorial zone, and in winter - to the tropical climate; The climate of the subtropical zones in summer is similar to the climate of the tropical zones, and in winter - to the climate of the temperate zones. This is due to the seasonal movement of atmospheric pressure belts over the globe following the Sun: in summer - to the north, in winter - to the south.

Climatic zones are divided into climatic regions. For example, in the tropical zone of Africa, areas of tropical dry and tropical humid climates are distinguished, and in Eurasia, the subtropical zone is divided into areas of Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climates. In mountainous areas, an altitudinal zone is formed due to the fact that the air temperature decreases with height.

Diversity of Earth's climates

The climate classification provides an orderly system for characterizing climate types, their zoning and mapping. Let us give examples of climate types that prevail over vast territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climate zones

Antarctic and Arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below O °C. During the dark winter season, these regions receive absolutely no solar radiation, although there are twilights and auroras. Even in summer, the sun's rays hit the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the efficiency of heating. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the ice. In both summer and winter, the higher elevations of the Antarctic Ice Sheet experience low temperatures. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern continent is large in size and altitude, and the Arctic Ocean moderates the climate, despite the widespread distribution of pack ice. During short periods of warming in summer, drifting ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of freezing fog. Inland areas receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but the coast can receive more than 500 mm. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant masses of snow, blowing it off the slope. Strong katabatic winds with snowstorms blow from the cold glacial sheet, carrying snow to the coast.

Table 1. Climates of the Earth

Climate type	Climate zone	Average temperature, °C		Mode and amount of atmospheric precipitation, mm	Atmospheric circulation	Territory
Equatorial	Equatorial			During a year. 2000	In areas of low atmospheric pressure, warm and humid equatorial air masses form	Equatorial regions of Africa, South America and Oceania
Tropical monsoon	Subequatorial			Mainly during the summer monsoon, 2000		South and Southeast Asia, Western and Central Africa, Northern Australia
tropical dry	Tropical			During the year, 200		North Africa, Central Australia
Mediterranean	Subtropical			Mainly in winter, 500	In summer there are anticyclones at high atmospheric pressure; in winter - cyclonic activity	Mediterranean, Southern coast of Crimea, South Africa, Southwestern Australia, Western California
Subtropical dry	Subtropical			During a year. 120	Dry continental air masses	Interiors of continents
Temperate marine	Moderate			During a year. 1000	Western winds	Western parts of Eurasia and North America
Temperate continental	Moderate			During a year. 400	Western winds	Interiors of continents
Moderate monsoon	Moderate			Mainly during the summer monsoon, 560		Eastern edge of Eurasia
Subarctic	Subarctic			During the year, 200	Cyclones predominate	Northern edges of Eurasia and North America
Arctic (Antarctic)	Arctic (Antarctic)			During the year, 100	Anticyclones predominate	The Arctic Ocean and mainland Australia

Subarctic continental climate is formed in the north of the continents (see climate map of the atlas). In winter, arctic air predominates here, which forms in areas of high pressure. Arctic air spreads to the eastern regions of Canada from the Arctic.

Continental subarctic climate in Asia is characterized by the largest annual amplitude of air temperature on the globe (60-65 °C). The continental climate here reaches its maximum value.

The average temperature in January varies across the territory from -28 to -50 °C, and in the lowlands and basins due to stagnation of air, its temperature is even lower. In Oymyakon (Yakutia), a record negative air temperature for the Northern Hemisphere was recorded (-71 °C). The air is very dry.

Summer in subarctic belt although short, it is quite warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 °C (daytime maximum is 20-25 °C). During the summer, more than half of the annual precipitation falls, amounting to 200-300 mm on the flat territory, and up to 500 mm per year on the windward slopes of the hills.

The climate of the subarctic zone of North America is less continental compared to the corresponding climate of Asia. There are less cold winters and colder summers.

Temperate climate zone

Temperate climate of the western coasts of the continents has pronounced features of a marine climate and is characterized by the predominance of marine air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Pacific coast of North America. The Cordillera is a natural boundary separating the coast with a maritime climate from inland areas. The European coast, except Scandinavia, is open to free access of temperate sea air.

The constant transport of sea air is accompanied by large clouds and causes long springs, in contrast to the interior of the continental regions of Eurasia.

Winter in temperate zone It's warm on the western coasts. The warming influence of the oceans is enhanced by warm sea currents washing the western shores of the continents. The average temperature in January is positive and varies across the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 °C. When arctic air invades, it can drop (on the Scandinavian coast to -25 °C, and on the French coast - to -17 °C). As tropical air spreads northward, the temperature rises sharply (for example, it often reaches 10 °C). In winter, on the western coast of Scandinavia, large positive temperature deviations from the average latitude (by 20 °C) are observed. The temperature anomaly on the Pacific coast of North America is smaller and amounts to no more than 12 °C.

Summer is rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16 °C.

Even during the day, the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 °C. Due to frequent cyclones, all seasons are characterized by cloudy and rainy weather. There are especially many cloudy days on the west coast of North America, where cyclones are forced to slow down their movement in front of the Cordillera mountain systems. In connection with this, great uniformity characterizes the weather regime in southern Alaska, where there are no seasons in our understanding. Eternal autumn reigns there, and only plants remind of the onset of winter or summer. Annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture, broad-leaved forests develop on the coasts, and in conditions of excess moisture, coniferous forests develop. The lack of summer heat reduces the upper limit of the forest in the mountains to 500-700 m above sea level.

Temperate climate of the eastern coasts of the continents has monsoon features and is accompanied by a seasonal change in winds: in winter, northwestern currents predominate, in summer - southeastern ones. It is well expressed on the eastern coast of Eurasia.

In winter, with the north-west wind, cold continental temperate air spreads to the coast of the mainland, which is the reason for the low average temperature of the winter months (from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevails. There is little precipitation in the southern coastal areas. The north of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka often fall under the influence of cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a thick snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, temperate sea air spreads along the Eurasian coast with a southeast wind. Summers are warm, with an average July temperature of 14 to 18 °C. Frequent precipitation is caused by cyclonic activity. Their annual quantity is 600-1000 mm, with most of them falling in summer. Fogs are common at this time of year.

Unlike Eurasia, the eastern coast of North America is characterized by maritime climate, which is expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the maritime type of annual variation in air temperature: the minimum occurs in February and the maximum in August, when the ocean is warmest.

The Canadian anticyclone, unlike the Asian one, is unstable. It forms far from the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winter here is mild, snowy, wet and windy. In snowy winters, the height of the snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With a southerly wind, there is often black ice. Therefore, some streets in some cities in eastern Canada have iron railings for pedestrians. Summer is cool and rainy. Annual precipitation is 1000 mm.

Temperate continental climate most clearly expressed on the Eurasian continent, especially in the regions of Siberia, Transbaikalia, northern Mongolia, as well as in the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of the temperate continental climate is the large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 °C. During the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface cools. The cooling effect of the land surface on the surface layers of air is especially great in Asia, where in winter a powerful Asian anticyclone forms and partly cloudy, windless weather prevails. The temperate continental air formed in the area of ​​the anticyclone has a low temperature (-0°...-40 °C). In valleys and basins, due to radiation cooling, the air temperature can drop to -60 °C.

In midwinter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the Arctic air. This very cold air of the Asian anticyclone extends to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the southeastern regions of Europe.

The winter Canadian anticyclone is less stable than the Asian anticyclone due to the smaller size of the North American continent. Winters here are less severe, and their severity does not increase towards the center of the continent, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, decreases somewhat due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental temperate air in North America has a higher temperature than continental temperate air in Asia.

The formation of a continental temperate climate is significantly influenced by the geographical features of the continents. In North America, the Cordillera mountain ranges are a natural boundary separating the maritime coastline from the continental inland areas. In Eurasia, a temperate continental climate is formed over a vast expanse of land, from approximately 20 to 120° E. d. Unlike North America, Europe is open to the free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into its interior. This is facilitated not only by the westerly transport of air masses, which dominates in temperate latitudes, but also by the flat nature of the relief, highly rugged coastlines and deep penetration of the Baltic and North Seas into the land. Therefore, a temperate climate of a lesser degree of continentality is formed over Europe compared to Asia.

In winter, sea Atlantic air moving over the cold land surface of the temperate latitudes of Europe retains its physical properties for a long time, and its influence extends throughout Europe. In winter, as the Atlantic influence weakens, the air temperature decreases from west to east. In Berlin it is 0 °C in January, in Warsaw -3 °C, in Moscow -11 °C. In this case, the isotherms over Europe have a meridional orientation.

The fact that Eurasia and North America face the Arctic basin as a broad front contributes to the deep penetration of cold air masses onto the continents throughout the year. Intense meridional transport of air masses is especially characteristic of North America, where arctic and tropical air often replace each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transformed due to the high speed of its movement, high moisture content and continuous low clouds.

In winter, the consequence of intense meridional circulation of air masses is the so-called “jumps” of temperatures, their large inter-day amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in northern Europe and Western Siberia, the Great Plains of North America.

During the cold period, they fall in the form of snow, a snow cover is formed, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates a supply of moisture in the spring. The depth of the snow cover depends on the duration of its occurrence and the amount of precipitation. In Europe, stable snow cover on flat areas forms east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalia - less than 20 cm. On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, snow cover forms only in some years. The lack of snow, along with low winter air temperatures, causes the presence of permafrost, which is not observed anywhere else on the globe at these latitudes.

In North America, snow cover is negligible on the Great Plains. To the east of the plains, tropical air increasingly begins to take part in frontal processes; it aggravates frontal processes, which causes heavy snowfalls. In the Montreal area, snow cover lasts up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summer in the continental regions of Eurasia is warm. The average July temperature is 18-22 °C. In the arid regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia, the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 °C.

In North America, continental air in summer is somewhat colder than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the smaller latitudinal extent of the continent, the large ruggedness of its northern part with bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes, and the more intense development of cyclonic activity compared to the interior regions of Eurasia.

In the temperate zone, the annual precipitation on the flat continental areas varies from 300 to 800 mm; on the windward slopes of the Alps more than 2000 mm falls. Most of the precipitation falls in summer, which is primarily due to an increase in the moisture content of the air. In Eurasia, there is a decrease in precipitation across the territory from west to east. In addition, the amount of precipitation decreases from north to south due to a decrease in the frequency of cyclones and an increase in dry air in this direction. In North America, a decrease in precipitation across the territory is observed, on the contrary, towards the west. Why do you think?

Most of the land in the continental temperate climate zone is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayans, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains, etc. In mountainous areas, climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains drops quickly with altitude. In winter, when cold air masses invade, the air temperature on the plains is often lower than in the mountains.

The influence of mountains on precipitation is great. Precipitation increases on windward slopes and at some distance in front of them, and decreases on leeward slopes. For example, differences in annual precipitation between the western and eastern slopes of the Ural Mountains in some places reach 300 mm. In mountains, precipitation increases with altitude to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the highest precipitation occurs at altitudes of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climate zone

Continental subtropical climate determined by the seasonal change of temperate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia is below zero in some places, in the northeast of China -5...-10°C. The average temperature of the warmest month ranges from 25-30 °C, with daily maximums exceeding 40-45 °C.

The most strongly continental climate in the air temperature regime is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and northern China, where the center of the Asian anticyclone is located in the winter season. Here the annual air temperature range is 35-40 °C.

Sharply continental climate in the subtropical zone for the high mountain regions of the Pamirs and Tibet, the altitude of which is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by cold winters, cool summers and low rainfall.

In North America, the continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateaus and in intermountain basins located between the Coast and Rocky Ranges. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30 °C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 °C and above. A temperature of +56.7 °C was recorded in Death Valley!

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern parts of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal in South Africa and the eastern coast of Australia. Summer in the humid subtropics is long and hot, with temperatures similar to those in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 °C, and the maximum is +38 °C. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0 °C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations. In the humid subtropics, average annual precipitation amounts range from 750 to 2000 mm, and the distribution of precipitation across seasons is quite uniform. In winter, rain and rare snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) occur in late summer and fall, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summers, typical for the western coasts of continents north and south of the tropics. In Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are typical for the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, which is the reason for calling this climate also Mediterranean. The climate is similar in southern California, central Chile, extreme southern Africa and parts of southern Australia. All these areas have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In inland areas, summer temperatures are significantly higher than on the coasts, and are often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. In summer, there are often fogs on the coasts near which ocean currents pass. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool and foggy, and the warmest month is September. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air currents mix towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downdrafts of air over the oceans cause the dry summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches maximum values ​​on the coasts and mountain slopes. In summer there is usually not enough rainfall for normal tree growth, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrubby vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, macchia and fynbos.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial climate type distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basin in South America and the Congo in Africa, on the Malacca Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. Usually the average annual temperature is about +26 °C. Due to the high midday position of the Sun above the horizon and the same length of day throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Moist air, cloud cover and dense vegetation prevent night cooling and keep maximum daytime temperatures below 37°C, lower than at higher latitudes. The average annual precipitation in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 3000 mm and is usually evenly distributed over the seasons. Precipitation is mainly associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal shifts of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two maximum precipitation during the year, separated by drier periods. Every day, thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics. In between, the sun shines in full force.