Presentation on the topic of Roman architecture. Presentation "Architecture of Ancient Rome" on history - project, report

“Roman law” - The first included mainly land, slaves, and draft animals. Both political and civil rights were the property of men. The seller could limit himself to silence, which was considered a sign of consent. Roman jurists gave a definition of property rights. Roman law. Mancipation was carried out as follows.

"Ancient Roman Art" - Octavian Augustus of Prima Porta. The statue of Marcus Aurelius is a bronze ancient Roman statue. The figure of a mature man. Gaius Julius Caesar. Landscape sketches are increasingly found in fresco paintings. In the 4th-5th centuries. the collapse of the Roman Empire occurred. Bronze statue of Aulus Metellus from the Florence Museum. Fine art of Ancient Rome.

“Philosophy of Ancient Rome” - To introduce listeners to Ancient Roman literature and philosophy. Yes, I remembered, although not without sin, two verses from the Aeneid. Target. Stoicism. Juvenal earned fame as one of the irreconcilable and harsh satirists. Seneca became a prominent representative of Stoicism. So, Ancient Rome made a huge contribution to the development of literature and philosophy.

“Gods of Rome” - 1. What is freedom? Through serving people (Mark 12:39-41). 9. The freedom of Christ makes man capable of enjoying God. 4. Why does God free man? A free Christian is bound by the Word of God, knowledge of Truth, growth in Christ, etc. The word that gives life! 8. The freedom of Christ gives eternal life!

“Education in Ancient Rome” - Educational centers. Studying programs. School canon. Child's education. Grammar school. Education system in ancient Rome. Training programs in rhetoric schools. Traditions of Greek culture. Romans. Practical orientation. Private paid schools. Roman civilization. Educational process.

“The Art of Ancient Rome” - The most valuable things were kept here - the city treasury. 497 BC Rome. The Ionic order colonnade is the best preserved. Over the course of several centuries, the Forum was rebuilt several times. Trajan's Column. Architecture of Ancient Rome. Roman forum -. from 4th century BC. center of business and social life of the city.

There are 19 presentations in total

ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT ROME Roman construction was innovative. Although it benefited from the achievements of Hellenistic architecture, all the ARCHITECTURE OF ANCIENT ROME
Roman construction was innovative. Although it
benefited from the achievements of Hellenistic architecture,
anyway it implements its concept, with a new
approach to space and architectural form. Progress
construction equipment was moving quickly, especially regarding
specific tasks (water supply, wastewater treatment plants,
supporting walls, military vehicles, camps).
The Romans began to use
construction concrete. In designs
structures used arches and domes.
There is already a need for the late republic
decorate the city. Architecture was the leading art
Ancient Rome.

In Roman architecture the main place was occupied
buildings that embodied ideas of power
the Roman state, and later the emperor,
aimed at gaining popularity among
free population of cities: forums,
triumphal arches, amphitheatres, baths,
basilicas, engineering structures,
serving the cities of the Roman Empire and
first of all - the gigantic center of the metropolis,
city ​​of Rome.

Triumphal Arch of Titus

Triumphal Arch of Titus (Italian: Arco di Tito) -
single-span arch located on an ancient
The Sacred Road (Via Sacra) southeast of
Roman Forum. Built by the Emperor
Domitian shortly after the death of Titus in 82 AD. e.
in memory of the capture of Jerusalem in 70 AD. e.
Served as a model for many triumphal arches
New time.
The arch is widely known primarily for its
bas-relief inside the span. It depicts
procession with trophies captured in Jerusalem.

Arc de Triomphe of Titus 81

Construction equipment rises to great heights,
the art of engineering is developing, using
achievements of Hellenistic science. Are being created
grandiose aqueducts supplying water to dozens of
kilometers (Aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 311 BC),
roads (Via Appia, 312 BC;), bridges, sewers
(Cloaca Maxima in Rome).

Fragment of the intracity branch of the Claudius aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) in modern times. Via Turati.

The Appian Way (lat. Via Appia) is the most significant of the ancient public roads of Rome.

Appian Way (lat. Via Appia) - the most
significant of the ancient public roads
Rome.

Appian Way

The road was built in 312 BC. e. under the censor
Appia Claudia Caece, passed from Rome to Capua,
later it was carried out to Brundisium. Through her
communication between Rome and Greece and Egypt was established
and Asia Minor.
Along the Appian Way there are many
monuments: tombs and villas of the Republican and
imperial period, Christian and Jewish
catacombs, medieval towers and fortifications,
often built on the ruins of Roman
monuments, Renaissance and Baroque buildings.

The architect had a privileged position in Roman society, far above that of sculptors and painters. Type of Roman temple origin

The architect had a privileged position in the Roman
society, much higher than the place of sculptors and painters. Type
Roman temple comes from Etruscan, later from Greek,
however, its form corresponds to a different ritual.

It had the character of a public ceremony, where
government authorities are involved and
population, takes place in the open air -
therefore, a great deal was done in front of the temple
free space. The structure is placed on
high podium, which emphasizes the facade, on
sky background becoming grandiose
decoration.

The Roman theater also depends on ancient Greek, but the Romans did not use the natural slopes of the hill, but built on level ground in the shape of a b

Roman theater also depends on ancient Greek, but the Romans did not
used the natural slopes of the hill, and built on a flat
place in the shape of a large stone ring. Orchestra gradually
loses its significance, turning into VIP places. Back wall
(skene) becomes an architectural structure. Love to
gladiatorial battles led to the emergence of amphitheaters
round and oval shape by combining two mirror
hemispheres

The intensive urban planning of the Romans influenced urban development. Forums are a special type of building. Specific architectural appearance

The intensive urban planning of the Romans influenced
urban development. Forums are a special type of building.
Large buildings also acquired a specific architectural appearance.
city ​​arteries. Freestanding arches have become typical
element of urban decoration - the ancient function of the gate
translated here into the language of pure decorativeness.

Architecture experienced a boom during the reign of the Flavian dynasty (69 – 96 AD). One of the pinnacles of Roman architecture is the amphitheater

Architecture experienced a boom during the Flavian dynasty
(69 – 96 AD). One of the pinnacles of Roman architecture is
Flavian amphitheater, or Colosseum (75 - 82 AD). Flavian Amphitheater -
The Colosseum became the symbol of the city. This is a huge building that housed
about 50,000 spectators, intended for gladiatorial fights and
baiting of animals. The size of the arena allowed the release of up to 3000 pairs
gladiators at the same time. The amphitheater was carefully designed,
transport and pedestrian flows are separated. The Colosseum dominated
above the landscape, completed the monumental perspective of the city.

Emperor Hadrian, a lover of Greece, gave the culture of his time a distinctly classical character. Basic schemes of Roman architecture

Emperor Hadrian, lover of Greece gave culture
of its time with a pronounced classical character.
The basic schemes of Roman architecture are being reworked,
but with strict adherence to the established form.
Pantheon - temple of all gods (about 125), one of
the most remarkable architectural monuments. Restoring
The Pantheon started by Agrippa and burned, Hadrian clearly
planned a perfect round temple.

Pantheon

The height of the cup-shaped dome is visual
enlarged thanks to caissons and compluvium,
through which light spreads evenly.
The viewer entering the temple finds himself inside
grandiose under-dome space.
The gigantic dimensions of the structure (the height of the temple is
42.7 m, internal diameter of the dome - 43.5 m) in
connection with harmonic proportions and
noble beauty of architectural forms
create the impression of exceptional strength.

MHC 10th grade

Architectural achievements of Ancient Rome

The presentation was made by

Teacher of Fine Arts, Technology and MHC

Eremeeva I.V.

Art culture Ancient Rome

The history of Ancient Rome spans more than twelve centuries.

When we talk about Ancient Rome, we mean not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the lands it conquered from Egypt to the British Isles.

The art of Ancient Rome was able not only to inherit, but also to creatively develop the best achievements of the ancient Greek masters, creating its own original style.

In the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome, three main periods are distinguished:

• Etruscan era VII - IV centuries. BC.
• The era of the Roman Republic IV - I centuries. BC.
• The era of the Roman Empire I - IV centuries. AD

Architecture of the Roman Republic period.

• Ancient Roman civilization gave the world carefully planned cities, palaces and temples, public institutions, paved roads and magnificent bridges.

• During the era of the Roman Republic, the main types of architectural structures developed: public buildings, basilicas and temples, roads, bridges and aqueducts.
• Cities were characterized by a regular layout.
• Architectural structures were located in strict order on huge quadrangular squares, or forums, and wide streets marked the beginning of a new era in urban planning.

• From the 6th century BC e. The famous Roman Forum became the center of business and social life of the city. People's assemblies were held here, the most important issues of war and peace, government administration were decided, trade deals were concluded...
• There were many buildings, monuments and statues on the Forum grounds. The most important roads of the state began from the Forum, and the main streets of the city converged on it.
• Over the course of several centuries, the Forum was rebuilt several times. At the beginning of the 2nd century. N. e. Marcus Ulpius Troyan built the most grandiose Forum, which was said to be the only structure on earth before which even the gods were amazed.

Trajan's Column

• The most remarkable monument in the Forum was the 38-meter-tall Column of Trajan. Made from 20 blocks of Carara marble.
• From top to bottom, the column is spirally covered with reliefs telling about the military campaigns of Trajan (the length of the relief ribbon reaches 200 m)
• This majestic structure was intended to glorify not only the emperor himself, but also the power of the entire state.
• Later, the column served as a tombstone for Trajan (at its base there is a room with a golden urn where the ashes of the emperor are kept.

Appian Way

• Roman architecture always sought to satisfy the practical needs of man. The construction of roads is admirable.
• The famous Appian Way, paved with crushed stone and concrete slabs with the addition of volcanic ash for strength, has been well preserved to this day (laid from Rome to Capua).

• Structures in the form of a stone or concrete arched bridge, which served to lay water pipes across deep ravines, were the embodiment of a bold architectural design and the highest construction technology.
• At the same time, aqueducts and viaducts formed a single whole with the surrounding landscape.

Masterpieces of architecture from the Roman Empire era

• The distinctive features of architecture are now monumentality, the spread of vaulted structures, wall cladding with brick and marble, and the use of concrete.
• Among the architectural structures of Ancient Rome, spectacular buildings are of particular interest.
• The largest of them is the Colosseum, where pantomimes were performed, gladiator fights took place, and wild animals were tamed.

• The Colosseum (Latin “colloseus” - colossal) is a huge oval bowl 188 meters long, 156 meters wide and 50 meters high. Construction of the Colosseum took 10 years.
• In the center of the Colosseum there is an arena surrounded by stepped benches for spectators, the number of which reached 56 thousand.
• The outside of the amphitheater is entirely covered with travertine and has four tiers. The three lower ones represent arched propets running along the entire profile, cut by pilasters and semi-columns in the canonical sequence: on the first tier - Doric, on the second - Ionic, and on the third - Corinthian. The fourth, upper tier, completed a little later, is a solid wall, dissected by Corinthian pilasters and cut through by small windows. The crowning cornice still has holes where supports were inserted to stretch a bright awning, protecting spectators from the heat.

Pantheon

• Also, one of the masterpieces of Roman architecture is the Pantheon - “temple of all gods” (which has no analogues in ancient Roman architecture.

Triumphal Arch of Emperor Titus

• It is impossible to imagine the architectural appearance of Ancient Rome without triumphal arches erected in honor of the victories of the Romans in military campaigns.

• Among the largest public buildings of Ancient Rome, it is necessary to name the buildings term(public baths), which are an integral part of any city. The baths served as a place of relaxation and entertainment; visiting them was part of the daily life of the Romans.
• So in Rome there were a great many of them: 12 large imperial baths and hundreds of private ones. The most famous baths of Emperor Caracalla. The inside was lined with colored marble.

conclusion

• Roman architecture left a rich heritage for posterity

Roman art developed as a result of the interaction of the art of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the Etruscans, with Greek art. The connection with Greek art was carried out first through Magna Graecia (Greek city-colonies in southern Italy and Sicily), then it significantly intensified as a result of the conquest of Greece by Rome. The art of Ancient Italy and Ancient Rome falls into three main periods: 1. The art of Dorian Italy (III millennium BC - III century BC). 2. Art of the Roman Republic (III - I centuries BC). 3. Art of the Roman Empire (late 1st century BC - 5th century AD). In pre-Roman Italy, there were numerous ethnic groups with distinct identities. In the 8th - 4th centuries. BC e. Etrurian art played a dominant role in central Italy. At the same time in southern Italy and Sicily in the 7th - 3rd centuries. BC e. The art of Magna Graecia developed. After the unification of all of Italy under the rule of Rome in the 60s of the 3rd century. BC e. the ground arose for uniting the art of individual peoples and regions of Italy into a single Roman art.

Rome had no aesthetic tradition or image associated with the idea of ​​nature or the sacred. Therefore, everything that related to figurative art (be it Etruscan or Greek art) was considered alien and therefore dangerous for preserving the rigid, harsh tradition of the way of life. Art was an unworthy, low craft for a Roman citizen (so said Cato). However, the art of other peoples, trophies, was considered a worthy reward for the winner. Exhibited at the forum, it testified to Roman valor and became part of Russian history. A new aesthetic emerged: art was seen as history in images, accessible even to simpletons. Art also had an educational role and became a tool of management. Etruscan art was very suitable to reinforce this thesis. Hellenistic, although built on contemplation and knowledge, the philosophy of beauty, was used by the Romans for utilitarian purposes. Hence the leading role of official civil architecture in Roman art, hence the development in sculpture of the individual portrait and protocol-narrative historical relief, hence the exceptional development of various areas of Roman law, etc. On the contrary, in such forms of art as monumental sculpture and painting , as well as in poetry, the Romans were less original, and here their dependence on Greek and Hellenistic models is more pronounced.

ARCHITECTURE If the sculpture and painting of Ancient Rome are indeed, not without reason, suspected of being secondary, then Roman architecture is a truly creative feat that does not give rise to such doubts. Moreover, from the very beginning its development reflected the uniquely Roman character of public and personal life, so that any elements borrowed from the Etruscans or the Greeks very soon acquired the indelible imprint of the Roman style. If for Greece the main type of architectural structure was the temple, then in Roman architecture the main place was occupied by buildings that embodied the ideas of the power of the Roman state, and later the emperor, aimed at gaining popularity among the free population of cities: forums, triumphal arches, amphitheaters, baths, basilicas, palaces and villas, engineering structures that served the cities of the Roman Empire and, above all, the gigantic center of the metropolis, the city of Rome. Construction equipment rises to great heights, and the art of engineering develops, using the achievements of Hellenistic science. Grandiose aqueducts are created, supplying water for tens of kilometers (Aqueduct of Appius Claudius, 311 BC), roads (Via Appia, 312 BC), bridges, sewage canals (Cloaca Maxima in Rome).

At the turn of the 3rd - 2nd centuries. BC e. A new building material comes into use - waterproof and extremely durable Roman concrete, the components of which were lime mortar, volcanic sand (pozzolana) and crushed stone. Initially, concrete was used in the construction of roads, then it became widespread in the construction of buildings and not only reduced the cost of construction, but also contributed to the emergence of new structures - vaulted ceilings of large rooms, which, in turn, gave rise to new architectural solutions. The Romans widely used the achievements of Greek architecture, but, turning to certain types, compositional techniques, and architectural forms of Greek buildings, the Romans radically reworked them. For example, the system of architectural orders created by the Greeks received a new interpretation from the Romans in accordance with the new tasks that were resolved in Roman architecture. Unlike the Greek architects, for whom the order was the logical expression of the design, the Roman architects understood the order mainly as decoration.

The use of new architectural forms required a radical change in supports: the columns that the Greeks used to support relatively light horizontal beams and ceilings were no longer suitable for supporting heavy arches, vaults and domes; it was necessary to replace them with something more solid, more capable of bearing a significant load. Roman architects almost stop using columns for this purpose and resort, instead, to massive walls and pilasters. However, they do not completely eliminate the column from their architecture, but it takes on a predominantly decorative meaning, serving to mask the nakedness of the pilasters and the dryness of the wall surfaces. The logical, rational meaning that the column had among the Greeks is, if not lost, then greatly distorted in Roman architecture; at the same time, other motifs determined by the column lose their strict meaning and proportionality. As for the style of columns, the Romans did not invent anything of their own in this regard: they took ready-made Greek styles and only modified them to their taste. Thus, five orders were formed: Tuscan Roman Doric, Roman Ionic, Roman Corinthian, Composite

Scheme of architectural orders: a - Tuscan, b - Doric, c - Ionic, d - Corinthian, e - composite Capitals: a - Tuscan, b - Doric, c - Ionic, d - Corinthian, e - composite

The Roman Doric order has almost nothing in common with the Greek order of the same name. It is distinguished primarily by the violation of proportions: the column has become longer (the height is related to the diameter of the base not as 5: 1, but as 7: 1); its fust (trunk) loses its swelling (ancient Greek ἔντασις) and is a straight, dry trunk, tapering upward; its dryness is all the more noticeable because the column mostly remained without flutes, and if there were any on it, they began only at ⅓ of the height of the fusta. Under the capital there was no sunken tubule encircling the fust, but instead there was a convex ring. The capital's cushion did not seem to be pressed down from the weight lying above the column and had a hard, dry profile. The abacus became thicker and received a kind of cornice in its upper part. The column below, instead of starting directly with a fustus, rests on a shaft-shaped base lying on a quadrangular plinth. Finally, the entablature became much lower and lighter. The Tuscan order is an architectural order that arose in Ancient Rome at the turn of the 1st century BC. e. and 1st century AD e. It is a simplified version of the Doric order, from which it differs in a smooth frieze and a column without flutes.

The Tuscan order has massive parts. The column is smooth, its height is equal to 7 lower diameters. At 1/3 of the height the column is flat, and above it it thins to the capital at 1/5 of the lower diameter. The column ends with a simple round capital. The frieze and architrave are smooth. Such an order is often finished entirely by plasterers; sometimes the capital is prepared by molders and installed after finishing the column.

As for the Roman Ionic order, it lost among the Romans to a large extent the noble grace that it had among the Greeks: its column is often left without flutes, and if they cover it, they stretch from below to the very volutes, reducing the ornamentation underneath them into a small strip . Volutes do not represent those curves that in the Greek Ionic order give them the appearance of an elastic pillow with hanging down and curled edges; the front pair of them is connected to the rear by a straight shaft, and there is something sharp and metallic about their spiral shape.

Both of these orders, Doric and Ionic, seemed to the Romans, partial to pomp and splendor, too simple and poor: therefore they preferably used the Corinthian order, remaking it in their own way and giving it greater luxury. In the capitals of the Corinthian column they increased the number of acanthus leaves and gave them a slightly different appearance, rounding and twisting their edges; in addition, for greater elegance, they mixed in the leaves of laurel and other plants, and sometimes these capital decorations were cast in bronze. Capital from Tivoli - T and Temple of Jupiter Stator - S

Composite (complex) order. It is a combination of elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders - both volutes and an ornament in the form of acanthus leaves are used in the capitals.

What follows are options of a completely arbitrary nature, which cannot be classified, since they are countless. The Gallic school is especially prolific in this regard. Christian basilicas, for which antique Corinthian capitals were indiscriminately used, represent as ornamentation either eagles, or lying animals replacing volutes, or, finally, weapons folded like trophies. The decoration with two rows of leaves seemed too magnificent for the small capitals, and they willingly reduced it to one row. In other cases, simplification consisted in simplifying the processing of leaves itself; for example, the leaves of the upper order of the Colosseum are deliberately, for greater visibility at a distance, hewn only roughly (Figure R). Figure T shows the so-called complex variant with an Ionian capital on a double row of leaves. This combination immediately recalls the Ionian origin of the Corinthian order. Example D is taken from the Arch of Titus. The capitals of the S form are so closely related to both styles that it becomes difficult to decide which of the two they should be assigned to.

Architecture was fueled by the practical and ideological interests of the republic, which is why the progress of construction technology proceeded so quickly, especially regarding specific tasks (water supply, sewage treatment plants, supporting walls, military vehicles, camps). In the late republic the need to decorate the city was already felt. Under Sulla, large public buildings appeared (for example, the tabularium), and the city was improved. Caesar develops a master plan, legitimizing it with a decree de urbe augenda (“On the prosperity of the city”), which solves the problem of population growth and deteriorating sanitary conditions. This project was carried out entirely by Agrippa and Augustus. It became a tradition for emperors to imprint the traces of their reign in the appearance of the city.

PERIODS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE I period: from the founding of Rome to the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. The Great Cloaca, the Apian Way, Aqueducts, the Mamertine Prison, the first basilicas. II period: from the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. before the fall of the republic (31 BC) Temples of Portunus and Vesta in Rome, Tabularium, three-tiered wooden theater of M. Scaurus (58 BC), Theater of Pompey on the Campus Martius, Theater of Marcellus, Basilica Aemilia and Julia at the Forum, Temple of Venus the Progenitor, etc. III period: from the beginning of the reign of Augustus to the death of Emperor Hadrian (138 AD) Triumphal arches, imperial forums, Colosseum, Pantheon, baths, Hadrian's Villa in Tivoli, etc. IV period: from the death of Hadrian to the victory of Christianity over paganism (138 -300 AD) Baths, the Temple of Baal in Baalbek, the Basilica of Maxentius-Constantine, etc.

The oldest local type of Roman temple was, apparently, a temple with a circular plan. This is the round temple in Tibur (Tivoli) of the 1st century. BC e. This small building stands on a high podium; the round cella is surrounded by 18 Corinthian columns of light, slender proportions. The temple is extremely beautifully set among rocks and many cascades. Elements of the architectural decor of the temple in Tibur (frieze, cassettes of the ceiling) indicate the study of monuments of Hellenistic architecture. Located on the banks of the Tiber, the Temple of Hercules (previously considered the Temple of Vesta) in the Bull Market in Rome is also circular in shape. Temple of Hercules the Victorious (formerly Vesta) at the Bull Market in Rome

Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum (reconstruction of the 2nd century AD) The Temple of Vesta formed a single architectural complex with the House of the Vestals and was functionally and topographically united with the residence of the Great Pontiff - the Regia. The Sacred Fire burned in it forever, and the most important shrines of the Roman state were kept, according to legend, brought here from Troy by Aeneas. The main one was the wooden statue of Pallas, which in Roman mythology is identified with the goddess Minerva, and in Greek with Athena.

This ancient palladium and other objects sacred to the Romans have since then been securely hidden in the cache of the Temple of Vesta (presumably in the depths of its podium), which was only accessible from the sanctuary. There has never been an image of the goddess Vesta herself in this cult place; she was personified here by the ever-burning Sacred Fire. Every year on June 9, the Feast of Vesta was celebrated in Rome, the Romans came barefoot to the temple, made sacrifices to their goddess, and asked her for protection and intercession for their city and their homes. On this holiday, it was forbidden to force donkeys to work, since according to legend, the cry of this animal woke up the goddess at the moment when she was in danger (Priapus intended to dishonor her).

Initially (in the 7th century BC), the Temple of Vesta in the Roman Forum was built in full accordance with the spirit and style of Roman dwellings of that time - it was an adobe structure covered with straw and reeds. The history of the temple includes many cases when it was in danger of destruction, looting and fire, and therefore was repeatedly rebuilt and restored. Historians identify seven stages in its existence and, accordingly, seven variants of the structure itself. The first is considered to be a temple made of clay, the second - made of brick. It was seriously damaged by fire in 390 BC. e. and was rebuilt from stone in combination with wood, but it could not avoid destruction, which was caused by a fire in 241 BC. e. Rebuilt once again, the temple almost burned down again in 210 BC. e. , when a fire damaged many buildings around it. The Temple of Vesta then owed its salvation to 13 slaves who received freedom for this feat. In this form, the structure existed for more than 200 years, after which it was again damaged by fire, and then it was rebuilt in the same place, but in marble. Once again the temple was almost completely burned down in the great fire of 64 AD. e. , after which just a year later it was again restored by Nero. And the last time the temple of the goddess Vesta, after another severe fire in 191, was reconstructed by Julia Domna, the wife of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. From that moment on, the temple began to look like a round stone structure in the shape of a tholos on a high podium, with a colonnade and a conical metal dome.

Sanctuary of Fortune the First Born (Primigenia). The oldest of the architectural monuments, where the scale of Roman architecture was fully demonstrated. The temple was located in Palestrina, in the spurs of the Apennine Mountains, east of Rome. Here, in the Etruscan citadel that was once of great importance, since ancient times there has been an unusual cult of Fortuna (the goddess of fate) as the primordial deity - in combination with the famous oracle located right there.

The sanctuary, built by the Romans, dates back to the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. A system of ramps and terraces leads to a huge courtyard decorated with a colonnade, from where we climb a wide staircase, the steps of which resemble the arrangement of seats in an ancient Greek theater, to the semicircular colonnade that completes this entire structure. The passages covered with arches Reconstruction of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Palestrina, framed by semi-columns and entablatures, as well as niches in the shape of a semicircle play an important role. With the exception of columns and architraves, all surfaces open to our eyes today are concrete; Indeed, it is difficult to imagine what other construction equipment would have made it possible to create a complex of such length.

It is not only the scale of the sanctuary at Palestrina that makes it so impressive, but also how perfectly it fits into the landscape. The entire hillside, which dominates the surrounding area and thus resembles the Acropolis of Athens, has been transformed so that it seems as if the architectural forms are a continuation of the rocks, as if people had completed the construction begun by nature itself. Such processing of open spaces was impossible in the countries of classical Greek culture - and they did not strive for this (something similar can only be found in Ancient Egypt). The arch and vault that we encountered in Palestrina, which serve as an essential and integral element of Roman monumental architecture, testify not only to the high technology of construction in Ancient Rome, but also to the sense of order and constancy characteristic of the Romans, which inspired them to create such structures.

The most typical type for Roman temples is the so-called pseudoperipter, which combines elements of the Greek peripter with the compositional principles of Etruscan temples. Early buildings of this kind include the small temple of Fortuna Virilis in Rome (now considered the temple of the god Porthurn) (1st century BC). The temple stands on a high podium, the rectangular cella is moved inward, forming a deep portico with two rows of columns in front of the entrance; the columns surrounding the cella on the other three sides seem to enter its wall, turning into semi-columns. The staircase located in front of the portico accentuates the façade of the building. The temple was built in the Ionic order.

The Roman temple of this and subsequent eras usually consisted of one cella of an oblong, quadrangular shape, standing on a high foundation, and to which a staircase led only from one, short, front side. Climbing this staircase, you find yourself in a portico with columns, in the depths of which there is a door leading to the cella, which receives light only through this door when it is open. Sometimes the columns decorated only the portico of the temple (prostyle); sometimes the sides of the cella (genus periptera) were also furnished nearby, but they were not present on the back side; sometimes, instead of real columns, half-columns protruding from the walls of the cella (genus pseudoperiptera) were used. The roof of the building was always gable, with a triangular pediment above the portico. Maison Carrée (French Maison Carrée; lit. “square house”) is the best preserved ancient Roman temple in France. Located in the center of Nimes (Provence). According to the previously existing inscription above the entrance, it was consecrated by the stepsons of Emperor Augustus ca. 1 BC e. The length of the temple is 25 m, width 12 m. In the 4th century. the temple was converted into a church, which saved it from destruction.

Tabularium (Latin tabularium) is a state archive in Ancient Rome, which stored popular decrees and other state acts (Latin tabulae publicae). In 78 BC e. next to the Temple of Saturn, Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus built a general state archive (Latin tabularium or aerarium Saturni), the remains of which have survived to this day. The facade of the building was an order arcade, consisting of two tiers. The tabularium building is the earliest surviving structure in which the Roman cell system of architecture was used, combining two opposing design principles - beam and vaulted structures.

During the period of the late Republic, a type of theater building had already developed in Rome. Structures of this type include the Great Theater in Pompeii, the Theater of Pompey on the Campus Martius in Rome (55 - 52 BC) and the temporary theater of Marcus Scaurus, known from the description of Pliny. The fundamental difference between the Roman theater and the Greek one was that the Roman theater was an independent building, and was not carved into the rock, like the Greek one; the second feature was the presence of a stage building, whereas in the Greek theater of the classical era a real landscape unfolded behind the stage area. Thus, the internal space of the Roman theater was closed and isolated; The Greek theater is organically connected with nature, the Roman theater is more of an urban structure. The substructures were used as a foyer system and contributed to the rapid filling and emptying of the theater by spectators. Substructure - a retaining structure on which a building was erected. They were widely used in the architecture of the countries of Western Asia in the form of high platforms made of bulk soil or mud brick, and in Roman architecture, often in the form of vaulted galleries made of stone, brick and concrete). In this case, a system of vaulted galleries.

Theater of Pompey. Reconstruction of the theater The idea of ​​​​founding a theater arose from Gnaeus Pompey the Great during a visit to Mytilene on Lesbos in 63 BC. e. According to Plutarch, Pompey, having examined the Mytilene theater, decided to build a similar structure in Rome based on its model, but of a larger size. Pompey ordered the foundation of the theater after his triumph in 61 BC. e. , the building was consecrated in 55 BC. e. The theater, located on the Champ de Mars, accommodated 40 thousand spectators; in the 4th century AD e. the theater attracted only 11,600 spectators, which was most likely due to its dilapidation. The theater was the first stone theater in Rome; the seats and interior of the theater were decorated with marble. The portico of Pompey was adjacent to the theater, and the Curia of Pompey was also located nearby, where meetings of the Senate were sometimes held.

Bolshoi Theater in Pompeii Pompeii Odeon For theatrical performances in Pompeii, two theaters were built - the Bolshoi Theater and the Small Theater or Odeon. The Bolshoi Theater accommodated up to 5,000 spectators; tragedies and comedies were staged here. What distinguished this theater was that it had a natural background: a range of mountains was visible behind the stage. And it could be used as decoration. The Maly Theater had more modest dimensions: it could accommodate up to 1,500 spectators. It was a concert hall for mime and musical performances. The actors performed wearing masks, and such performances did not last long.

Theater of Marcellus in Rome Its construction was conceived by Julius Caesar and carried out by Octavian Augustus, who in 12 BC. e. dedicated the theater to the memory of his late nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus. With a diameter of 111 meters, the theater could accommodate 11 thousand spectators. In the Middle Ages, the building was rebuilt into a fortress, over which was built the palace of the noble Orsini family.

The amphitheater, which was like a combination of semicircles of two theaters and intended for various spectacles - baiting animals, gladiator fights, etc. - was an entirely Roman invention and reached its most complete development in the imperial era in the Flavian amphitheater - the Colosseum (80) Amphitheater in Pompeii 1st century n. e.

Colosseum (from Latin colosseus - huge, colossal) or Flavian amphitheater. The construction of the largest amphitheater in the entire ancient world took place over eight years, as a collective construction of the emperors of the Flavian dynasty: construction began in 72 AD. e. under Emperor Vespasian, and in 80 AD. This year the amphitheater was consecrated by Emperor Titus.

Having become emperor, Vespasian decided to reconstruct the center of Rome and strengthen his own cult, eradicating the memory of his predecessor Nero. A difficult problem remained unresolved: what to do with Nero's palace, the Golden House, as it was called, which, together with the adjacent park, occupied an area of ​​120 hectares in the center of Rome. Vespasian decided to place imperial institutions in it, fill up the lake near the house and build an amphitheater intended for the entertainment of the people. It was a well-considered decision: with the construction of the amphitheater, the lands used by Nero were transferred to the people.

For a long time, the Colosseum was for the residents of Rome and visitors the main place for entertainment spectacles, such as gladiator fights, animal persecution, naval battles (naumachia) (presumably before the construction of basements under the arena under the brother and heir to the throne of Titus, Emperor Domitian). Under Emperor Macrinus in 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by fire, but the Colosseum on the ancient Roman was restored by order of Alexander coin 80 Architectural and Logistic North. In 248, Emperor Philip again applied the decision in the Colosseum and celebrated in it with great celebrations, called vomitoria (from the ideas of the millennium, Latin vomere “to spew out”), the existence of Rome. Honorius in 405 is still used in the construction of stadiums: many prohibited gladiatorial battles as entrances are located evenly in disagreement with the spirit of Christianity. along the entire perimeter of the building. Thanks to this, the public could fill the Colosseum in 15 minutes and leave in 5.

The walls of the Colosseum were built from large pieces or blocks of travertine stone or travertine marble, which were quarried in the nearby city of Tivoli. The blocks were connected to each other by steel ties with a total weight of approximately 300 tons; Local tuff and brick were also used for the internal parts. Like other Roman amphitheatres, the Flavian Amphitheater is elliptical in plan, the middle of which is occupied by an arena (also elliptical in shape) and surrounding concentric rings of seats for spectators. The Colosseum differs from all structures of this kind in its size: the length of its outer ellipse is 524 m, the major axis is 187.77 m, the minor axis is 155.64 m, the length of the arena is 85.75 m, its width is 53.62 m; the height of its walls is from 48 to 50 meters. With such dimensions, it could accommodate about 50 thousand spectators.

The structure of the Colosseum reflects the stratification of Roman society during the reign of Vespasian and Titus. Senators and guests of the state sat on the first tier and watched what was happening in the arena from close proximity. Next were 3 tiers for the male civilian population, who occupied places according to social and professional class status. On the upper floor, in a later period, an additional wooden tier was built for the lower classes of the population and women.

The lower row, or podium Later, during the time (lat. podium), was the reign of the emperor, intended for Domitian, was exclusively built for the highest emperor, his family, level, senators and vestals, intended for and the emperor had poor citizens, slaves, a special, elevated seat (lat. pulvinar). and women. In most cases, the Podium was separated from the arena by a parapet; there was enough standing room. high in order to also protect spectators from attacks released on groups of people, animals were prohibited from entering it. Next was the Colosseum, in particular there were places for the general public, forming three tiers for gravediggers, actors (lat. maeniana), and former gladiators. corresponding to the tiers of the building facade. In the first tier, which contained 20 rows of benches (now completely destroyed), sat city officials and persons belonging to the equestrian class; the second tier, consisting of 16 rows of benches, was intended for people with the rights of Roman citizenship. The wall separating the second tier from the third was quite high, but the benches of the third tier were located on a steeper sloping surface; this device was intended to give visitors to the third tier the opportunity to better see the arena and everything that happens in it. The spectators on the third tier belonged to the lower classes. Above this tier there was a portico that encircled the entire circumference

Later, during the reign of Domitian, catacombs were built under the arena, in which the “production premises” of the arena were located. These included cages for animals, dungeons, numerous technical devices, for example, lifting blocks, gangways for fighting animals and counterweights for moving the scenes in the arena. In addition, there were lifts for transporting people. Although the two-story catacombs had a gigantic capacity, it was far from sufficient. Therefore, it was necessary to bring animals from fairly distant zoos and bring them into the arena through these underground passages.

The "facade" of the Colosseum is a grandiose three-tiered arcade; as the fourth tier, a powerful stone wall rises above it, dissected by pilasters of the Corinthian order. In the Colosseum, the system of combining into one organic whole a multi-tiered arcade, which constitutes a kind of frame structure of the building, and elements of the order - semi-columns adjacent to arched pillars and bearing an entablature, the purpose of which is to separate one tier of the arcade from another, found its most perfect expression. . The Roman architect in this case uses the order not only as a means of proportionally dividing the facade of a huge structure (the circumference of the Colosseum is over 520 l, height - 48.5 m), but also as a means of identifying tectonic patterns underlying the architectural image. Half-columns and entablatures figuratively reveal the constructive significance of a multi-tiered arcade: the half-column adjacent to the arched column more eloquently than the column itself expresses its supporting meaning; in turn, the entablature seems to enhance the load-bearing capacity of the arch. The width of the arched openings and pillars in the Colosseum is the same in all three tiers, however, due to the fact that the semi-columns of the lower tier are made in the forms of the strict Tuscan order, the semi-columns of the middle tier - in the forms of a lighter proportioned Ionic order, and the semi-columns of the upper tier - in the forms of the elegant Corinthian order, the impression of a gradual decrease in weight and lightening of the upper part of the building, necessary for the tectonic logic of an architectural structure, is created. In addition, elements of the order increase the plastic expressiveness of the outer “wall” of the Colosseum.

Monumental structures from the Republican era included the tombs of the Roman nobility, located along the main roads outside the gates of Rome. Tombstones were built in the form of sarcophagi, pillars and obelisks. The tomb of Caecilia Metella, located on the Appian Way, dates back to the middle of the 1st century. BC e. This is a monumental structure in the form of a huge cylinder resting on a square base (the side of which is 22.3 m). The tomb probably ended with a cone-shaped crown. The building is made of concrete, lined with stone, the frieze and cornice are marble (the battlements currently crowning the tower are not antique, but probably medieval). This monument resembles the original form of the Etruscan funerary monument - the tumulus (mound), and the low stone retaining wall (crepida) surrounding the tumulus in the tomb of Caecilia Metella was transformed into a powerful drum, completed by a cornice.

The center of business and social life in Ancient Rome was the Roman Forum (Forum Romanum). This square, with temples and public buildings located on it, was a complex created on the principle of a free, picturesque layout. ROMAN FORUM

1 1 - Tabularium, 2 - Temple of Concordia (Concord), 3 - Temple of Saturn, 4 - Basilica Julia, 5 - New Rostra, 6 - Curia Julia, 7 - Basilica Emilia, 8 - Temple of Castor (Dioscuri), 9 - Temple of the Divine Julia, 10 - Arch of Augustus, 11 - Temple of Vesta) 4 7 2 5 9 3 10 4 8 11

Reconstructed view of the Forum: 1 – house of the Senate (Curia); 2 – Arch of Septimius Severus; 3 – Rostra; 4 – arch of Tiberius; 5 – Via Sacra; 6 – temple of Saturn; 7 – column of Phocas; 8 – Basilica Julia; 9 – Basilica Emilia; 10 – temple of the deified Caesar; 11 – temple of Vesta; 12 – temple of Castor and Pollux; 13 – Church of Santa Maria Antiqua; 14 – statue of Constantine; 15 – temple of Anthony and Faustina; 16 – temple of Romulus; 17 – temple of Venus and Rome; 18 – house of the Vestals; 19 – Basilica of Maxentius (Constantine); 20 – Colosseum; 21 – arch of Titus; 22 – Palatine

At the Forum there was a Comitium - a platform for public meetings, next to it were the Curia (seat of the Senate) and Grecostatis, where

Great Cloaca, Great Cloaca, Cloaca Maxima (lat. Cloaca Maxima from lat. cluere - to clean) - part of the ancient sewage system in Ancient Rome. An extensive sewer system to drain the lowlands between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, where the Roman Forum later arose, was created under the fifth king of Ancient Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Prisca (reigned from 616 to 579 BC). The most important of the canals in this system was Cloaca Maxima, considered the prototype of ancient sewerage. The canal is up to 3 m wide and more than 4 m high. Later, all these canals were lined with stone, covered with stone vaults and began to be used to remove sewage and rainwater from the city. The large cesspool has been preserved and functions as a storm drain to this day.

TEMPLE OF CONCORDIA The temple was possibly built by Marcus Furius Camillus and was dedicated to Concordia, the ancient Roman goddess of harmony as a symbol of the end of the discord between the patricians and plebeians in 367 BC. e. Coin depicting the Temple of Concordia

TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN AND TITUS Temple of Vespasian and Titus (lat. Templum divi Vespasiani,) - the ruins of an ancient temple in the Roman Forum. Construction of the temple began by decision of the Senate after the death of Emperor Vespasian in 79 and was completed under Domitian. The temple was dedicated to Flavius ​​Vespasian and his son Titus. The Temple of Vespasian and Titus is a building 33 m long and 22 m wide. In the room there was a podium on which stood statues of two deified emperors. All that remains of the colonnade are three columns of the Corinthian capital, about 15 m high.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC. e. shortly after the victory over the Etruscan kings from the Tarquin family. The temple burned down several times, so in 42 BC. e. it was rebuilt after the fire by aedile Munatius Plancus. He is credited with the construction of a podium completely covered with travertine (40 m in length, 22, 50 in width and 9 in height). The temple was restored after a fire during the reign of Qarin (283 AD).

The temple was a type of pseudoperipterus with an Ionic colonnade on the podium. From the travertine base extended the projection of the building with two podiums separated by a staircase leading to the temple; inside one of them during the Republic there was the Roman treasury and documents on state revenues and debts (erarium). The cella contained a statue of the god Saturn, which was carried during processions on the occasion of triumphal celebrations. Near the temple on December 17, the annual festival of Saturnalia began.

The arch was built in 203 AD. e. in honor of Septimius Severus and his sons - Caracalla and Geta (the latter's name was erased after he was killed by his brother Caracalla). The triumphal arch is decorated with marble, the base is made of brick and travertine, the facades of each of the four columns that make up the arch are decorated with reliefs. The sculptures depict scenes of battles between the emperor and the Parthians. In the left column there is a door 5 m high. From here a staircase leads to the attic, where four halls are located. A majestic quadriga with statues of the emperor and his sons towered over the attic. ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS OF THE NORTH

COLUMN OF PHOCAS In the center of the Forum there is a tall memorial column erected in honor of the Byzantine usurper emperor Phocas - the deliverer from the “tyranny of Mauritius”. This happened in 608 AD. e. The height of the column is 13.6 meters, at the base of the column is a cube of white marble. The Corinthian column was originally topped with a golden statue of the emperor, but the statue was demolished and the name of Emperor Phocas was erased, but the column still stands in the Forum. It is also famous for being the last monument built in the Forum. After which the slow desolation of this place began.

In 54 BC. e. Caesar began the construction of a large basilica, and Augustus completed the construction. During the excavations, it was established that the Basilica Julia was built on the site of an older basilica, and that ancient basilica was built on the site of the house of Scipio Africanus. It is impossible to determine the size of the Basilica Julia, since little remains of it, but it is known that it was larger than the previous one and absorbed the old money changer standing next to it. The spacious hall was surrounded by two rows of columns made of unfired brick and travertine, the outer row had a two-level arcade, the inner one had a three-level arcade. Inside, in smaller rooms, various civil tribunals were held. The loafers who usually filled the square sat on the steps outside and passed the time in idleness. On the marble of the portico you can still see lined boards for games - the Roman idle people, spending time in the forum and following litigation, whiled away their time playing games. Behind the basilica, along the long side, there were several money changers.

Basilica Julia (reconstruction) Basilica Julia was the meeting place of the Roman Senate, it also hosted trials, most notably it was the place for tribunalis centumvirale - trials of inheritance and property. During a fire in 283, the basilica was badly damaged and was restored under Diocletian.

The first curia, the Curia Hostilia, was built on the site where today the Church of Santi Luca is located. Martin; in 52 BC e. burned down. By order of Caesar, a new curia was erected (construction was completed under Augustus, 29 BC), which burned down in 283 and was restored by Diocletian. Since the 7th century, the Church of Sant'Adriano has been located there, so the building is well preserved. Today the curia building is a modern reconstruction (1932-1937) of a 3rd century building. In the hall inside the curia (height: 21 m, length: 26 m, width: 18 m) there were about 300 seats for senators. Nothing has survived from the former interior decoration of the curia, only fragments of colored marble floor tiles.

Burning of debt books in the presence of Trajan. One of the reliefs of Trajan (the so-called Plutei Traiani) from the Roman Forum (98-117). Exhibited at the Curia. The relief depicts, from left to right: the fig tree of Rumina (ficus Ruminalis) and the statue of Marsyas, the Basilica of Julia, the temple of Saturn, the Tabularium (?), the temple of Vespasian and Titus, the New Rostra (only one rostra is visible). Part of the relief where the Temple of Concordia should be is missing.

The basilica was a rectangular structure made of tuff and travertine, 100 meters long, consisting of three naves. It was built in 179 BC. e. censors Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marcus Fulvius Nobilior, which is why it was first called Lat. Basilica Aemilia et Fulvia. Later, the basilica was expanded by representatives of the Emilian family - the consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 78 BC. e. and consul Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paulus around 50 BC. e. with money received from the bribe of Gaius Julius Caesar - and under Emperor Augustus. The basilica now has a second floor. On the terrace there was a platform facing the forum. The entire basilica was decorated with marble, the floor of the basilica was also covered with white and polychrome marble. The basilica building may have served as a market, a courthouse, or a place for civic meetings. In the southern part of the building there were shops, among the columns there were tables of money changers. During the fire of 410, the basilica was completely burned down. The great hall was never restored, however, the taverns and porticoes were rebuilt in 418-420 by the prefect of the city.

The outskirts of the Forum were occupied by the temple of Janus, Regia - the dwelling of the high priest, the sanctuary of Juturna - the goddess of healing water, Volcanal - the sanctuary of the god of fire and the round temple of Vesta. Of these buildings, few survived to the end of the empire: the Temple of Vesta and the House of the Vestals were rebuilt many times, and the source of Juturna has reached us in the ruins of imperial times. Only the oratory, which changed its location in the Forum several times, and the temple of the unquenchable fire, which changed its decorations and shape, lived through the entire history of the Forum. Source of Juturna

Temple of the Dioscuri, Temple of Castor and Pollux (lat. Aedes Castoris) - the ruins of one of the oldest temples in the Roman Forum. At this place since 484 BC. e. there was a temple dedicated to the twins Castor and Pollux, the sons of Jupiter. The temple was commissioned by the son of the dictator Aulius Postumius on the occasion of the victory over Tarquinius on Lake Regilus in Latium (499 BC). The Dioscuri allegedly helped to win the victory and brought this news to Rome. In the 1st century AD e. By order of Tiberius, the temple was renovated. Today, three columns of the Corinthian order (15 m in height), the so-called “Three Sisters”, have been preserved.

Plan of part of the Roman Forum. Temple of the Divine Julius, Arch of Augustus, Temple of Vesta, Regia and surroundings, plan reconstruction according to R. Gamberini Mongenet.

ARCH OF AUGUST The arch was built in 29 BC. e. in honor of Octavian's victory at Actium, in 31 BC. e. over Antony and Cleopatra. The arch was located next to the Temple of Vesta. Only small remains of the arch have survived to this day, but evidence of its existence are images on coins. Remains of the Arch of Augustus. Coin depicting the Arch of Augustus

The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina was built in 141 AD. e. by order of Emperor Antoninus Pius in honor of his deceased wife Faustina. After the death of the emperor, the temple was dedicated to him: “Divo Antonino et Divae Faustinae ex S(enatus) C(onsulto)”: Divine Antonino and Divine Faustina by decision of the Senate. The cella is decorated with reliefs decorated with ornaments. In the 11th century the temple was converted into the Church of St. Lawrence (San Lorenzo in Miranda), so the building has been well preserved to this day. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (reconstruction)

TEMPLE OF THE DIVINE JULIUS The architectural form was to some extent dictated by the available space. In front, a high platform 3.50 m high served as rostra and was decorated with the bows of ships captured at Actium. The temple had a six-column prostyle, pronaos and cella - wide and shallow rectangles of equal depth. Temple of the deified Julius Caesar, the construction of which began by the triumvirs in 42 BC. e. on the site where his body was cremated by the people and completed by Octavian, who dedicated the temple on August 18, 29 BC. e. At the site of the burning of the body, at the eastern end of the forum in front of the Regia, an altar and a column of yellow marble with the inscription Parenti Patriae (Father of the Fatherland) were erected soon after the events, but Dolabella then demolished them and destroyed all traces of them. The dedication of the temple was accompanied by magnificent games; the temple had the right; the Arval brothers gathered there. It was later restored by Hadrian.

Place of cremation of Julius Caesar in the Temple of the Divine Julius From fragments of columns it is known that the order was Corinthian (?), the frieze is decorated with floral patterns in the form of curls and winged figures stylized in antiquity. The cella contained a colossal statue of Julius Caesar, possibly with a star crowning its head. On coins of Augustus, the cult statue is depicted capite velato (with a covered head), holding a lituus in his hand, and a star on the pediment of the temple. Since Caesar is known to have been an augur (as well as Pontifex Maximus), this is probably correct. Here Augustus dedicated offerings from war booty, which may have included paintings by Apelles depicting the Dioscuri with Victoria and Venus Lituus, a curved staff used by the augur as a cult instrument for Anadyomene. to outline a specific area in the sky.

According to ancient tradition, it was built as a royal palace by the second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius. Indeed, the Latin word regia can be translated as "royal house". It is also mentioned that he built the Temple of Vesta, the House of the Vestals and the "Public House" (Domus Publica). This created a center of political and religious life in the city and kingdom. REGIA When Julius Caesar became Pontifex Maximus, he carried out his duties from the region. The size of Regia was 176 square meters. m., inside there are three rooms: Santuary of the fertility goddess Ope (Ops Consiva), where only the Great Pontiff and the Vestals had access. The eastern room in the southern part was the sanctuary of Mars, sacrarium Martis, in which the Ankil (shield) of Mars was kept. Here also stood 12 bronze shields and a spear, hastae Martiae, dedicated to Mars. There was a covered courtyard with a wooden portico and tuff floor, possibly an atrium. In the courtyard there was an altar dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Janus.

Ankil, a shield that fell from the sky during the reign of Numa and became the key to the security and prosperity of the Roman state. To prevent the shield from being stolen, Numa ordered to make 11 more of the same shields. The Ankyles kept the salii. Once a year, in March, 12 shields were carried around the city by members of the priestly college of the Salii, who professed the cult of Mars.

The Regia housed the archive of the college of pontiffs, prayers, sacrifices, the sacred calendar, Annals and records of deaths, wills, and marriages. The region burned and was rebuilt several times. After the fire in 36 BC. e. it was restored by Domitius Calvin. During the Empire, Regia was also an important center, in the 7th or 8th century. it became a private residence. During the Renaissance, Regia was plundered.

TEMPLE OF VESTA Remains of the Temple of Vesta The temple was one of the oldest in Rome, but it has come down to us in a restored form from the time of Septimius Severus, who restored the temple after the fire of 191 AD. e. The Temple of Vesta, located next to Regia, symbolized the main hearth of the home - the hearth in the king’s house, the “hearth of the state.”

TEMPLE OF ROMULUS The Temple of Romulus was erected by Emperor Maxentius in honor of his deceased son Valerius Romulus in 307 AD. e. In the 6th century, the temple was converted into the Christian Church of Cosmas and Damian, and, thanks to this, is relatively well preserved.

The Domus Publica was located opposite the Temple of Romulus. This was the palace of the high priest. From 62 BC e. Caesar lived here (from the time he became high priest) until his assassination on March 15, 44 BC. e. In 12 BC. e. Emperor Augustus moved the palace of the supreme ruler from the Roman Forum to the Palatine. And this building was occupied by the Vestals, who had a temple nearby, which was connected to the Domus Publica. DOMUS PUBLIC

At the beginning of the 4th century. Maxentius built a magnificent administrative basilica, which housed the prefecture, which from that moment became a single body of the entire city administration. The building was erected on the site of a previously located warehouse for spices, herbs and medicines. The building had a large central nave, ending in an apse on the west side. It was covered with three cross vaults that supported eight columns measuring almost 15 m. Two wings had barrel vaults and coffered ceilings. The first entrance from the east was preceded by a horizontal vestibule, giving the complex an east-west orientation, which was changed when the construction was completed by Constantine, who added a second entrance from the south, from the Sacred Street; here a staircase led inside through an entrance with a portico, in front of which stood four Corinthian columns.

Inside, another apse was added, decorated with statues; closed with gates, it was intended for closed trials in the cases of senators, introduced at that time. The floor was decorated with geometric mosaics made of various types of marble. Marble slabs also covered the interior walls, giving them a truly majestic appearance. This majestic appearance was enhanced by the statue of Emperor Maxentius, which after his death was replaced by a gigantic statue of marble and bronze of Emperor Constantine, installed in the western apse. Head of the Colossus of Constantine from the Basilica of Maxentius. Constantine

ARCH OF TITUS The Arch of Titus is the simplest and artistically the most perfect (its height is 15.4 m, width 13.5 m, depth 4.75 m). It is located at the very beginning of the Sacred Road and is dedicated to the conquest of Judea and the capture of Jerusalem by Titus in 71. It has one span, vault and facing made of massive slabs of Pentelicon marble.

The arch is decorated with large reliefs: Titus rides on a triumphal chariot, over whose head Victory holds a wreath; the horses are led by the goddess, patroness of Rome (dea Roma); soldiers carry on a stretcher objects captured in the Jerusalem temple: the seven-branched candlestick, trumpets and altar.

Triumph of Titus, relief of the Arch of Titus The solemn grandeur of the arch corresponds to the composite capitals of the columns, used here, apparently for the first time. The composite capital, the richest and most ornate, represents a further development of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals.

TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROMA The Temple of the goddesses Venus and Roma (lat. templum Venus et Roma, also called templum urbis Romae, templum urbis) was once the largest religious building of ancient Rome. The structure occupied the entire territory from the Basilica of Maxentius to the valley of the Colosseum, and was erected on a pedestal 145 m long and 100 m wide. The temple was built under Emperor Hadrian in 135 AD. e. , on the site where the portico of the Golden House of Nero was once located. The temple occupied the central part of the portico: it was built from two cellas, one opposite the other, with a common internal wall. The cella facing the forum was dedicated to the goddess of the city of Rome - Roma, the other was dedicated to the goddess Venus.

Temple of Venus and Roma. Reconstruction. View from the Colosseum. After the fire, Maxentius rebuilt the interior in 307 AD. e. : two apses were carved at the back of the cella, where statues of goddesses were placed, side walls with porphyry columns framed niches for the statues. The floor was paved with geometric mosaics of colored marble. The eastern cella is the best preserved to this day, as it was for a long time part of the church of Santa Francesca Romana.

IMPERIAL FORUMS At the end of the Republican period, the Roman Forum became cramped in order to carry out administrative, religious and political functions. It needed expansion. Julius Caesar was the first to begin expanding the forum in 46 BC. e. , adding the Forum of Caesar. Imperial forums in Rome. 1st century BC e. - 2nd century n. e. Plan: 1 - Caesar's forum. Consecrated in 46 BC. e. ; 2 - Augustus forum. Consecrated in 2 BC. e. ; 3 - Forum of Peace (Vespasian). End of 1st century n. e. ; 4 - passing forum, or Nerves forum. End of 1st century n. e. ; 5 - Trajan's forum (111-114). Architect Apollodorus from Damascus.

FORUM OF CAESAR It occupies an area of ​​160 m x 75 m. On the rectangular area of ​​the forum there was a statue of Caesar surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, on the open side there was a temple of Venus. Parents. Today all that remains is a cement base and three columns. Also at the forum was the Silver Basilica - a kind of ancient exchange. Along the Argentarium Slope there are ruins of shops and workshops from the reign of Hadrian.

At the center of this forum was the temple of the divine founder of the Julius family, Venus, built by Caesar after the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC). Created according to the Hellenistic model, the temple had a propaganda value, glorifying the antiquity of the Julian family. It had eight columns on the pediment and nine columns on the sides. Their remains, discovered during excavations, indicate that these were Corinthian columns. As is known from the descriptions of ancient authors, in the temple there was a majestic statue of this goddess, and nearby there were many other monuments of art: a bronze statue of Cleopatra, two sculptures of Timomachus from Byzantium, depicting Medea and Ajax. Caesar purchased them for 18 talents. Later, it was in this temple that Augustus erected a statue of the divine Caesar. His head was decorated with a star (according to the official legend, after Caesar’s death, he turned into a star).

Monument to Julius Caesar in his Forum In the southeast of Caesar's Forum there was a series of commercial buildings made of tuff and travertine. Among them was a basilica building, called Basilca arentina (apparently due to its location on the named slope). Many inscriptions and graffiti with verses from the Aeneid were found near it. Thus, it became clear that there was a school here after Caesar’s death (and perhaps during his lifetime?). It is difficult to imagine a better place to educate youth in the spirit of Caesar. Caesar did not have time to complete the construction of his forum.

FORUM OF AUGUSTUS The continuation of Caesar's forum was the extensive Forum of Augustus (125 x 118 m), completed in 2 BC. e. The most prominent part of the forum was the wall, which rose 36 m above the pavement. The wall had a dual purpose: on the one hand, it protected the forum from fires, which were frequent in Rome, and on the other, it hid the unsightly quarters of neighboring Suburra from the eyes of visitors. Augusta Forum. Temple of Mars the Avenger. 2 BC e. Reconstruction.

According to Suetonius, Augustus erected in his forum statues of all the Roman triumphs, starting with Aeneas, in triumphal garb and with inscriptions. In a special edict it was announced that he was doing this so that both under him and after him, citizens would take an example from these people. None of the statues were found by archaeologists, but back in the 19th century. Many fragments of pedestals with inscriptions were discovered. Statue of Augustus on Via dei Fori Imperiali

On the western and eastern sides of the Forum of Augustus were two porticoes, and on the northern, between their flanks, was the majestic temple of Mars the Avenger. Like other buildings of the time of Augustus, this temple was built of tuff and faced with marble from the newly discovered quarries of Luna. In the Middle Ages, the marble cladding was stolen. Nowadays, only three marble Corinthian columns, each almost 18 m high, give an idea of ​​the greatness of the temple, which was once admired by Augustus’s contemporary, the poet Ovid. The base for the statue, discovered by archaeologists in the depths of the temple, is too large for one sculpted figure. It is possible that the temple contained two statues - Mars and Venus, although the temple was dedicated to Mars alone in gratitude for the victory at Philippi (42 BC) and revenge on the killers of Caesar.

The most important building of the forum was a luxurious temple dedicated to Mars the Avenger. He was supposed to remind of Augustus as the avenger for the murder of Julius Caesar. The temple was built of Carrara marble, similar in plan to the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Julius Caesar; in the center was a statue of Mars (now in the Capitoline Museum), surrounded by statues of Venus, Eros, Fortune and possibly a statue of Caesar. Caesar's sword and the banners of the defeated Parthians were also kept there. Mars. Capitoline Museum (origin: Forum Nerva)

FORUM OF PEACE or FORUM OF VESPASIAN The Forum of Vespasian, or Temple of Peace (Templum Pacis) in 75 was founded by Emperor Vespasian to commemorate the victory over the Jews. Only minor fragments have survived to this day from this structure, built on the site of an ancient market. During the time of Vespasian, the forum contained trophies obtained during the campaigns against Judea and numerous works of art captured by Nero in Greece and Asia for his Golden House. The Forum of Vespasian was destroyed in 192, and was restored by Septimius Severus. In the 4th century, the Church of Saints Cosmas and Demian was built on the site of the Temple of Peace.

FORUM OF PASSAGE or FORUM OF NERVES The third of the four imperial forums of Rome, also called Forum Transitorium. The construction of this forum began under the emperor Vespasian or Domitian, but was completed only in 98 under Nerva and was named after him. The forum was originally small, only 120 x 40 meters; although there is every reason to believe that, had Domitian avoided his sad fate, the Forum of Nerva could well have become the main place of worship of Minerva, so revered by Domitian.

Temple of Minerva at the Forum of Nerva At the Forum of Nerva there was a small temple dedicated to Minerva, which was destroyed in 1606 by order of Pope Paul V. Only 2 granite columns (the so-called Colonacce - Huge Columns), part of the wall and a relief depicting Minerva. Much of this forum is also buried under Via dei Fori Imperiali.

TRAYAN'S FORUM Coin showing the entrance to Trajan's Forum Trajan's Forum, opened in 112 AD. e. could be called copper, since, according to Pausanias, the roofs of the buildings located on it were made of copper. Having a rectangular shape (149 x 87), it stood out among all the forums of the empire with its complex composition. It was bordered on three sides by marble porticoes, between the columns of which images of great commanders and orators were placed. On the fourth side of the forum stood the grandiose Basilica Ulpiana, of which no traces remain. Behind her stood two buildings, their facades facing each other. These were two libraries: one for Latin books, the other for Greek.

Sections dedicated to wars are divided by the image of a winged Victory figure writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. The actions of the Roman army are mainly depicted: movement, construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles. In total there are about 2,500 human figures on the column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to Victory, the relief also contains other allegorical figures: the Danube in the image of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with her face covered with a veil, etc. Reliefs of Trajan’s Column

To build such a huge structure, the labor of a large number of people was necessary: ​​workers demolished the slopes of the Quirinal and the Capitoline Hill, which closed the valley occupied by the imperial forums in the direction of the Campus Martius. It is possible that the excavation work began under the Emperor Domitian, but the architectural design was entirely the work of Apollodorus of Damascus, who also accompanied the Emperor Trajan in the Dacian campaign. During the construction of the forum in Rome, the Trajan Market, the Forum of Caesar (where the Basilica of the Argentarians was built) were built, and the Temple of Venus the Progenitor was restored. Trajan's Market is a huge brick semicircle. Shops open on the lower floor; the benches of the upper floor are adjacent to the rock in the place where the hill was cut. The third tier of the ensemble includes a road that rises steeply to the top. Many more shops, offices, portable counters, as well as a basilica complemented this architectural ensemble, consisting of six floors. The brick structure is surprisingly well preserved, and now houses the Museum of the Imperial Forums - Mercati di Traiano - Museo dei Fori Imperiali. From the upper levels it is very convenient to examine the ruins of ancient buildings.

The area of ​​the forum was paved with slabs of polished white marble. In the center of the square, there was a giant equestrian statue of Emperor Trajan. It has not survived, but was definitely taller than a similar statue of Marcus Aurelius. The composition of the figure itself is known; it is depicted on coins. Trajan here is holding either a spear or something similar to a vexillum (battle standard). In the distance, behind the rider, was the Basilica Ulpia - a portico supported by several rows of columns. The basilica had three passages inside. The columns supporting the portico were made of gray Egyptian granite. The central entrance, the equestrian statue and the entrance to the Forum formed one line. The purpose of the Forum Square is multifaceted - business meetings could be scheduled here, meetings could be held, or just celebrations. It is known that when Marcus Aurelius needed funds to carry out the Parthian campaign, he organized an auction of certain imperial property here. Entrance here was free. At the top one could see a quadriga with a rushing Victoria, on the sides there were similar sculptures of two bigas.

The Basilica Ulpia was preceded by a covered gallery approximately 12 meters wide. Here the floor was paved with slabs of yellow and white marble. Along the edges of the gallery stood statues of the most distinguished soldiers and officers during the war in Dacia. But not only that - representatives of the defeated side were also represented here; one of these surviving statues, three meters high, is now in the Lateran Museum (Rome). Here, in the depths, the names of the units that took part in the Dacian Wars were carved on stone. The statue of the captive Dacian is extremely close in style to the colossal heads that belonged to the Dacian sculptures that decorated the Arch of Trajan, as well as to the statues of barbarians from the Arch of Constantine, which were also transferred there from the Arch of Trajan.

The Basilica Ulpia was a rectangular covered room measuring 55 by 110 meters. The columns here are made of a special material - Egyptian granite. The analysis showed that the material was extracted from Mount Claudianus (Mons Clavdianvs), which is located in the east of Egypt in the desert. This shows how seriously the imperial authorities took the construction of this complex! The ceiling, about 25 meters high, was decorated with gilded bronze. On the top of the Basilica was carved the inscription: "OPTIME DE REPVBLICA MERITO DOMI FORISQVE" - "To the best [of the emperors] for his unparalleled service to the Republic at home and abroad."

Behind the column was probably the Temple of the Divine Trajan and Plotina. Whether this Temple was in the original plan of Appolodorius or whether it was built by order of Hadrian to perpetuate the memory of Trajan and Plotina is not clear. Perhaps it was here that the statues of Trajan’s two fathers were installed - his own, Marcus Ulpius Trajan, and his adopted, Nerva. Among the ruins of the Forum, only a fragment of the head of Trajan’s own father was discovered. The size of the fragment suggests that the entire statue must have been huge. A fragment of a colossal sculpture of Marcus Ulpius Trajan - the emperor's father

The Capitoline Temple, also Marcus Aurelius makes a sacrifice in front of the Capitol, called the Capitol (lat. Aedes Iovis Optimi Maximi Capitolini, aedes Capitolina), was the oldest temple on the Capitol Hill of the same name. The Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Minerva and Juno) was revered there. According to legend, the construction of the temple began under Tarquinius Prisca, on the site of the sanctuary of the Sabines. The temple was consecrated in 509 BC. e. and survived until the 6th century, but not in its original form - during the civil wars of the 80s BC. e. the temple burned down, and in the early 60s BC. e. it was rebuilt under the leadership of Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who received the nickname “Capitolian” for this. The Capitoline Temple was divided into 3 cella (limits), the middle one was dedicated to Jupiter, where his statue stood. Jupiter, seated on a throne of gold and ivory, was dressed in a tunic decorated with palm branches (tunica palmata) and a purple toga embroidered with gold (toga picta, palmata). The cella on the right was dedicated to Minerva, and on the left to Juno, each deity had its own altar. The roof was decorated with a terracotta (later bronze) sculpture - Jupiter on

The Capitol has been the political and religious center of Rome since ancient times. Under Tarquin the Ancient, the construction of the temple of the three gods - Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (Templum Iovis Capitolini) was begun, and under Tarquin Proud was completed; Roman generals ascended to this temple during triumphal processions. The state archive (Tabularium) was located on the Capitol, and in 269 BC. e. on another hilltop, where the arx was located, the temple of Juno Moneta (Counselor) was erected, at which there was a Roman mint. The saddle between the two peaks of the hill later began to be built up with houses of the rich nobility. Figures in togas in front of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus

Ostian In ancient Rome, insula, there were two types of Italian houses: domus - a 1-2-story mansion house, in which one family originally lived. The domus was an autonomous architectural whole with independent exits to the street. Later, parts of the house began to be rented out as shops and workshops, and rented apartments were built on the second floor. Insula is a multi-storey urban residential building where many unrelated families lived. In an insula, the residence of each family is not independent, but is included in the architectural complex and does not have separate exits to the street. Separate staircases led to the upper floors. Typical of apartment buildings are rows of trade and craft shops on the ground floor, as well as balconies or porticoes along the facades.

It is believed that most Roman insulae were likely small, dilapidated buildings, crowded together in the city center, even despite the restoration of buildings in some areas after the fire of 64 and in later periods. Small city mansions in Rome were most often rebuilt into insulae. Insulae in Rome were located both in the city center and on the outskirts, as well as on unstable soil near the Tiber. The insula of Aracoeli at the foot of the Capitol is one of the few insulas that have survived to this day in Rome

In the era of Hadrian, the Pantheon, the temple of all gods (about 125), one of the most remarkable architectural monuments, was built (on the site of the burnt Pantheon of Agrippa).

The Pantheon is a new type of temple building. Its very purpose predetermined the search for a particularly monumental architectural image. In the Pantheon, for the first time, a new task was set and solved - the creation of a monumental temple structure, in the figurative structure of which the vast internal space should play the main role. The Pantheon is a huge rotunda topped with a grandiose dome. The exterior of the temple is distinguished by its emphasized simplicity. Most of the circumference of the rotunda is made up of a blank wall: only the entrance side, marked by a powerful portico, seems to foreshadow the full significance of the architectural image of the temple interior, perceived with particular sharpness in contrast to the restraint of the architectural forms of the building's exterior.

The viewer entering the temple finds himself inside a grandiose domed space. The gigantic dimensions of the structure (the height of the temple is 42.7 m, the internal diameter of the dome is 43.5 m), combined with the harmonious proportions and noble beauty of the architectural forms, creates the impression of exceptional strength. Perceived as a kind of semblance of the firmament, the huge dome dominating the vast space of the rotunda is the figurative and compositional theme designed to embody the idea of ​​​​building a temple dedicated not to just one deity, but to all gods. The space in the cella of peripteral temples was usually divided by rows of columns; in the Pantheon, due to the fact that the dome rests directly on the walls, the huge internal space of the temple, not disturbed by any additional supports, acquires exceptional unity and integrity, and the centric shape of the rotunda and the hemispherical ceiling give it the features of harmonious completeness.

At the same time, the interior space of the temple is not isolated from the outside world: through a large (9 m in diameter) round hole in the center of the dome - the only source of illumination for the temple - the blue sky is visible; Through the same hole, the sun's rays penetrate into the temple, forming a sheaf of light that moves in accordance with the movement of the sun. Thus, the grandiose domed Tectonic construction of the temple is distinguished by a structure that is itself extremely clear. On the outside, the huge drum of the rotunda, figuratively expressing the idea, is divided into three tiers by rods; The two lower tiers correspond to the divisions of the wall reigning above the ground in the interior. The flat dome rests on the celestial vault, like the upper part of the third tier, which inside becomes connected to the building, corresponding to the two lower rows of cassettes, by the movement of the celestial body. lengthening the dome and giving it the appearance of a regular hemisphere.

The proportions of the Pantheon are exceptionally perfect. The diameter of the rotunda is almost equal to the height of the temple; the dome from the inside is an exact hemisphere. The proportions of the interior are designed to gradually lighten the architectural forms in the upper parts of the building. Thanks to this solution, a special harmony of the architectural image was achieved. The interior decoration of the temple - marble facings and stucco decorations - was unusually solemn. From the outside, the first tier of the rotunda was lined with marble, the upper two tiers were plastered. The building has reached us, in general, in good condition, but the exterior and interior decoration has not been preserved, the architectural design of the second tier of the wall inside the temple has been changed, and the bronze sculptures that decorated the pediment of the portico have disappeared. The Pantheon is built of brick and concrete. The walls of the rotunda rest on a concrete foundation 4.5 m deep and 7.3 m thick. The thickness of the walls is 6.2 m. There are voids inside the walls to lighten their weight. For the strength of the walls and the correct distribution of gravity and thrust forces, a strictly thought-out system of large and small brick arches and transverse lintels was used, giving rigidity to the walls. The dome itself is similar in structure to a wall and is made of horizontal layers of concrete sandwiched with large two-foot bricks. The supporting wall and the lower part of the dome are pierced with voids and equipped with brick arches, which form an entire system and allow the supporting parts to be evenly loaded. The integrity of the architectural image, the perfection of proportions and the mastery of the constructive design of the temple suggest that its builder could have been Apollodorus of Damascus. The historical and artistic significance of the Pantheon is exceptionally great. For the architecture of subsequent eras, the Pantheon forever remained one of the most perfect examples of a centric building topped with a dome, and at the same time - an example of a brilliant solution to the problem of creating a structure with extensive internal space. The Pantheon is an example of the remarkable unity of a deep figurative idea and the architectural forms of its expression and, finally, one of the highest achievements of construction technology of the ancient era.

The powerful scale of architectural construction, corresponding to the greatness of the world Roman power, received particular impressiveness in Syria. The architectural complexes of Baalbek and Palmyra arose here during a period of economic growth as a result of the interaction of ancient Eastern, Greek and Roman cultures. The richness of forms, the enormous size of buildings, the grandeur of orders, the picturesque solutions based on contrasts of light and shadow, the extremely emotional nature of architecture - all these are new features that enriched the architecture of antiquity. One of the most interesting architectural complexes is the architectural ensemble of Heliopolis in Syria (now Baalbek in Lebanon). Unlike the Roman concrete-brick architecture, the architecture of Baalbek is stone. The buildings consist of large hewn blocks, stacked dry. BAALBEK

Temple of Bacchus in the Ensemble of Baalbek temples Baalbek (the Small temple opened with a portico) propylaea, to which a high and very wide monumental staircase led. The propylaea was followed by a hexagonal courtyard surrounded by a colonnade and resembling a giant peristyle, followed by a rectangular main courtyard of enormous size, surrounded on three sides by a colonnade. This courtyard was enclosed by the Great Temple, placed on a high artificial foundation, which dominated the entire ensemble. Next to the main courtyard there was a Small Temple, and a little further away, outside the general composition, there was a Round Temple. The entire complex was built in the 1st - 3rd centuries. n. e. Subsequently, the buildings were heavily damaged by the earthquake.

The Great Temple, or Temple of Jupiter - one of the largest temples of antiquity - was built in the form of a pseudo-dipter with 10 columns along the facade and 19 columns along the longitudinal sides. Its enormous size is evidenced by six surviving Corinthian columns - granite monoliths about 19.6 m high and about 2 m in diameter. The Small Temple (Temple of Bacchus) is better preserved; it is a peripterus of the Corinthian order, equal in size to the Parthenon. The walls of the cella of the Small Temple are treated with increased plasticity: the semi-columns of the large order protruding from the walls are crowned with the richest carved, loosened Columns of the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek

entablature, the spaces of the wall between the columns are enriched with arched niches and aedicules arranged in two tiers, in which statues stood. Such a wall solution, giving a strong play of chiaroscuro, combined with extremely rich decor, gave the impression of exceptional picturesqueness. The best-preserved small Round Temple has even more plastically complex forms. Here the type of round temple, characteristic of Roman architecture, receives a different interpretation. The round cella is surrounded by six columns bearing a strongly loosened entablature of curvilinear outlines, and the columns are spaced so sparsely that the portico ceases to be the main architectural theme; the architectural effect of the building is based on the mutual contrasts of the portico and the mass of the cella itself, enriched with niches with statues (now lost).

The buildings in Palmyra (Syria) are distinguished by their grandiose scale. The ruins of the Temple of Baal, the ruins of the main street with colonnades on both sides 1135 m long, numbering hundreds of Corinthian columns ten meters high, monumental arches and tetrapylons (gates with entrances not on two, but on four sides) make a majestic impression. It is characteristic that in the colonnade of the main street a console with a statue was attached to the middle of the trunk of each column. Such an understanding of order and the general overload of the complex with works of sculpture are features of oriental architecture. PALMYRA

THERMS OF CARACALLA The Baths of Caracalla were at one time the most grandiose building of this kind. They are located on an area of ​​12 hectares, almost square in plan (353 x 335 m). The thermal complex consisted of a huge rectangular main building (216 x 112 m), located in a park, which was limited on all sides by two-story buildings.

Baths of Caracalla (left) and Diocletian, plans Due to the size and variety of shapes of the halls and ceilings, as well as various methods of limiting the interior spaces (halls with four walls, halls with three walls and a colonnade instead of the fourth wall, halls limited only by columns, etc.) d.) majestic spatial structures were created. The baths were luxuriously decorated with sculpture and other art monuments. In one of the halls the Farnese Bull group, taken from the island of Rhodes, was staged.

Caldarium Tepidarium Frigidarium Service premises Palaestra Swimming pool Plan of the Baths of Caracalla The widest scope of construction was combined at the same time with savings in material and rational use of space. Characteristic is the use of niches to lighten the wall and the use of these niches for setting up statues or installing fountains.

These buildings formed two semicircles (exedra). The plan of the entire complex of thermal baths, which consisted of a large number of extremely diverse rooms, is subject to strict symmetry. In the main building, a cold bath (frigidarium) is successively located along a single axis - a large hall with a swimming pool (58 x 28 m); luxuriously decorated main hall (area 2700 m); a hall with rounded corners - a warm bath (tepidarium) and a magnificent domed rotunda of a hot bath (caldarium), only slightly inferior to the Pantheon in size (the diameter of the rotunda is 35 l); eight different-shaped, beautifully decorated halls for relaxation after the bath were located along the facade opposite the main entrance; in addition, there were two palaestras, swimming pools, areas for physical exercise, dressing rooms, antechambers and other rooms. On three sides outside the main building was surrounded by flower gardens, and on the fourth, furthest from the entrance, there was a stadium (a place for athletic competitions). Each of the two large exedra facing the park contained a palaestra, a deep pool and a nymphaeum with fountains. In the depths of the park there were two symmetrically located buildings with libraries, halls for music classes, etc. The baths could accommodate up to 1,600 people at a time. The entrance system was built taking into account the fastest and most convenient use of each of the premises.

The outer façade of the baths was simple; The walls are covered with plaster. Probably, the facades of the premises facing the park were more elegant. Under the halls of the main building there were colossal substructures in which all the utility rooms and, in particular, the heating system and water supply were located. A large room in the back of the courtyard was occupied by a huge settling tank in which water settled. The perfection of the heating system, water supply and sewage system testifies to the very high skill of Roman engineers.

PALACE IN SPLIT The last stage of great construction in Rome dates back to the beginning of the Dominant period. The tense political situation and defense requirements led to the emergence of fortress-type structures. The emperor's home itself little by little takes on the character of a fortified castle. The famous Diocletian's Palace in Split in Dalmatia (305) on the shores of the Adriatic Sea is perceived as a palace-fortress.

This is a huge palace complex (215 x 118 m), which is based on the layout of a Roman military camp. The outer walls of the palace were also fortress walls with towers and gates. In the inner part of the complex, streets decorated with porticoes were laid out and various structures were located - buildings for the guard, a food warehouse, a four-column temple, the mausoleum of Diocletian, round on the inside and octagonal on the outside. A new architectural motif was the use of arcades on columns in Diocletian's palace, rather than on pillars, as was the case before. This type of arcade was widely used in the architecture of subsequent eras. Plan of Diocletian's Palace in Split

The Arch of Constantine is a magnificent example of a three-span Roman triumphal arch. Dedicated in 315 and opened in memory of Constantine’s victory over Maxentius, it seems to complete the entire history of the development of Roman architecture, which experienced its last, short-lived rise at the turn of the 3rd-4th centuries. At present, however, it is difficult to say to what extent the Arch of Constantine was a new structure: it is possible that it copied some older arch, newly decorated and adapted to perpetuate the memory and deeds of Constantine, whose portrait head replaced the image of previous emperors on the reliefs . The Arch of Constantine is not distinguished by its original architectural composition: its layout and general forms almost repeat the composition of the Arch of Septimius Severus, and its architectural and sculptural decoration for the most part was simply taken from other monuments, partly, apparently, from some structure of the time of Trajan.

RELIEFS OF THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE Mercy of the Emperor (clementia). Relief on the north side. Marble. 175-196 Rome, Arch of Constantine. Many researchers believe that these eight reliefs, together with three others now kept in the Capitoline Museum (in the Gallery of Conservators), originally belonged to the arch erected in honor of Marcus Aurelius. This arch is also identified with the "Arcus Aureus", located on or near the Clivus Capitolinus road leading to the Capitoline Hill, in the north-west corner of the forum.

Presentation of a barbarian leader. Relief on the attic on the south side. Marble. 175-196 Rome, Arch of Constantine Arrival of the Emperor in Rome (adventus). Relief on the north side. Marble. 175-196 Rome, Arch of Constantine.

Lustration scene. Relief on the attic on the south side. Marble. 175-196 Rome, Arch of Constantine. Distributing money to the people (congiarium, liberalitas). Relief on the north side. Marble. 175-196 Rome, Arch of Constantine.

SOURCES 1. 1. The Ancient Worlds. http://theancientworld. tumblr. com/page/12 2. San Ildefonso Group. http://dic. academic. ru/dic. nsf/ruwiki/1792618 3. Britova N. The Art of Ancient Rome. http: //artyx. ru/books/item/f 00/s 00/z 0000000/st 030. shtml 4. A brief dictionary of artistic terms. http://coollib. com/b/151435/read 5. History of Ancient Rome. http: //ancientrome. ru/ 6. All of Italy. http://www. biancoloto. com/travel. html 7. Nemirovsky. Ariadne's thread. http://www. sno. pro 1. ru/lib/nemirovskiy_nit_ariadny/8. htm 8. Architecture of Ancient Rome. http://www. sno. pro 1. ru/lib/architectura/index. htm

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Architecture of ancient Rome

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Roman forum

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Inextricably linked with the life of Rome and the development of its urbanism, the Forum marked significantly important stages in the history of the city, uniting in one single place all aspects of socio-political and economic life. The Forum, stretching over an area of ​​about 500 meters between the Palatine, Capitoline and Esquiline hills, at the very beginning of its existence was a huge swamp, drained by the construction of a whole network of canals (one of which was the famous Cloaca Maximus), where all the water flowing into the Tiber was collected. It seems that the name of the Forum, which was born as a place for shopping arcades,
Roman forum
Ideal reconstruction of the Roman Forum (Palatino Directorate).

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when there were still separate settlements on various hills, it comes from the word "foras", that is, a place outside the residential center. After the unification of the city into a single whole, the Forum became the ideal center (and almost the geographical core) of Rome. From this point on, trade activity began to gradually move to other places, and along the entire Forum, densely built up with temples dedicated to the cult of the main deities and famous deified Romans, basilicas, places of trials and trade transactions, stretched the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, along which in the days During the festivities, solemn processions moved and victorious troops passed in triumph. The Forum is interesting for its Comitium, where the people gathered to elect judges, the Curia, in which the Senate sat, as well as arches, trophies and columns in memory of outstanding events. Among the trophies, the famous rostra of enemy ships that were defeated in the battle, which decorated the Tribune dei Rostri, deserve special attention. From her
Roman forum

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orators spoke, captivating the crowd: from here Cicero spoke against Catiline, and Antony touched the Romans with his laudatory speech on the death of Caesar. But the moments of splendor were followed by a gradual decline, and first the Forum had to give way to the new forums of the imperial era, after which it, along with the entire Roman civilization, shaken by the invasions of the barbarians, plunged into the darkness of the long Middle Ages. In the last century, however, interest in archeology arose and systematic excavations began. Of the numerous finds of the Forum, we will have to limit ourselves to only those
Relief with figures of Roman dignitaries (Roman Forum).
which best characterize its three fundamentally important aspects: political, judicial-administrative and religious. However, it would be unfair not to mention its decorative elements, such as the triumphal arches of Tiberius and Septimius Severus, a huge number of statues, columns, as well as chapels, benches, fountains and other less significant structures.

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It was erected in 203 AD. in honor of Emperor Septimius Severus and his children Caracalla and Geta. This massive, three-span arch, 23 meters wide, is one of the largest memorial arches in existence. The inscription on both sides of the attic recalls the victories of Septimius Severus in wars, including over the Partis and the Arabs. Episodes from these wars are carved in bas-relief above the arched vaults, while captive barbarians are depicted at the base of the columns.
Roman forum
Arch of Septimius Severus
Arch of Septimius Severus (Roman Forum).

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Roman forum
From this, which was one of the most grandiose basilicas of the Republican era, only a few decorative elements remained, broken columns, capitals, parts of pediments and entablatures. The basilica was built next to the Curia in 179 BC. censors Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Marcus Fulvius Nobilor; Subsequently, the basilica was expanded and completed by other representatives of the Emilian family. The basilica was of considerable size. For example, the side facing the Forum consisted of an arched gallery over 100 meters long.
Inside, the basilica was divided into a number of rooms, the largest of which was a hall, which probably served for public meetings, and outside it was surrounded by a colonnade of African and veined marble.
Ruins of the Basilica Emilia (Roman Forum).
Basilica Emilia

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Legend has it that the Curia was founded during the era of Tulla Ostilius. It burned several times and was reconstructed both during the Republic and the Empire. It was the seat of the Senate until the 8th century, when Pope Honorius I turned it into a church. Restoration work, which was carried out at the beginning of this century, returned the Curia to the original simplicity of its exterior and interior, consisting of one rectangular hall with a marble inlaid floor.
Curia
Roman forum
Curia (Roman Forum).

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Erected by the Senate in 141 AD. in honor of Faustina, wife of Antoninus, deified after death. Later it was dedicated to the emperor himself. What remains of the temple are Corinthian columns supporting an amazingly painted entablature. In the 11th century, the temple was converted into a Christian church dedicated to San Lorenzo in Miranda and rebuilt in the 17th century.
Roman forum
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (Roman Forum).

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Roman forum
In this building lived six priestesses who worshiped the goddess of the family hearth, Vesta, who were chosen by the High Priest Maximus from twenty female representatives burning with holy fire. The Vestals remained in the house for thirty years, taking a vow of celibacy and maintaining a fire in the hearth, which was their main occupation, and if they disobeyed, they were buried alive. Bread and a lamp were placed in the grave with them.
House of the Vestals
Garden of the House of the Vestals.

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Some of them, because of their diligence and high moral character, had memorial statues erected, which still stand along the long corridor, which, with three bathrooms in the center, was surrounded by a two-tiered colonnade.
Roman forum
House of the Vestals
Vestal Virgin Statue

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It was believed that this temple was erected by Maxentius for the son of Romulus, who died as a child in 307 AD, but probably we are talking about the temple of the Penates, built on the site of one previously destroyed temple, on the ruins of which a large basilica was built. Most of the temple was preserved thanks to its transformation into the atrium of the Church of Saints Cosmas and Damian (6th century AD). Still. you can admire the characteristic central chapel with a domed roof with an arched facade with two chapels and apses on the sides. Time has also preserved the ancient bronze entrance door with a lock from that era.
Temple of Romulus
Roman forum

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Temple of Castor and Pollux. Erected in 484 BC. It was a place of not only religious, but also important political significance: on July 15 of each year, horsemen rode here before the censors, and judges taking office took an oath of allegiance to the laws. Unfortunately, only the base (50x30 meters) and three wonderful Corinthian columns over 12 meters high, which are probably the most famous columns in the entire Roman Forum due to their slenderness, grandeur and elegance, remain of the building at present.
Roman forum

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Temple of Vesta. This temple was one of the most revered in Rome, since Vesta was the goddess of the family hearth and fire, a holy symbol of the continuity of the state. It was burned and restored several times. Evidence of the last restoration, carried out at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. At the behest of Septimius Severus's wife, Julia Domna, the ruins of the building, which have survived to this day, appear. The original circular structure of the temple reproduced the shape of an Italic hut made of thatch and wood, with a conical roof and a hole in the center to release smoke.
Roman forum
Temple of Castor and Pollux and Temple of Vesta

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Basilica of Maxentius
Roman forum

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It was started by Maxentius, and completed and modified by Constantine after he defeated Maxentius in the battle on the Tiber at the Ponte Milvio bridge in 213 AD. At first, Maxentius conceived a basilica with three naves, of which the central one was wider than the two side naves and had a cruciform roof, and the other two had a barrel roof. The building was 100 meters long and 60 wide, reaching a height of 35 meters in the central nave. Constantine changed the structure of the basilica, opening the apse with a niche in the right nave and moving the central entrance.
Basilica of Maxentius
Roman forum

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Rising at the top of the Sacred Road, Via Sacra, near the exit from the Forum. Erected after the death of Emperor Titus in 81 AD, in memory of his suppression of the Jewish uprising of 66-70. Indeed, in the inscription on the Arch of Titus, Titus is called “Divus,” as the Romans called kings and emperors who especially distinguished themselves during their lifetime, and who, after the Arch of Titus and Death, were elevated to the rank of demigods. The graceful single-span arch was built in the 1st century AD.
Roman forum
Arch of Titus
Arch of Titus

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The height of the arch is 15.40 m, width 13.50 m and depth - 4.75 m. The central part, erected on a high plinth, is decorated with Corinthian semi-columns supporting a frieze depicting the triumph of the emperor. Four winged Victorias are carved into the corners near the span. Inside the span there are two amazing bas-reliefs depicting, the first a triumphal procession with military trophies captured during the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, and the second - the Emperor Titus driving a quadriga.
Arch of Titus
Roman forum

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Stole

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The Palatine Hill, bounded by the small valleys of the Roman Forum and the ancient lists of Circus Maximus, according to legend, owes its name to “Palesa,” the goddess of shepherds, in whose honor “Palilia” were held, purification festivals, organized since the founding of Rome. And if the Romans associated with the Palatine the place where Romulus built the city, then everyone knows the fact that this hill is the cradle of Rome, since the most ancient settlements in Rome were discovered on it. During the era of the Republic, temples and houses of noble Romans stood on this hill, and among them the monastery of Crassus and Cicero, and during the period of the Empire, it was the residence of emperors and the richest houses of antiquity stood here.
Stole
Octagonal labyrinth fountain (Palace of Domitian)

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“It was one of the most beautiful creations in the world,” wrote the poet Martial about this building, whose name means “house of the emperor.” The first work was carried out under Domitian (late 1st century AD), and then the house was expanded and completed by other emperors, who continued to live in it for several centuries. In the Middle Ages, the house became part of other structures and later, in the 16th century, with the construction of the Villa dei Farnese and degli Orti Farnesiani, the Farnesian Vegetable Gardens, it became a grand park that still exists today.
Domus Augustana
Stole

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The "Flavian House" was built for himself by Domitian towards the end of the 1st century AD. The house included a large basilica with three naves, a royal hall, a "lararium" and a leristil. In the center of the garden there was a large fountain in the shape of an octagonal labyrinth.
Stole
Palazzo deo Flavi

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The Great Palatine Hippodrome is 160 meters long and 50 meters wide. The wall structures were made of baked bricks with marble cladding. The stadium was surrounded by a portico; on one of its sides there was a platform from which the emperor watched the spectacles and performances of gymnasts.
Stole
Stadium-Hippodrome
Hippodrome of Domitian

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Coliseum

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Between the Esquiline, Caelian and Palatine hills, the Flavian Amphitheater, called the Colosseum, rises majestically, the construction of which began under the Emperor Vespasian in 72 AD. in the place where previously there was an artificial lake of Nero's magnificent palace called the "Golden House". Tradition says that the Romans were very pleased with the construction of this new monumental structure, since they did not like the luxurious house of the tyrant, which interfered with traffic and was a barrier to entry into the Forums. In addition, from the point of view of urban development and aesthetics, the Colosseum perfectly complemented the perspective of the Forum and became, with its bulk, a connecting link and an ideal place
Coliseum
View of the Colosseum from Palatine Hill

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passage to the majestic monuments of the rising hills beyond. In the year 60, under Titus Flavius, the son of Emperor Vespasian, a magnificent opening ceremony took place, on the occasion of which hundred-day games were announced, during which several thousand gladiators fought and a large number of animals were hunted. Largely completed under the Emperor Domitian and restored during the era of Septimius Severus, the Colosseum continued to be a symbol of the greatness and power of Rome for many centuries. And, indeed, there is not a single printed work, be it a print, a drawing or a painting, where the Colosseum does not appear, towering above other majestic ruins. In 246, under Emperor Decius, during the celebration of the millennium of Rome, the Colosseum was a theater of magnificent spectacles, where, according to the memories of that era, 32 elephants, 60 lions, 40 wild horses and dozens of other animals were killed, including elk and zebras , tigers, giraffes and hippos. Bloody battles of about 2,000 gladiators also took place there, which was probably the most favorite spectacle of the Romans. As for the mass martyrdom of Christians, it has not yet been proven historically. Gladiatorial combat ended by 404, while animal fighting continued and was only stopped in the last years of the 6th century. The amphitheater was repeatedly destroyed by strong earthquakes.
Coliseum

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Subsequently, the Roman families dei Frangipane and degliAnnibaldi turned it into their fortress, until, by order of Arrigo VII, the Colosseum became the property of the Romans. In subsequent centuries, the Colosseum began to fall into disrepair; huge blocks of travertine were removed and taken away for the construction of other palaces: Palazzo Cancelleria, Palazzo Venezia and the same Cathedral of St. Petra. And finally, in 1750, Benedict XIV proclaimed the Colosseum a holy place, since it was, according to the prevailing opinion at that time, the place of death “for Christ” of numerous martyrs of pagan Rome
Coliseum
model of the reconstruction of the Colosseum, stored in the amphitheater

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OUTSIDE - In plan, the amphitheater has the shape of an ellipse, 188 meters long, 156 meters wide and 57 meters high. The construction of the Colosseum took 10 years and occurred during the reign of three Flavian emperors: Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The name of the architect who designed the amphitheater is unknown, but it is assumed that he was Rabirius, who later became the author of Domitian’s palace. The outside of the amphitheater is entirely covered with travertine and has four tiers. The three lower ones represent arched propets running along the entire profile, cut by pilasters and semi-columns in the canonical sequence: on the first tier - Doric, on the second - Ionic, and on the third - Corinthian. The fourth, upper tier, completed a little later, is a solid wall, dissected by Corinthian pilasters and cut through by small windows. The crowning cornice still has holes where supports were inserted to stretch a bright awning, protecting spectators from the heat.
Coliseum

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Each arched flight of the first tier corresponded to an entrance to the seats for spectators: 76 of these entrances were numbered (Roman numerals can still be seen on the arches); The four main entrances were intended: one for the imperial retinue, another for the Vestals, the third for judges and the last for honored guests. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have not survived to this day. When the Colosseum became something of a giant public quarry in the Middle Ages, all the metal fasteners that held the travertine blocks together were removed, leaving behind holes that are still visible today. On the platform in front of the amphitheater stood a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus; It is assumed that the name Colosseum - large, colossal - came precisely from this colossus.
Coliseum

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INSIDE - The amphitheater accommodated about 50,000-70,000 spectators, seated on its steps depending on their social class. There were three categories of seats: the “podium,” which fell into the first category, where representatives of the highest class sat and where the emperor’s box was located; the second category of places, in the center, reserved for "civis", citizens belonging to the middle class and the third, "sum", where the people were accommodated. There was probably also a fourth category of places reserved for women. Under the arena there was a whole system of cells, galleries, storage rooms, dressing rooms and basements, which have now been revealed thanks to excavations. We are talking about a whole series of rooms where various objects and mechanisms were stored and where animals were kept before and after spectacles, the main types of which were gladiator fights (“ludi”) and “venationes”, animal hunting; but in the arena there were also performances of magicians, sports competitions, equestrian tournaments and naval battles - naumachia. Games were held on the occasion of significant dates, annual holidays and extraordinary events. In some cases this occurred on the emperor's birthdays and celebrations of historical events, and in others as a result of triumph or victory. It should be said that funerals were also a reason for holding this kind of games.
Coliseum

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The announcements (edicts) issued on this occasion indicated the order of the games, the reason for which they were held and the day they began. On such days, with the help of a complex mechanism and the use of a large selected workforce, a huge multi-colored awning made of silk and linen was raised over the steps.
Coliseum

Circus Maximus

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Pantheon

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The first version of the Pantheon was built in 27-25. BC e. Emperor Agrippa. Agrippa's Pantheon burned down in a fire in 80. In 125, Emperor Hadrian built a new Pantheon building, completely reconstructing it. Outside, the Pantheon is a huge cylindrical volume, to which is attached a deep portico with sixteen Corinthian columns, twelve meters in length, hewn from Aswan granite. Niches were made in the walls of the portico intended for statues of gods or emperors. The pediment was once decorated with a bronze sculpture depicting the battle of the titans. In ancient times, people entered the Pantheon through the triumphal arch that stood on its square. Inside, the Pantheon has a two-tier wall with columns and niches, cut through by vaulted arches. The dome rests on the second, smaller and flatter tier. The inside of the dome is covered with five rows of perspective caissons (square recesses), and at the top it ends with a nine-meter opening - the oculus.
Pantheon

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The proportions of the Pantheon are carefully adjusted. Its height is about 44 m, the same diameter of the circle lying at the base. This means that the Pantheon (without the portico) fits perfectly into a cube, and a sphere can also fit into it. The dome of the Pantheon is the largest dome of antiquity and remained the largest in Europe until the architect Brunelleschi completed work on the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence in 1436. The vault of the Pantheon weighs 5 thousand tons. Its thickness ranges from 6.4 m at the base to 1.2 m around the oculus. The weight of the giant hemisphere is supported by eight powerful support pillars six meters thick. The inner surface of the dome symbolizes the sky, and the oculus crowning it is a symbol of the sun. The oculus is the only opening in the entire building that lets in sunlight. It also serves for air conditioning and ventilation. In 609, the Byzantine Emperor Phocas consecrated the Pantheon, which has since become (and still is) a Christian temple. This partly saved the Pantheon from oblivion and plunder, which was the fate that befell most ancient Roman architectural structures.
Pantheon

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Since the Renaissance, the Pantheon has been used as a tomb. Such famous personalities as Raphael, Annibale Caracci and others are buried here. The external marble cladding of the Pantheon has not survived. Some of the capitals are currently in the British Museum in London. The marble lining of the interior, as well as the colossal bronze doors leading from the portico into the temple, have been preserved to this day. The doors were once gilded, but over time the gilding has worn away. In the 17th century By order of Pope Urban VIII, the bronze ceiling of the portico was melted down into cannons. It was then that a saying arose in Rome: Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt Barberini (“What the barbarians failed to do, the Barberini did” (Urban VIII bore the surname Barberini). The Pantheon, best preserved of all other monuments of ancient Roman architecture, had a huge influence on American and European architects from the Renaissance to the 19th century.City halls, universities, public libraries and other buildings bear the imprint of its portico-domed structure, including the reading room of the British Museum in London, the Jefferson rotunda at the University of Virginia, the State Library of Victoria in Melbourne, etc.
Pantheon