Classification of fixed assets of the enterprise according to various criteria. Fixed assets
Fixed assets (PP) are classified according to the following featured :
1) the nature of the impact on the production process (production structure);
2) types, purpose, functions performed in the production process (species or technological structure);
3) by sub-sectors (sub-sector structure);
4) technological level, progressiveness (qualitative structure);
5) the method of reproduction (reproductive structure);
6) by actual service life (age structure).
Depending on the production purpose, fixed assets are divided into groups:
Buildings - industrial buildings, warehouses, offices, garages, etc .;
Structures - roads, overpasses, fences and other engineering and construction structures that create the necessary conditions for the implementation of the production process;
Transmission means - power lines, communications, pipelines;
Machines and devices - power machines and equipment, working machines and equipment, measuring and regulating devices and laboratory equipment, computer technology;
Vehicles - all types of vehicles, incl. interfactory, interdepartmental and intrashop;
Instruments;
Production inventory and accessories;
Household inventory;
Other fixed assets.
According to their role in the production process, the active and passive parts of fixed assets are distinguished. TO active part includes fixed assets that directly affect the objects of labor, determining the volume and quality of products (transmission devices, machinery and equipment). Passive fixed assets create conditions for the implementation of the production process (buildings, structures, vehicles).
The structure of the OPF is determined by the specific weight that the value of individual groups of fixed assets has in their total value. The structure of fixed assets is their most important economic characteristic, affecting the rate of turnover and efficiency of use.
Under production structure the ratio of different groups of OPF by material-natural composition in their total average annual value is understood. The most effective is the structure where the specific gravity of the active part of the OPF is greater. This is due to the fact that the volume of production, the production capacity of the enterprise, and other indicators of the enterprise depend on the size of the active part of the OPF.
The production structure of fixed assets depends on factors such as:
1) the level of specialization, concentration, cooperation and diversification of production;
2) the level of mechanization and automation;
3) features of the production process;
4) acceleration of scientific and technological progress;
5) the geographical location of the enterprise, etc.
Technological structure characterizes their distribution by structural divisions of the enterprise as a percentage of the total cost. For example, the share of certain types of machine tools in the total number of machine tools.
Age structure OPF characterizes their distribution by age groups (up to 5 years old, from 5 to 10 years old, from 10 to 15 years old, from 15 to 20 years old, over 20 years old).
The average age of production equipment in Russian industry was in 1970. 8.42 years, in 2002. - 20.1 years.
Accounting and planning of fixed assets is carried out in physical and value (monetary) terms. Accounting in physical terms is carried out on the basis of data from periodically conducted inventory and certification, which contain a detailed description of the technical condition of the means of labor. Accounting in physical terms is necessary to draw up a balance of equipment, determine the technical composition of the OS and production capacity, calculate the degree of equipment wear in order to replace it in a timely manner.
Valuation of fixed assets is necessary to determine their total volume, dynamics, structure, wear and tear. There are several types of valuation of fixed assets.
Initial cost of fixed assets - is the sum of the actual costs incurred for the manufacture or acquisition of funds, their delivery, installation and commissioning at prices in effect at the time of their acquisition.
Replacement cost - is the cost of reproduction of previously acquired fixed assets in new production conditions (a given year), i.e. an estimate in the amount of the costs that would have to be done to manufacture the same fixed asset in its original form at the present time. To determine the replacement cost of fixed assets, a revaluation must be made.
The organization may not more than once a year at the beginning of the reporting period re-evaluate groups of homogeneous objects of fixed assets. Revaluation methods are chosen independently (for example, at documented market prices; use of a deflator index; engaging an independent appraiser).
Residual value represents the difference between the initial or replacement cost of fixed assets and the amount of their depreciation (depreciation charges made).
Liquidation value - this is the cost of selling worn-out and discontinued fixed assets (for example, the price of scrap, spare parts).
The PF balance at full cost is compiled as follows:
Fkg = Fng + Fvv - Fvyb,
where Фкг is the total cost of the OF at the end of the year;
Fng is the total cost of the PF at the beginning of the year;
Фвв - the cost of the fixed assets being put into operation;
Fvyb - the cost of the retired OF.
2. Material and technical base as a natural material form of fixed assets.
3. Factors determining the volume and structure of fixed assets. Indicators characterizing the movement of fixed assets.
4. Indicators for evaluating fixed assets. The concept of depreciation and types of depreciation of fixed assets.
5. Indicators of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets.
6. Essence, necessity and forms of reproduction of fixed assets.
7. Capital investments as a form of investment in the reproduction of fixed assets.
8. Planning capital investments.
9. Indicators and ways to improve the efficiency of capital investments.
Fixed funds is called a set of material values in the form of means and instruments of labor that function in trade organizations for a long time and transfer their value to the value of the goods gradually, in parts through depreciation deductions included in the costs of trade organizations for the sale of goods.
The economic essence of fixed assets lies in the fact that they repeatedly serve the process of circulation of goods without changing their natural form and gradually transfer their value into the value of goods. The process of transferring the value of fixed assets into the value of goods is called depreciation.
Fixed assets - a service life of more than 1 year and a cost of more than 30 base units.
The composition of fixed assets: buildings, structures, transmission devices, refrigeration and retail equipment, computers, etc.
Distinguish between production and non-production fixed assets. Manufacturing directly involved in the production process and its maintenance.
Non-productive assets include fixed assets of the social sphere available in a trade organization: housing, children's and health institutions. Their share in the total amount is 15-20%.
Classification of industrial fixed assets:
structures;
transmission devices;
trade and technological equipment;
By appointment:
state.
in retail trade;
in wholesale trade;
in public catering.
own;
borrowed (rented);
donated.
active;
passive.
By ownership:
By type of activity:
By affiliation with trade organizations:
By the role of certain types of fixed assets in the trade and economic process:
Active equipment includes equipment, machinery, vehicles, inventory.
The use of active fixed assets affects the volume of turnover, labor productivity and profit and profitability.
Passive fixed assets: buildings, structures. They create conditions for the implementation of trade and economic activities.
Unlike other sectors of the economy, the share of active fixed assets in trade is low; passive fixed assets prevail.
In general, the share of active fixed assets in the industry is 60-65%.
The structure of fixed assets is characterized by the proportion of certain types of fixed assets in their total value.
Fixed assets in their natural form constitute the material and technical base of a trade organization, but the material and technical base is broader than the concept of fixed assets.
On the balance sheets of trade organizations, only their own fixed assets are taken into account, while a significant share in the composition of fixed assets is made up of leased funds.
Some of the items of material and technical equipment worth up to 30 base units are accounted for as part of working capital.
The indicators characterizing the material and technical base are the number of shops, warehouses, cafes, restaurants, the number of general commodity warehouses, storage facilities, their area, the number of equipment and its production capacity; the level of technical equipment of the organization of trade per 1 store or 1 public catering facility, the level of labor mechanization, its equipment, etc.
Indicators of the level of provision of fixed assets are:
The number of shops, the number of catering establishments per 1000 or per 10000 inhabitants;
The size of the retail space and the number of places in public catering per 1000 inhabitants;
Storage capacity, refrigerators per 1000 inhabitants.
These indicators are compared with the normative ones.
Indicators of the capacity of a trade organization are:
retail space;
the number of places in public catering;
the size of the warehouse area or the storage capacity in the wholesale trade;
performance of various types of equipment.
volume and assortment structure of goods turnover;
specialization and types of enterprises;
productive capacity;
methods of selling goods;
organization of goods circulation.
The movement of fixed assets is characterized by the following ratios:
Fixed assets renewal ratio
К = ∑ fixed assets introduced in the reporting year / cost of fixed assets at the end of the reporting year
Retirement rate of fixed assets
K = the cost of fixed assets retired in the reporting year / the cost of fixed assets at the beginning of the reporting year
Expansion coefficient of reproduction of fixed assets
K = renewal rate - retirement rate
Depreciation rate of fixed assets
K = ∑ accrued depreciation for the entire period of operation / initial cost of fixed assets
Fixed assets usability ratio
K = 1 - wear factor
Fixed assets are accounted for and planned in physical and value terms:
natural (number of stores, size of retail space) - they are necessary to plan the need for a material and technical base
cost - the cost assessment of fixed assets is carried out at the initial, replacement and residual value
Initial cost - the cost of the acquired objects of fixed assets.
Replacement cost - the cost of reproduction of fixed assets under existing production conditions and price levels for raw materials and materials.
Revaluation of fixed assets is carried out by 2 methods:
Indexation method - recalculation of the initial value of fixed assets using the coefficient of changes in the value of fixed assets as of January 1 of the next year.
Direct account method - the cost of individual objects is recalculated in prices prevailing on 01.01. to new objects.
The choice of the revaluation method is carried out on the organization and is reflected in the accounting policy.
When revaluing fixed assets, the depreciation of each type of fixed assets is determined and a new depreciation coefficient and the amount of depreciation are calculated.
∑ depreciation = replacement cost * depreciation rate
Obsolescence occurs under the influence of STP. There are 2 types of obsolescence:
associated with the reduction in the cost of reproduction of fixed assets in modern conditions in the process of improving the organization of production, labor productivity, etc.
due to the emergence of new, more productive and economical technology
Obsolescence can be complete or partial.
With complete obsolescence, the use of equipment is inappropriate for any work. With partial - use is possible on certain types of work.
In order to speed up the renewal of fixed assets, a new provision on the procedure for calculating depreciation has been introduced since 2003, which provides for the possibility of using accelerated depreciation in order to more quickly accumulate funds for renewing fixed assets.
For this purpose, a non-linear method of depreciation is introduced, which assumes uneven depreciation. But this method has limited use due to the low profitability of the stores.
Full and effective use of fixed assets helps to reduce the need for capital investments with an increase in trade turnover, an increase in labor productivity and savings in distribution costs, since the cost of maintaining the material and technical base occupies 80 or more% of the total distribution costs.
Therefore, each trade organization must constantly analyze and monitor the use of fixed assets.
The main indicators characterizing the efficiency of the use of fixed assets are:
Capital productivity - turnover per ruble of the average annual value of fixed assets:
The level of the active part of fixed assets is the ratio of the average annual value of the active part of fixed assets to the average annual value of fixed assets:
Capital equipment - the average annual cost of used fixed assets per employee:
The coefficient of efficiency of using fixed assets is the ratio of profit to the average annual cost of fixed assets:
Capital-to-labor ratio is the average annual cost of the active part of fixed assets per employee of trade and operational personnel:
Trade turnover per unit of retail space - annual retail turnover per 1 m2 of retail space:
Profit per 1 m2 of retail space:
The integral indicator of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets is a generalizing indicator and is calculated when the particular indicators of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets are of a multidirectional nature:
Ensuring the growth of turnover, profit requires constant renewal and growth of fixed assets, that is, their reproduction.
Reproduction of fixed assets is a continuous process of their renewal through new construction, reconstruction and expansion of existing fixed assets, technical re-equipment of existing fixed assets, acquisition of new and modernization of existing equipment.
The forms of reproduction are simple and extended.
Simple reproduction in the form of maintenance and overhaul.
Extended - new construction, introduction of new technology.
Expanded reproduction is carried out through investment. Investments in the reproduction of fixed assets of trade are carried out in the form of capital investments.
Capital investments - the cost of funds used to update fixed assets.
The objects of capital investment are new construction, reconstruction and expansion, technical re-equipment, the acquisition of new equipment and technology.
The structure of capital investments is characterized by:
Sectoral structure - the distribution of capital investments by type of trading activity.
Reproduction structure - the distribution of capital investments by forms of expanded reproduction.
Technological structure - the distribution of capital investments by type of cost: construction and installation work, purchase of equipment and inventory and other costs.
Sources of capital investment financing:
depreciation charges for the full restoration of fixed assets;
accumulation fund, created in all trade organizations at the expense of the profit remaining at the disposal after taxes and fees
long-term loans from commercial banks and loans from other organizations
internal sources of financing associated with savings in the implementation of construction, repair and installation work in the economic way of carrying out work
In terms of trade and economic activities of trade organizations, there is a section "Development of the material and technical base." This section provides for new construction, reconstruction and all types of work related to the renewal and expansion of fixed assets, also provides for the volume of capital investments by type of work performed.
For each type, a separate capital investment plan is drawn up:
The volume of capital investments, including construction and installation work.
Commissioning of fixed assets (cost of completed works + cost of equipment).
Commissioning of production facilities (size of retail space, number of places in public catering, storage area).
The economic efficiency of the planned capital investments and the payback period.
The volume of construction in progress for transferring objects - these volumes are set depending on the construction time.
The volume of capital investments for new facilities = projected production capacity * standard unit costs
The unit cost rate is the cost per unit of production capacity.
Before starting construction, it is necessary to prepare design estimates.
Design can go through 2 stages. If standard projects are used, then a feasibility study and working drawings are developed. If the construction is carried out according to an individual project, then a technical project is developed.
The coefficient of total or absolute efficiency of capital investments - characterizes the amount of profit per unit of capital investments:
, where
E is the coefficient of the overall economic efficiency of capital investments;
P - profit;
K - capital investments.
Payback period of capital investments:
or 
, where T is the payback period
Reconstruction Cost Effectiveness Ratio:
, where
∆П is the increase in profit obtained in the process of reconstruction
K d - capital investments in reconstruction (additional)
K new - capital investments for reconstruction according to the estimate
K isp - the cost of fixed assets released during the reconstruction process and transferred to another organization
K y - residual value of fixed assets liquidated in the process of reconstruction
P z - reduced costs
And - costs
E n - standard coefficient of efficiency of capital investments
K - capital investments
After completing this chapter, you will:
know
- - concept, essence, classification of fixed assets of the enterprise;
- - methods of valuation of fixed assets, depreciation and types of depreciation;
- - indicators of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets, ways to increase them;
be able to
- - determine the rate of depreciation; calculate the amount of depreciation by various methods;
- - calculate indicators of the effectiveness of fixed assets, interpret their values;
- - calculate the economically justified service life of fixed assets;
own
The main methods used in the management of fixed assets of the enterprise.
Classification of fixed assets
The means of production used for the production of any product transfer their value to it in different ways. Some of them do it immediately, during one production cycle. For example, the cost of furniture immediately and entirely includes the cost of the lumber from which this furniture is made. Fully included in the cost of furniture and the cost of used glue, varnish, fasteners, as well as the cost of fuel, electricity, etc., spent on its manufacture. If we assume for a minute that the enterprise at some point in time had all the above (as well as other necessary) materials exactly as much as is needed to produce one set of furniture, then it turns out that, having produced this set, the enterprise will be able to continue its work, only selling it and again buying all the necessary materials with the proceeds.
In other words, the considered means of production in the process of each production cycle lose their original natural form and completely transfer their value to the finished product (i.e., their value is fully included in the value of the products produced in this production cycle).
Such means of production belong to working capital of the enterprise.
Another part of the means of production participates in the process of forming the value of manufactured products in a significantly different way. For example, in the production of the same furniture, woodworking equipment was used. This equipment, in contrast to the previously considered materials, after the completion of the manufacture of a set of furniture did not lose its natural form, did not lose its consumer qualities and could be used without any problems for the manufacture of the second, third, etc. sets of furniture.
This is the first difference between the two considered groups of means of production. The second follows from the first: if the means of production participate, without changing their natural form, in many production cycles, then their value cannot be included in the value of products produced in one cycle, but must be distributed among all products produced with the help of these means of production. ... Unlike circulating, such means of production are classified as fixed assets.
So, fixed assets of an enterprise- this is the value of the means of production, fully participating in many production cycles, while retaining their natural form and transferring their value to the finished product gradually, as they wear out.
Historical reference
In Soviet economic theory and practice, the concepts of "fixed assets" and "fixed assets" were used practically as synonyms: in any case, no generally accepted boundaries were drawn between them. In connection with the introduction in 1996 of the All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets, the situation has changed.
In accordance with the new All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets (OKOF) entered into force on January 1, 2017, approved by order of the Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology dated December 12, 2014 No. 2018-st "On the adoption and implementation of the All-Russian Classifier OK 013-2014 (SNS) ", fixed assets are produced assets that are used repeatedly or continuously over a long period, but not less than one year, for the production of goods, the provision of market and non-market services.
Fixed assets consist of tangible and intangible fixed assets.
TO tangible fixed assets(fixed assets) include: buildings, structures, machinery, equipment and other types of material fixed assets.
TO intangible fixed assets(intangible assets) include computer software, works
literature or art, technology and other intangible fixed assets that are objects of intellectual property, the use of which is limited by the ownership rights established on them.
Thus, fixed assets form one of two constituent parts of fixed assets - tangible fixed assets. The second component is intangible fixed assets, or intangible assets. Unlike quite tangible fixed assets, intangible assets cannot be “touched”: you can stand on a land plot, you can pick up a document certifying the right to use a land plot, but you cannot pick up this right itself. Nevertheless, intangible assets behave in the economy in exactly the same way as fixed assets: both of them can be quite expensive, usually serve for a rather long time, but gradually wear out, i.e. lose their usefulness to their owner. The latter means that there must be the same mechanism for transferring their value to the products produced with their help. All this makes it possible to combine intangible assets into one group with fixed assets.
Earlier we gave a theoretical definition of fixed assets. However, in practice, using exclusively this definition, it is sometimes difficult to establish whether this or that type of production resources belongs to fixed or circulating assets. In addition, the classification of a large number of very cheap items as fixed assets, such as hammers, screwdrivers, etc. (although they, in fact, should really belong to fixed assets), would overly complicate the accounting in the enterprise, without leading to a significant increase in its accuracy. Therefore, the accounting system has formed its own understanding of what should be attributed to fixed assets and what should not. Moreover, it does not coincide in everything with the scientific one.
So, in accordance with the requirements of accounting and reporting in the Russian Federation, fixed assets do not include items that have served less than one year, regardless of their cost.
Since 2016, the tax accounting limit for depreciable property has been increased - RUB 100,000. per unit and a useful life of more than 12 months.
Note that Art. 257 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation defines fixed assets as follows: part of the property used as means of labor for the production and sale of goods (performance of work, provision of services) or for managing an organization with an initial cost of more than 40,000 rubles. As you can see, there is no indication of the service life in this definition. However, further in the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, the term "fixed assets" is replaced by the term "depreciable property", and here it already becomes clear that there can be no depreciable property with a service life of less than one year.
Classification by species (species classification) is used most often. As already noted, the classifier of fixed assets includes two sections - tangible and intangible fixed assets, each of which has several subsections, which just characterize the classification of fixed assets by their types. The ratio of individual types of fixed assets is called their species structure. In the current version of the classifier, seven groups of fixed assets are distinguished (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1
|
Fixed asset groups |
|
|
Explanation |
|
|
Residential buildings and structures |
Buildings and dwellings that are used as residences, mobile homes, houseboats, other buildings (premises) used for dwellings, as well as historical monuments identified mainly as dwellings |
|
Buildings (other than residential) and structures, land improvement costs |
Buildings that are architectural and construction objects, the purpose of which is to create conditions (protection from atmospheric influences, etc.) for labor, social and cultural services for the population and storage of material values |
|
Machinery and equipment, including household inventory and other objects |
Vehicles, information, computer and telecommunications (ICT), equipment (machines, apparatus, aggregates, installations, etc., including their constituent accessories), household inventory and other objects |
|
Weapon systems |
Armament (small arms, artillery, complexes and launchers of unguided missiles, etc.); aircraft, orbital vehicles and means of their preparation for launch; ships, combat tracked and wheeled vehicles |
|
Cultivated biological resources |
Cultivated resources of plant and animal origin, which repeatedly produce products, |
|
Transfer costs of non-produced assets |
Land, mineral wealth, etc. |
|
intellectual property |
Scientific research and development, expenditures for the exploration of subsoil and the assessment of mineral reserves, software and databases, software, databases, originals of works of entertainment genre, literature or art, other objects of intellectual property |
Classification of fixed assets by type of activity.This classification characterizes the structure of the national economy by type
activities measured by fixed assets. Comparing this structure with the structure of the national economy, measured by the number of enterprises, manufactured products, and the number of employees, one can obtain very valuable information on some indicators characterizing the organization of various types of activity.
Classification of fixed assets by branches and sub-branches of the national economy and industry gives an idea of the sectoral composition of the national economy (or industry) in terms of fixed assets. The shares of individual sectors in the total value of fixed assets of the national economy characterizes the sectoral structure of the national economy, measured by fixed assets.
The classification of fixed assets provides information support for the solution of the following tasks:
carrying out work to assess the volume, composition and condition of fixed assets;
implementation of a set of functions for statistical monitoring of fixed assets;
implementation of international comparisons on the structure and condition of fixed assets;
calculation of economic indicators of the state and efficiency of the use of fixed assets;
There are several signs of the classification of fixed assets, depending on which they are grouped (see Appendix 1).
For the organization of accounting, an aggregated classification of fixed assets is provided according to the following criteria:
depending on the existing rights to the objects of fixed assets;
by the degree of use;
depending on the nature of participation in economic activities;
by type.
Depending on the existing rights to the objects of fixed assets, there are:
objects belonging to the organization on the basis of ownership rights (including those leased, transferred for free use, transferred to trust management);
held by the organization on the basis of operational management or economic management;
leased fixed assets, that is, those in temporary use for a certain fee;
fixed assets received by the organization for free use;
fixed assets received by the organization in trust.
In accounting terms, all fixed assets on the balance sheet of the organization, including temporarily unused, leased or leased Leasing is an independent type of entrepreneurial activity, when, under a lease agreement, the lessor undertakes to acquire the leased property from the seller and provide this property to the lessee for fee (at a certain percentage) for temporary use. are accounted for as fixed assets in operation.
Depending on the degree of use, fixed assets are distinguished:
operating in operation (both in operation and in repair or in idle time);
in stock (reserve), intended to replace these types of fixed assets retired from operation;
at the stage of completion, retrofitting, reconstruction and partial liquidation;
on conservation. Inactive (mothballed) are the fixed assets of enterprises or individual workshops, the temporary cessation of operation of which is documented in the prescribed manner.
Such a division is necessary to obtain information on the load and efficiency of the use of fixed assets, the possibility of replacing worn-out assets, taking measures to transfer or selling unnecessary funds to other enterprises, as well as the correct calculation of depreciation to be included in production costs.
Depending on the nature of the participation of fixed assets in the processes of economic activity, they are divided into:
production;
non-production;
The main criterion for grouping fixed assets on this basis is the type of activity of this organization or its division. In this case, the classification unit is the entire set of fixed assets on the balance sheet.
To production fixed assets include fixed assets for industrial, construction, agricultural purposes, road transport, communications, trade and other types of material production. They are repeatedly involved in the production process, wear out gradually, and their value is transferred to the manufactured product in parts as it is used. They are replenished by capital investments. The composition of fixed assets is largely determined by the industry affiliation of the enterprise.
Basic production assets - the material and technical base of social production. The production capacity of the enterprise and the level of technical equipment of labor depend on their volume. The accumulation of fixed assets and an increase in the technical equipment of labor enrich the labor process, impart a creative character to labor, and raise the cultural and technical level of society.
Non-productive fixed assets - these are the buildings of clubs, palaces and houses of culture, buildings of hotels, baths, sanitary inspection facilities, children's and sports facilities, other objects of cultural and consumer services, which are on the balance sheet of the enterprise. Unlike production, non-production assets do not participate in the production process and do not transfer their value to the product, because it is not created. Their value disappears into consumption. No compensation fund is created. They are reproduced at the expense of the national income.
Despite the fact that non-productive fixed assets do not have a direct impact on the volume of production and growth in labor productivity, their constant increase is inextricably linked with the improvement of the welfare of employees of the enterprise, with an increase in the material and cultural standard of their lives, which ultimately affects the results of activities. enterprises.
The structure of housing includes objects intended for human habitation: residential buildings, hostels, etc.
When classifying fixed assets according to their types and purpose, one should be guided by the grouping of fixed assets officially adopted for the preparation of accounting and statistical reporting. Classification by types depending on the natural-material composition and purposes is the basis for the analytical accounting of fixed assets.
When determining the composition and grouping of fixed assets by type, it is necessary to be guided by the All-Russian Classifier of Fixed Assets (OK 013-94), approved by the decree of the State Committee of the Russian Federation for Standardization, Metrology and Certification.
The general structure of nine-digit codes for the formation of groupings of objects in OKOF is presented in the form of the following diagram: X0 0000000 - section; XX 0000000 - subsection; XX XXXX000 - class; XX XXXX0XX - subclass; XX XXXXXXX - view.
Each type of fixed assets is assigned a 7-digit code within the following subsections:
* land plots and objects of nature management (water, subsoil, other natural resources) belonging to the enterprise on the basis of property rights;
* buildings (production and technical, service, etc.), i.e. architectural and construction projects, in which the main structural parts are walls and a roof - industrial buildings and buildings. The building group is divided into three subgroups: industrial buildings, non-industrial buildings and housing;
* structures, which include engineering and construction objects, the purpose of which is to create conditions for the implementation of the production process by performing certain technical functions that are not related to changing the subject of labor;
* transfer devices, with the help of which the transfer of electrical, thermal and mechanical energy from machine-engines to working machines is carried out, as well as the transfer (transportation) of liquid and gaseous substances from one object to another (electrical networks, heating networks, pipelines and water pipelines);
* machinery and equipment, including:
Measuring and regulating devices, devices and laboratory equipment;
Computer Engineering;
Power;
Workers;
* vehicles (intra- and non-production);
* tools and devices costing over 50 times the minimum wage;
* production and household equipment, i.e. items for production purposes, which serve to facilitate production operations and for labor protection, as well as storage facilities for liquid and bulk materials;
* on-farm roads;
* capital investments in land improvement and in rented buildings, premises, equipment and other objects related to fixed assets;
* other fixed assets (draft animals, perennial plantations).
The ratio of individual groups of fixed assets in their total volume represents the specific (production) structure of fixed assets. The production structure of fixed assets is characterized by the specific weight of each group of fixed assets in their total value for the enterprise, industry and industry as a whole.
The structure of fixed assets is determined by many factors. The most important of them are:
The nature of the products manufactured;
The level of technological complexity of production;
Geographic conditions for the location of the enterprise.
The society is not indifferent to which of the groups of fixed assets the funds are invested in. It is interested in the optimal increase in the proportion of machinery and equipment - active parts of the funds that serve the decisive areas of production and characterize the production capabilities of the enterprise for the release of certain products.
Buildings, structures, inventory that ensure the normal functioning of active elements of fixed assets are passive parts of fixed assets.
The production structure of fixed assets and its change over a particular period of time make it possible to characterize the technical level of industry and the efficiency of using capital investments in fixed assets. In particular, the higher the proportion of machinery, equipment and other elements of the active part of fixed assets in the composition of fixed assets, the more products will be produced for each ruble of fixed assets, the more output, other things being equal, the higher the rate of return on assets. ...
Therefore, an improvement in the structure of fixed assets is considered as a condition for the growth of production, cost reduction, and an increase in enterprises' money savings.
The most important factors affecting the structure of fixed assets are:
1) the nature of the products,
2) the volume of production,
3) the level of mechanization and automation,
4) the level of specialization and cooperation,
5) climatic and geographical conditions for the location of enterprises.
The first factor affects the size and value of buildings, the proportion of vehicles and transmission devices. The larger the volume of production (the second factor), the higher the proportion of special progressive working machines and equipment. The same picture is characteristic of the influence of the third and fourth factors on the structure of funds. The share of buildings and structures depends on climatic conditions.
It is possible to improve the structure of fixed assets.
* updating and modernization of equipment;
* improvement of the structure of equipment as a result of an increase in the share of progressive types of machine tools and machines;
* better use of buildings and structures, installation of additional equipment on free areas;
* correct development of construction projects and high-quality implementation of plans for the construction of enterprises;
* elimination of excess and little-used equipment and installation of equipment that provides more correct proportions between its individual groups.
Differences in the production structure of fixed assets in different industries are the result of the technical and economic characteristics of these industries. Even enterprises within the same industry tend to have a different production structure of fixed assets. The highest proportion of active elements of fixed assets is at enterprises with a high level of technical equipment and electrical equipment of labor, where production processes are mechanized and automated.
1.3 Efficiency of use of fixed assets of the enterprise and indicators of their assessment
The main tasks of the analysis of fixed assets include:
* assessment of the availability, composition and structure of fixed assets;
* analysis of the movement of fixed assets;
* analysis of the efficiency of using fixed assets.
At a given technical level and structure of fixed assets, an increase in output, a decrease in production costs and an increase in the company's savings depend on the degree of their use.
To characterize the efficiency of the use of fixed production assets (OPF), generalizing, additional and auxiliary indicators are used (Table 1).
Table 1
Indicators of the use of fixed production assets
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Additional indicators |
Generalizing indicators |
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indicators of extensive use of OPF |
indicators of intensive use of OPF |
indicators of integral use of OPF |
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1.extensive utilization rate of Kaxt equipment |
1.equipment intensive use ratio Kint |
1.integral utilization factor of Kintegr equipment |
1. capital productivity |
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2.the shift factor of the equipment Kcm |
2.profitability |
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3.equipment load factor Kzag |
3. capital intensity |
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4.the ratio of the shift mode of the operating time of the equipment |
4.fondorent- whiteness |
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5.the capital-to-labor ratio of FV |
Generalizing indicators are used to characterize the use of fixed assets at all levels of the national economy - enterprises, industries and the national economy as a whole. For generalizing characteristics of the efficiency of using fixed assets serve as indicators of profitability (the ratio of profit to the average annual value of fixed assets), capital productivity (the ratio of the value of manufactured or sold products after deducting VAT, excise taxes to the average annual value of fixed assets), capital intensity (inverse rate of return on assets) of specific capital investments per ruble of production growth. The relative savings of fixed assets is also calculated:
± E opf = OPF 1 - OPF o x IVP, (1)
where OPF o, OPF 1 - respectively, the average annual cost of fixed assets in the base and reporting years;
1VP -- production volume index.
When calculating the average annual value of funds, not only own, but also leased fixed assets are taken into account and funds that are on conservation, reserve and leased are not included.
The result of the better use of fixed assets is, first of all, an increase in the volume of production. Therefore, a generalizing indicator of the efficiency of fixed assets should be based on the principle of commensuration of the produced product with the entire set of fixed assets used in its production. The main criterion indicator of the efficiency of the use of fixed assets is the return on assets.
Of all the measuring instruments of the volume of production, the most preferable and generally accepted for calculating the return on assets is marketable output. Thus, the economic meaning of capital productivity lies in the amount of marketable products produced per year per one ruble of fixed assets. This indicator is used in every industry, industry and the national economy as a whole.
To calculate the value of return on assets, the formula is used:
Fotd =, (2)
where T
F --
Return on assets is measured in the same measures as the volume of production, that is, natural, conditionally natural or value.
The average annual cost of fixed assets is calculated according to the chronological average formula, that is, as the sum of half of the cost of fixed assets at the beginning and end of the period (year), the full cost of fixed assets for the first days of the remaining months of the period (year), divided by 12.
Ф = Ф1 +, (3)
where Ф 1 -- the cost of fixed assets of the enterprise at the beginning of the year, rubles;
F input, F select - respectively, the cost of fixed assets introduced and retired during the year, rubles;
n, n G -- the number of full months from the date of entry (disposal).
Capital intensity of production -- the reciprocal of the return on assets. It shows the share of the cost of fixed assets attributable to each ruble of manufactured products. If capital productivity should tend to increase, then capital intensity - to decrease.
where, Ф -- average annual cost of fixed assets of the enterprise, rubles.
T - the volume of marketable or gross, or sold products, rubles;
The efficiency of the enterprise is largely determined by the level of capital-labor ratio, determined by the formula:
where, Ф - the average annual value of the basic production assets of the enterprise, rubles.
H - the average number of employees of the enterprise.
This value should continuously increase, since technical equipment and, consequently, labor productivity depend on it.
The return on assets is influenced by the achieved level of labor productivity and capital-labor ratio.
Ф ex =, (6)
where, ПТ - labor productivity (output) at the enterprise,
Ф в - capital-labor ratio.
This formula can be used for a more detailed analysis of the use of fixed assets. It shows the relationship between production and capital-labor ratio. The ideal option is considered to be the option when the output at the enterprise grows at a faster pace than the capital-labor ratio, since in this case the maximum production efficiency is achieved.
To increase capital productivity, the growth rate of labor productivity must outpace the growth rate of capital-labor ratio. This character is inherent in the intensive development of production. The opposite situation, when the rate of growth of capital-labor ratio outstrips the rate of growth of labor productivity, and capital productivity decreases, is characteristic of an extensive way of development of production.
Return on assets is one of the main indicators of the use of fixed assets. Increasing the return on assets is the most important national economic task in the period of the country's transition to the market. In the conditions of scientific and technological progress, a significant increase in capital productivity is complicated by a quick change of equipment that needs to be mastered, as well as an increase in capital investments aimed at improving working conditions, environmental protection, etc. Factors that increase the return on assets are shown in Fig. 1 (see Appendix 2).
The most generalizing indicator of the effectiveness of the use of fixed assets is the return on assets. Its level depends not only on the return on assets, but also on the profitability of the product. The relationship between these indicators can be represented as follows:
R opf = = = F dep x R vp or (7)
R opf = = = F dep x R rn, (8)
where, R opf - profitability of fixed assets;
P - profit from the sale of products;
F -- the average annual cost of fixed assets;
VP and RP -- accordingly, the cost of manufactured or sold products;
F dep - return on assets;
R vp , R рп - profitability of manufactured or sold products.
The change in the level of capital productivity, in turn, is influenced by a number of factors: the capital productivity of the active part of fixed assets, the share of the active part of production assets, the operating time of equipment, a change in the structure of fixed assets and a change in the production of equipment. The factors of the first level are a change in the share of the active part of production assets and a change in the capital productivity of the active part of assets. The capital productivity of the active part of fixed assets, in turn, depends on the structure of fixed assets (its active part), operating time and average daily output. The factors that determine the profitability of fixed assets are shown in Fig. 2 (see Appendix 3).
Additional and auxiliary indicators help to more fully and deeper reveal reserves in the course of analysis and, most importantly, to develop measures to improve the efficiency of the use of fixed assets in specific enterprises, taking into account their specifics.
Additional indicators characterize the completeness of the use of fixed assets, especially their most active part - machinery and equipment in various aspects of time,
Data sources for analysis: business plan of the enterprise, technical development plan, reporting balance sheet of the enterprise, annex to the balance sheet, report on the availability and movement of fixed assets, balance of production capacity, data on revaluation of fixed assets, inventory cards for accounting of fixed assets, design estimates, technical documentation, etc. ...
Private indicators of the use of fixed assets can be combined into three groups:
indicators of extensive use of fixed assets, reflecting the level of their use over time. To determine the level of use of fixed assets by time, the following types of time are distinguished: calendar, regime, planned and actual time fund:
Calendar time fund -- the maximum possible fund of time is determined by the number of days in the planning period.
Regime fund of time calculated as a calendar minus weekends and holidays.
Planned time fund is determined on the basis of the operating time fund, taking into account the time for equipment repair, technical inspections, etc.
Actual fund of time represents the planned time stock adjusted for downtime and overtime.
The ratio of each subsequent type of time fund to the previous one gives a system of coefficients for using the equipment operating time.
The set of funds of time makes it possible to analyze the operating time of the equipment. Comparison of calendar and operational time funds makes it possible to establish the possibilities of better use by increasing the shift ratio, and the operational and possible - due to better use of equipment by reducing the time spent on repairs during working hours.
The level of extensive use of fixed assets is characterized by the degree of involvement of equipment in the production process.
indicators of intensive use of fixed assets, reflecting the amount of output per unit of time. An intensive load on fixed assets leads to a decrease in production costs and an increase in productivity;
indicators of the integral use of fixed assets, taking into account the cumulative influence of all factors - both extensive and intensive.
The first group of indicators includes the following coefficients.
The coefficient of extensive use of equipment characterizes the use of fixed assets in time, throughout the year, reflects reserves from underutilization of the calendar fund and is determined by the ratio of the actual number of hours of equipment operation to the number of hours of its work according to the plan:
K ext =, (9)
where T f - actual operating time of the equipment, h;
T pl - operating time of the equipment according to the norm (in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise and taking into account the minimum time required for scheduled preventive maintenance), h.
Equipment shift factor characterizes the time of purposeful use of the installed equipment, which operates in multi-shift mode. It shows how many shifts, on average, the installed equipment worked during the day.
It is defined as the ratio of the total number of machine-shifts worked out by equipment of this type during the day to the number of machines (machine tools) that worked in the largest shift. The shift factor calculated in this way shows how many shifts each piece of equipment works annually on average.
K cm =, (10)
where M is the sum of actually worked machine shifts per day,
K m is the total number of installed machines.
Enterprises should strive to increase the shift ratio of equipment, which leads to an increase in output with the same available funds.
The main directions of increasing the shift of equipment operation:
* increasing the level of specialization of workplaces, which ensures the growth of serial production and equipment utilization;
* increasing the rhythm of work;
* reduction of downtime associated with shortcomings in the organization of maintenance of workplaces, providing machine operators with workpieces, tools;
* the best organization of repair work, the use of advanced methods of organizing repair work;
* mechanization and automation of labor of basic and especially auxiliary workers. This will free up labor and transfer it from heavy auxiliary work to main work in the second and third shifts.
In-shift downtime rate supplements the equipment replacement rate. At the same time, the reasons for the occurrence of downtime are analyzed, among which there may be poor organization of production, a shortage of workers, a low level of provision of materials, parts, etc.
Equipment utilization factor also characterizes the use of equipment over time. It is installed for the entire fleet of machines that are in the main production. It is calculated as the ratio of the labor intensity of the manufacture of all products on a given type of equipment to the fund of its operation time.
K zag =, (11)
where T e is the labor intensity of the manufacture of all products on this type of equipment,
T slave - to the fund of equipment loading time.
Thus, the equipment load factor, in contrast to the shift factor, takes into account the data on the labor intensity of the product. In practice, the load factor is usually taken equal to the value of the shift factor, which is halved (in a two-shift mode of operation) or three times (in a three-shift mode).
The coefficient of the shift mode of the operating time of the equipment is determined by dividing the shift ratio of the equipment achieved in a given period by the duration of the shift set at the given enterprise (in the shop).
K see p =, (12)
where, K cm - the period of the shift factor of the equipment,
T is the duration of the shift.
However, the process of using equipment has another side. In addition to its in-shift and all-day downtime, it is important to know how efficiently the equipment is used during the hours of its actual load. The equipment may not be fully loaded, idle and at this time do not produce any products at all or, while working, produce low-quality products. In all these cases, calculating the indicator of extensive use of equipment, formally, you can get good results. However, they still do not allow making a conclusion about the efficient use of fixed assets.
The results obtained should be supplemented by calculations of the second group of indicators - the intensive use of fixed assets, reflecting the level of their use in terms of capacity (productivity). The most important of these is the rate of equipment intensive use.
Equipment intensive use ratio is determined by the ratio of the actual performance of the main technological equipment to its standard performance, i.e. progressive, technically sound performance.
K int =, (13)
where, P f - the actual production of products by the equipment per unit of time;
P c - technically justified production of products by the equipment per unit of time (determined on the basis of the equipment passport data).
An intensive load on fixed assets leads to a decrease in production costs and an increase in productivity.
The third group of indicators of the use of fixed assets includes the coefficient of integral use of equipment.
Integral equipment utilization factor is defined as the product of the coefficients of intensive and extensive use of equipment and comprehensively characterizes its operation in terms of time and productivity (power).
K integra = TO ext NS TO int (14)
The integral utilization coefficient reflects reserves from underutilization of fixed assets, both per unit of time and in time in a calendar period. The value of this indicator is always lower than the values of its components, since it takes into account both the disadvantages of both extensive and intensive use of equipment.
Auxiliary indicators, as a rule, characterize the effectiveness of the use of individual elements of fixed assets, taking into account the specifics of a particular industry. These include, for example, the output per square meter of production area, cubic meter of capacity, etc. These indicators are very specific, but they reflect fairly well the utilization of funds and the reserves available in the industry.
When considering the efficiency of the use of fixed assets, special attention should be paid to the analysis of the use of machinery and equipment. All equipment is subdivided into available N (all equipment, regardless of its condition and location), installed by U (assembled and put into operation) and operating D (working) (fig. 1).
The relationship between these groups of equipment is analyzed:
To characterize the degree of use of enterprise equipment in production, special engagement ratios are used:
K in =; K yy =, (15)
where K in -- utilization rate of available equipment;
To yiu -- utilization rate of installed equipment.
The analysis should identify the reasons for the ineffective use of all the equipment available at the enterprise, if such a situation exists.
Rice. 1. The composition of the available equipment.
Thus, when analyzing the efficiency of the use of fixed assets, it is necessary to study the ratio of all these indicators and draw a conclusion about the nature of the development of the enterprise and the efficiency of resource use.
Each enterprise has an authorized capital, consisting of fixed and production assets.
Enterprise funds- this is a stock of certain goods and factors of production that are in his ownership for a certain period of time. In the production process, part of the funds serves for the direct creation of goods and services, while the other is the means of production or the basis for the functioning of the enterprise. In this regard, two types of funds are distinguished.
Fixed assets- an important part of all production assets of the enterprise, which are materially embodied in the means of labor. Fixed assets retain their natural form for a long time, regardless of the duration and frequency of the production process, they transfer their own value to finished products in parts and, accordingly, are reimbursed only after several production cycles.
Their value is returned in the form of depreciation deductions through the accumulation of the depreciation fund. Depending on the role of participation in production, the fixed assets of the enterprise are divided into 2 large groups.
1. Fixed production assets (OPF) are directly involved in production or create favorable conditions for its flow. OPF include following:
1) buildings as a set of workshops and production units;
2) structures in the form of engineering and construction objects, bridges and tunnels;
3) transmission devices, objects for transportation and transmission of energy, for example, electricity, heat, gas and water supply networks;
4) machines and equipment: power, designed for energy generation; workers (presses, machine tools, etc.), measuring instruments (laboratory equipment), computers and other machinery and equipment (telephone exchanges, fire protection, etc.);
5) vehicles for working personnel and cargo directly for movement through the territory of the enterprise or delivery to other production facilities;
6) tools and devices of auxiliary shops with a service life of over 1 year;
7) production and household inventory, represented by tables, containers, racks, safes and furnishings (furniture);
8) land plots on the balance sheet of the enterprise, as well as perennial plantings, such as shrubs;
9) other OPF, for example, libraries and museum values.
Depending on the degree of participation in the production process, OPF are active (machines and equipment that manufacture products) and passive (buildings and structures).
OPF structure- this is the ratio of all OPF groups in their total value, expressed as a percentage. Knowledge of the structure of OPF is of great practical importance, as it allows you to determine the important characteristics of production and the efficiency of the enterprise.
For example, a high specific gravity of the active part of the OPF determines the high progressiveness of the OPF structure. It is generally accepted that for Russian enterprises the share of machinery and equipment, equal to 35%, testifies to the efficiency of production.
2. Fixed non-productive assets (ONF) include objects of household and cultural purposes, which are directly on the balance sheet of the enterprise. These include medical institutions, preschool institutions (kindergartens), households, palaces of culture, etc. In general, the ONF form the social infrastructure of the enterprise.
As a rule, they are created directly for the employees of a given enterprise or organization. This ensures the attractiveness of jobs, i.e. the organization is actively involved in social security and staff support.
Today it is one of the important conditions for a successful organization, since the employee and the quality of his work are influenced not only by wages, but also by the working conditions themselves.
2. Methods for assessing OPF, their balance and indicators of movement and use
Based on the classification fixed assets by the time of their use, the following methods of their assessment can be determined:
1) at the full initial cost of the OPF. It includes their actual cost at the time of commissioning and application in the production process. This is the so-called book value, which remains constant over a long service life. The initial cost is calculated on the basis of current market prices and does not react to further changes and dynamics of pricing.
2) at the full replacement cost of the OPF, which reflects their value in modern prices, taking into account the rate of inflation, that is, it is determined by recalculating the initial cost. Evaluation of OPF at this cost allows you to really estimate the size of the organization's funds.
In the course of operation, OPFs lose their original characteristics over time. This is due to the deterioration of equipment with too frequent or prolonged use, or with its obsolescence as a result of the emergence of new, more technologically advanced machines. Therefore, there are three new forms of assessing the OPF:
1) initial cost less depreciation. Depreciation is the loss of usefulness by fixed assets and a decrease in their value until the end of their service life;
2) replacement cost less depreciation. The difference between the initial and replacement value of the OPF is the residual value at the time of their withdrawal from circulation or liquidation;
3) the residual value represents the real value of the sale of worn-out and already discontinued OPF. Very often this is the price of scrap.
So, the most complete picture of the features of the OPF movement can be obtained based on the data of balances, which can be presented in two versions:
1) at full initial cost;
2) at cost, taking into account annual depreciation.
Thus, in order to visualize the balance of the optical object in the first way, it is necessary to construct a table.
Table 1 OPF balance at full initial cost, thousand rubles
The balance sheet for fixed non-productive assets is drawn up in a similar way. The balance, compiled at cost, taking into account depreciation, is calculated by reducing the indicator "availability of OPF at the end of the year" by the amount of depreciation.
The main indicators characterizing the presence of OPF at the enterprise include indicators of movement and use.
1. Indicators of OPF movement:
1) the coefficient of receipt = the value of the funds received / value at the end of the reporting period. In this example, K p = 500/1600 (thousand rubles);
2) input coefficient = funds put into circulation / value at the end of the period; K cc = 390/1600 (thousand rubles);
3) retirement rate = value of retired funds / value at the beginning of the period; K in = 400/1500 (thousand rubles);
4) liquidation ratio = value of liquidated funds / value of funds at the beginning of the period; K l = 350/1500 (thousand rubles).
2. Indicators of using OPF:
1) return on assets (FO) shows how much production falls on 1 ruble. used formatting objects.
FD = cost of PP (gross product) / average annual cost of OPF (F av), where F av = (cost of F at the beginning of the period + cost of F at the end of the period) / 2;
2) capital intensity - a coefficient inverse to capital productivity. This coefficient shows how much of the production facility is spent on the production of a unit of production. F capacity = F cf / VP.
3. The concept of wear
A huge part of the costs of a firm or enterprise in the process of production activities are the costs of factors of production purchased directly from the resource market (raw materials, equipment, premises, etc.).
Fixed assets of the enterprise- this is material capital, enclosed in buildings, equipment, various structures. This type of resource is not consumed in one production cycle, but serves for a long time and, as a result, is subject to wear and tear.
Revolving funds- capital materialized in raw materials, cash, labor. These are the resources that contribute to the implementation of the process of creating goods and services by putting them into circulation.
Wear- the process of loss of its usefulness and initial value by fixed assets. There are 2 types of OPF wear.
1. Physical deterioration implies the loss of material properties by fixed assets during their operation, i.e., the loss of consumer qualities by capital resources. In other words, this is a process of deterioration of the technical and economic characteristics of fixed assets, which occurs under the influence of the labor process, natural forces (for example, metal corrosion) or due to their non-use. Physical wear and tear of the first degree directly depends on the rate of production and is calculated like variable costs. Regular use of OPF in the production process wears them out over time, makes them of little use and unsuitable for further use. This type of wear is a completely normal and inevitable phenomenon that an enterprise encounters in the course of its activities. Physical deterioration of the second degree determines the degree of destruction of those production assets that, for whatever reason, were not put into production (that is, due to idle equipment) or were used extremely irrationally. Consequently, physical wear and tear of the second degree is not related to the scale of production, but depends on the amount of unused assets. These are the so-called fixed costs of the firm. Such costs have a negative return and can significantly reduce the efficiency of production and operation of the enterprise.
2. Obsolescence- reduction in the cost of OPF until the end of its service life. This form of wear can be caused by quite objective reasons:
1) the cost of OPF may decrease due to the appearance of more modern productive and economical machine tools and machines. With the advent of new technologies, the old means of labor lose their usefulness and go out of circulation, being replaced by technologically more advanced equipment. In general, this leads to an increase in production efficiency, but at the same time increases its costs, since the replacement of equipment occurred earlier than the due date;
2) a decrease in prices in the market for factors of production can also lead to obsolescence of the OPF. For example, when consumer demand in the real estate market falls, relative housing prices fall. As a result, the work of construction organizations turns out to be unprofitable, since the costs can exceed the costs of construction. But this process has nothing to do with the loss of useful properties of construction equipment (cranes). Thus, obsolescence, like physical deterioration of the second degree, should be attributed to fixed costs, since it also does not depend on the volume of output.
4. The concept of depreciation and its rate
In the course of its functioning, the firm bears the costs associated with the acquisition of factors of production. But capital goods must sooner or later be reproduced, and the costs of them must be reimbursed.
Depreciation- This is a process of permanent transfer of the value of fixed assets to manufactured products in order to accumulate funds for the purchase of new assets and the restoration of existing ones. Capital goods are used over time, so their value is transferred to the goods produced as they wear out. Of course, the company cannot reimburse the costs after each production cycle, but it is nevertheless necessary to spend funds on modernizing equipment. For these purposes, a depreciation fund is created, which is formed by regular deductions from the company's profits.
The term "depreciation" has 2 meanings. On the one hand, depreciation is the amount of wear of the OPF, expressed as a percentage in relation to the total volume of the OPF. On the other hand, depreciation is presented as the sum of savings to cover depreciation or the amount of money required to reproduce worn-out capital goods. Monetary expression of depreciation is the amount of depreciation deductions for a certain period of time. The term "annual depreciation" is especially popular. Experts calculate this indicator based on the following formula:
A g = (F b - F l) / T sl.,
where A g is the sum of annual depreciation deductions;
F b - the cost of fixed assets on the balance sheet of the enterprise;
Ф l - the cost of OPF, which were liquidated over the past period of time, in this case a year;
T sl - the period of possible operation of the OPF.
The formation of a depreciation fund is a voluntary decision of the enterprises themselves, however, the state still regulates this process, independently setting the depreciation rates. The fact is that these norms, in one way or another, determine the amount of profit tax that the state receives in the form of income to the state budget.
The amount of wear itself is difficult to measure objectively. Therefore, any enterprise, deliberately overestimating this value "on paper", ie, documentary, actually has costs incommensurably greater than the real profit. Such measures can be taken to avoid tax payments. That is why the state sets an upper limit for depreciation deductions, that is, the maximum amount of money to cover depreciation.
Therefore, the depreciation rate is a relative indicator, defined as the ratio of the annual depreciation rate and the book value of the OPF: HA = (A g / F b)? 100%. Enterprises, as a rule, set the amount of depreciation charges themselves. This indicator determines the period of time during which the cost of fixed assets will be fully reimbursed. Depreciation regulation is a serious issue.
Understated norms halt technical progress and slow down the process of replacing the means of production. Outdated equipment does not allow minimizing costs and reduces the company's competitiveness in the market. Overestimated norms, on the contrary, are characterized by an intensive change of equipment, which increases the productivity of a unit of labor. However, this causes a natural process of cost growth, which generally reduces the profitability of the enterprise in the short term. Thus, the company is always faced with the task of establishing the optimal depreciation rate, which would make it possible to make a profit at the lowest cost.
5. Methods for calculating depreciation
Depreciation is the accumulation of funds for the restoration of worn-out production assets that have an extremely limited life of productivity and other useful properties. There are a lot of methods for calculating depreciation. But each organization chooses its own way to cover the depreciation of capital goods. And this choice is based directly on the profitability and efficiency of the production process.
The main methods of depreciation it is considered to be the following.
1. Linear way represents an even transfer of the cost of a capital asset to the entire set of costs throughout the entire service life. And g = F b / T sl, where A g is the annual amount of depreciation. This method is used to calculate depreciation for buildings, structures, transmission devices, non-production equipment (laboratory measuring instruments, etc.). The positive aspect of this method of determining the cost of depreciation, of course, is the clarity and ease of calculation. However, the linear approach has several downsides:
1) during the entire service life of the equipment, downtime occurs when it actually drops out of the production cycle. Consequently, fixed assets wear out unevenly, therefore, depreciation deductions in different periods should be differentiated values and this formula cannot be applied;
2) there is no accounting for the obsolescence of the processing plant, which arose as a result of the introduction of new technologies and equipment. As a result, obsolete machines and equipment are retired from production, and such a concept as "under-depreciation" arises:
H = (F o + R l) - F l,
where Ф about - the residual value of fixed assets;
R l - costs associated with the elimination of obsolete fixed assets;
Ф l, is the liquidation value.
3) the real inflation rate is not taken into account.
2. To eliminate the shortcomings of the linear method, accelerated depreciation method... This method of depreciation allows you to recover about 60 - 75% of the total cost of OPF for only half of their service life, while with linear - only 50%. The accelerated depreciation method is also called the declining balance method, and it is used to depreciate equipment that is prone to rapid physical wear and tear or obsolescence.
3. A type of accelerated depreciation is cumulative method, which allows you to write off up to 80% of the cost in almost the first 3 years.
A = (T sl. - m + 1) F b / S,
where m is the ordinal number of the year for which the calculation is made;
S is the sum of years of service life;
S = T sl (T + 1) / 2.
A - depreciation.
The basis of this method is the initial cost of the OPF. Here the amortization is greatest precisely in the first years of the use of capital goods. The cumulative method allows the company to insure against losses and reduce the risk associated with depreciation of obsolete equipment. In addition, the sooner the value of the lost funds is replenished, the faster the organization will be able to acquire new ones.
4. Manufacturing method. Here, the amount of depreciation deductions depends mainly on the volume of products. It is calculated monthly based on the actual output. This method is convenient when the cost of OPF is written off, intended for the production of a specific volume of products (for example, for the depreciation of vehicles, the operation of which is limited by the mileage).
Today, the tax legislation of the Russian Federation actually prohibits the excessive use of non-linear methods of depreciation. Only one method is allowed - the diminishing balance method, and with a doubled amortization rate. In this case, the depreciation rate increases accordingly by 2 times.
The linear method is convenient for large diversified corporations, since with the maximum set of OPF, the contribution of each of them is practically insignificant. Thus, the average depreciation rates simplify the work of the accounting department. In the West, the so-called equilibrium method (the correspondence of income and expenses) is used. From an economic point of view, this method is most convenient for the organization's budget, since the greatest amount of depreciation occurs precisely during the period when the profitability from the use of OPF is the maximum value.
6. Accelerated depreciation and the problem of renewal of fixed capital in Russia
The non-linear method of accruing depreciation in the form of accelerated depreciation is characterized by overestimated rates, which generally speeds up the process of replacing fixed assets. However, such an overestimation of depreciation charges in the short term is accompanied by an increase in costs, which significantly reduces the profitability of the enterprise.
It is generally accepted that developed countries overestimate the depreciation rate to a moderate extent, that is, they pursue a policy of accelerated depreciation. For example, the state proposes to write off the cost of fixed assets (machinery and equipment), the service life of which is 7 years, practically in 5 years. The objectives of this policy are to improve the investment climate in the economy and stimulate investment directly into fixed assets. This means that investments are in direct proportion to the size of the depreciation fund, the funds of which are spent directly on upgrading equipment.
Thus, for Russia, which needs additional investment, accelerated depreciation is an opportunity for the growth of financial development of enterprises. However, so far the non-linear method of writing off the cost of fixed assets is not used at all enterprises, since this, in one way or another, causes an increase in costs and, as a result, an increase in the general level of prices for finished goods and services.
The problem of renewal of fixed capital is one of the main problems that an enterprise may face. Outdated equipment significantly reduces the return on capital resources, which causes an increase in average costs. In addition, the use of technologically imperfect equipment is accompanied by overestimated values of energy and production factors (raw materials and labor resources).
A resource-limited economy, which aims to maximize output, is characterized by a rare change of worn-out equipment, that is, even decommissioned OPF continue to participate in the production process. In addition, the value of obsolescence is not taken into account. Achievements of science and technology are not introduced into production, which slows down the process of renewal of fixed capital. The above situation was characteristic directly of the planned economy of the USSR.
The problem of renewing the means of production is acute in Russia today, since obsolete equipment not only increases costs, but also reduces the return on fixed assets of the enterprise.
In 1997, the state reassessed its capital resources, increasing their value. In fact, this should have caused an increase in depreciation charges. But the position of individual enterprises was so difficult that the income they received could not provide even a simple reproduction of resources, there was not enough money to acquire them.
Depreciation in this case only increased costs, ruining firms, as a result of which they were forced to turn to the state for help with a request to stop deductions. Thus, it can be concluded that financial instability and risk appetite inhibit depreciation.
7. The concept of working capital and their structure
To carry out production activities, the company invests in production factors, one of which is working capital.
Working capital of the enterprise- these are production assets that are wholly and completely consumed during one production cycle. As a result, they change their natural-material form and completely transfer their own value to the cost of finished goods and services. In other words, circulating assets are raw materials, factors of production (capital, land and labor), as well as funds that are spent on creating a new product. Unlike fixed assets, they constitute the material basis of production. Full cost recovery at the end of each production cycle is very convenient. This means that as goods are sold, not only all costs are reimbursed, but also the cost of factors of production that were expended in a given cycle. Thus, the cost of the finished product contains the full amount of reimbursement of working capital. Each turnover (cycle) for such funds is a complete stage of production, after which the used funds are not restored, but others are involved in production.
In accordance with the above, we can conclude about the importance of dividing the entire production fund into its component parts - fixed and circulating assets. This allows you to exercise the greatest control over all the activities of the firm. For a clear production mechanism, it is necessary to have both types of funds, since the whole process of creating goods and services is built on them.
The structure of working capital is represented by such elements as:
1) raw materials and basic materials required directly for the production of finished products, their share in the total volume of funds is about 30%. In other words, it is the primary source of final goods and services;
2) a set of auxiliary materials (for example, lubricating oils necessary for the normal functioning of fixed assets);
3) fuel and electricity, which ensure the operation of equipment that produces a finished product or its components;
4) purchased semi-finished products, as well as semi-finished products of our own production;
5) spare parts for the current repair of equipment (as a rule, they make up 3-4% in the structure of working capital);
6) products of subsidiary farming (for example, containers and container materials required for packaging, delivery and loading of goods and services);
7) low-value and fast-wearing objects of labor. These include tools with a service life of less than 1 year.
The structure of the company's working capital is directly dependent on the following factors:
1) the industry affiliation of the enterprise, which determines the proportion of each of the structure elements;
2) the nature and characteristics of the organization of the production process;
3) conditions of supply and sale of products;
4) the nature and specifics of settlements with consumers and suppliers.
Consequently, the features of the economic activity of the enterprise and the specificity of its production activities predetermine the economic forms in which the circulating assets are located.
This means that the territorial disunity and economic independence of the enterprise require that raw materials and materials be on it in the form of production stocks (work in progress). This is necessary for the smooth course of reproduction.
8. Manufacturing stocks, ways to reduce stocks
A significant share in the composition of reserves at the enterprise is productive reserves, that is, raw materials, materials and fuel that are in the warehouses of the enterprise and intended for production consumption, but have not yet entered the production process. Depending on the reasons for which production stocks are formed, there is the following classification.
1. Current stocks, ie stocks that must continuously satisfy the current consumption of production in material resources between two successive receipts of these resources.
2. Insurance stocks created in case of unforeseen circumstances.
3. Seasonal stocks, which are formed in enterprises working on raw materials, the production or supply of which is of a seasonal nature.
4. There is one more type of inventory - unfinished production, that is, the production of products has begun, but has not yet ended, or is being processed at a certain stage of production within the given enterprise.
5. There are also stocks of finished goods - finished goods and services, ready for sale and consumption.
In general, inventories are of great strategic importance both for the structure of consumption and for the economy as a whole. In a crisis economy, supply, as a rule, exceeds the amount of demand, so unsold goods in warehouses form stocks.
When the economy starts to "rise", the structure of demand is leveled, it starts to grow. In the long run, in conditions of limited resources, enterprises cannot immediately increase production to meet demand. Therefore, the offer is expanding through the once formed reserves.
However, in some cases, excessive stocks indicate imperfection in the organization of production and sales activities or a decrease in consumer demand due to poor quality of goods, service or other consumer properties.
The main ways to reduce inventories
Internal factors
1. Rational use of the amount of raw materials required for production.
2. Elimination of excess stocks of materials that in the near future may not be involved in production. Storing surplus inventory, especially with high interest rates in the country, becomes costly and increases the overall costs of the enterprise.
3. Improving the organization of supply, including the timely delivery of raw materials and materials to workshops or warehouses.
4. The optimal choice of suppliers.
5. Well-established work of transport, which is on the balance sheet of the enterprise and serves production by transporting raw materials and materials, or sales through the sale of finished products.
6. Improvement of production rationing.
7. Improving the organization of storage facilities.
External factors
1. General economic situation. Macroeconomic instability, accompanied by imbalances in supply and demand patterns, interest rate movements and price levels, can all make holding inventories either costly or necessary. In this case, when organizing storage facilities, one should focus on the state of the economy.
2. Features of tax legislation.
3. Conditions for obtaining a loan.
4. Possibilities of targeted (state) financing.
9. Indicators of the use of working capital
In total, there are 4 main indicators by means of which it is possible to characterize the process of using circulating production assets.
1. Turnover ratio shows how many turnovers the funds make over a certain period of time.
K o = RP / O cf. ,
where RP is the volume of products sold in rubles;
Oh Wed - the average residual value of raw materials and supplies.
In other words, this indicator characterizes the amount of finished and already sold products, which accounts for 1 ruble of primary raw materials and materials.
Accordingly, the higher this ratio, the more efficiently the working capital is used at the enterprise. If the turnover ratio decreases, this will be a consequence of a corresponding decrease in the RP and an increase in OCP. Consequently, a larger number of working capital will be spent on the manufacture of each additional unit of production.
2. Duration of 1 turn characterizes the amount of time spent on the implementation of one production cycle.
where T is the total number of days.
Thus, with the rational use of circulating assets and with an increase in the indicator K about, the duration of 1 turnover, respectively, should decrease.
The less time is spent on the implementation of one turnover of production assets, the more often they (turnovers) are made with the least amount of time and the more finished products can be manufactured. Consequently, the duration of the turnover is inversely related to the value of the turnover ratio.
3. Specific consumption of raw materials and materials- the total amount of materials (working capital), which is spent on the production of 1 unit of production:
where M is the total consumption of materials in natural units;
q - the number of units of manufactured products in pieces.
If an enterprise develops intensively and functions effectively, this indicator will decrease for it. The lower the specific consumption of raw materials, the greater the volume of goods and services will be produced, all other things being equal and a given amount of circulating assets at a certain point in time.
4. Material consumption shows the cost of material resources that were spent on the manufacture of one unit of production.
where C is the actual cost of resources in rubles;
Q is the entire volume of goods and services in monetary terms.
Material consumption should decrease, that is, the actual costs incurred by the enterprise in organizing production activities should never exceed the value of the goods produced or the income that can be obtained during their sale.
To organize efficient production, an enterprise must look for ways to reduce costs, mainly in terms of saving production resources. Thus, it is possible to identify certain sources of reducing the cost of materials.
1. This can be achieved by reducing the weight of the manufactured product. For example, this method can be widely used in metallurgy, where the heavy metal itself can be replaced with an alloy with a lower specific gravity, while maintaining the size and shape of the product. However, this method cannot be applied to a number of industries (for example, in the food industry).
2. Reducing waste loss. This problem is especially urgent today. Due to limited resources, it is necessary to develop technologies for the processing of industrial waste and, in the future, their recycling. In addition, in order to really reduce waste, it is important to seriously approach the problem of rational use of resources available in production. The solution of these problems will allow the enterprise to really expand production at the lowest cost.
