The foundation of the cosmos is brief. Beginning of the space age

Cosmonautics as a science, and then as a practical branch, was formed in the middle of the 20th century. But this was preceded by a fascinating history of the birth and development of the idea of ​​​​flying into space, which began with fantasy, and only then did the first theoretical works and experiments appear.

Thus, initially in human dreams, flight into outer space was carried out with the help of fabulous means or forces of nature (tornadoes, hurricanes). Closer to the 20th century, for these purposes, the descriptions of science fiction writers were already present technical means - Balloons, super-powerful guns and, finally, rocket engines and the rockets themselves. More than one generation of young romantics grew up on the works of J. Verne, G. Wells, A. Tolstoy, A. Kazantsev, the basis of which was a description of space travel.

Everything described by science fiction writers excited the minds of scientists. So, K.E. Tsiolkovsky said: “First inevitably come: thought, fantasy, fairy tale, and behind them comes precise calculation.” The publication at the beginning of the 20th century of the theoretical works of astronautics pioneers K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Tsandera, Yu.V. Kondratyuk, R.Kh. Goddard, G. Ganswindt, R. Hainault-Peltry, G. Aubert, V. Homan to some extent limited the flight of fancy, but at the same time gave rise to new directions in science - attempts appeared to determine what astronautics can give to society and how it affects him.

It must be said that the idea to connect the cosmic and terrestrial directions of human activity belongs to the founder of theoretical cosmonautics K.E. Tsiolkovsky. When a scientist said: “The planet is the cradle of reason, but you cannot live forever in a cradle,” he did not put forward alternatives - either the Earth or space. Tsiolkovsky never considered going into space as a consequence of some hopelessness of life on Earth. On the contrary, he spoke about the rational transformation of the nature of our planet by the power of reason. People, the scientist asserted, “will change the surface of the Earth, its oceans, atmosphere, plants and themselves. They will control the climate and will dispose within the solar system, as on the Earth itself, which is still indefinitely for a long time will remain the home of humanity."

The beginning in the USSR practical work in space programs is associated with the names of S.P. Koroleva and M.K. Tikhonravova. At the beginning of 1945 M.K. Tikhonravov organized a group of RNII specialists to develop a project for a manned high-altitude rocket vehicle (a cabin with two cosmonauts) for research upper layers atmosphere. The group included N.G. Chernyshev, P.I. Ivanov, V.N. Galkovsky, G.M. Moskalenko and others. It was decided to create the project on the basis of a single-stage liquid rocket, designed for vertical flight to an altitude of up to 200 km.

This project (it was called VR-190) provided for the solution of the following tasks:

• study of weightlessness conditions in short-term free flight of a person in a pressurized cabin;
• studying the movement of the center of mass of the cabin and its movement around the center of mass after separation from the launch vehicle;
• obtaining data on the upper layers of the atmosphere; checking the functionality of the systems (separation, descent, stabilization, landing, etc.) included in the design of the high-altitude cabin.

The VR-190 project was the first to propose the following solutions that have found application in modern spacecraft:

• parachute descent system, soft landing braking rocket engine, separation system using pyrobolts;
• electric contact rod for pre-ignition of the soft landing engine, non-ejection sealed cabin with a life support system;
• cabin stabilization system outside the dense layers of the atmosphere using low-thrust nozzles.

In general, the VR-190 project was a complex of new technical solutions and concepts, now confirmed by the progress of development of domestic and foreign rocket and space technology. In 1946, the materials of the VR-190 project were reported to M.K. Ti-khonravov I.V. Stalin. Since 1947, Tikhonravov and his group have been working on the idea of ​​a missile package and in the late 1940s - early 1950s. shows the possibility of obtaining the first cosmic speed and launching an artificial Earth satellite (AES) using the rocket base being developed at that time in the country. In 1950-1953 the efforts of the M.K. group employees Tikhonravov were aimed at studying the problems of creating composite launch vehicles and artificial satellites.

In a report to the Government in 1954 on the possibility of developing satellites, S.P. Korolev wrote: “On your instructions, I present the report of Comrade M.K. Tikhonravov “On an artificial Earth satellite...” In the report on scientific activities for 1954, S.P. Korolev noted: “We would consider it possible to carry out a preliminary design development of the project of the satellite itself, taking into account the ongoing work (the work of M.K. Tikhonravov is especially noteworthy...)."

Work began to prepare for the launch of the first satellite PS-1. The first Council of Chief Designers was created, headed by S.P. Korolev, who later managed the space program of the USSR, which became the world leader in space exploration. Created under the leadership of S.P. The Queen of OKB-1 - TsKBEM - NPO Energia has been around since the early 1950s. center of space science and industry in the USSR.

Cosmonautics is unique in that much that was predicted first by science fiction writers and then by scientists has truly come true at cosmic speed. Only forty years have passed since the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite, on October 4, 1957, and the history of astronautics already contains a series of remarkable achievements achieved initially by the USSR and the USA, and then by other space powers.

Already many thousands of satellites are flying in orbit around the Earth, the devices have reached the surface of the Moon, Venus, Mars; scientific equipment was sent to Jupiter, Mercury, Saturn to obtain knowledge about these distant planets of the solar system.

The triumph of astronautics was the launch of the first man into space on April 12, 1961 - Yu.A. Gagarin. Then - a group flight, manned spacewalk, the creation of the Salyut and Mir orbital stations... The USSR for a long time became the leading country in the world in manned programs.

Indicative is the trend of transition from the launch of single spacecraft to solve primarily military problems to the creation of large-scale space systems in the interests of solving a wide range of problems (including socio-economic and scientific) and to the integration of space industries of different countries.

What has space science achieved in the 20th century? Powerful liquid rocket engines have been developed to propel launch vehicles to cosmic velocities. In this area, the merit of V.P. is especially great. Glushko. The creation of such engines became possible thanks to the implementation of new scientific ideas and schemes that practically eliminate losses in the drive of turbopump units. The development of launch vehicles and liquid rocket engines contributed to the development of thermo-, hydro- and gas dynamics, the theory of heat transfer and strength, metallurgy of high-strength and heat-resistant materials, fuel chemistry, measuring technology, vacuum and plasma technology. Solid propellant and other types of rocket engines were further developed.

In the early 1950s. Soviet scientists M.V. Keldysh, V.A. Kotelnikov, A.Yu. Ishlinsky, L.I. Sedov, B.V. Rauschenbach et al. developed mathematical laws and navigation and ballistic support for space flights.

The problems that arose during the preparation and implementation of space flights served as an impetus for the intensive development of such general scientific disciplines as celestial and theoretical mechanics. The widespread use of new mathematical methods and the creation of advanced computers made it possible to solve the most complex problems of designing spacecraft orbits and controlling them during flight, and as a result a new scientific discipline- dynamics of space flight.

Design bureaus headed by N.A. Pilyugin and V.I. Kuznetsov, created unique control systems for rocket and space technology that are highly reliable.

At the same time, V.P. Glushko, A.M. Isaev created the world's leading school of practical rocket engine building. A theoretical basis This school was founded back in the 1930s, at the dawn of domestic rocket science. And now Russia’s leading positions in this area remain.

Thanks to the intense creative work of the design bureaus under the leadership of V.M. Myasishcheva, V.N. Chelomeya, D.A. Polukhin carried out work on creating large-sized, especially durable shells. This became the basis for the creation of powerful intercontinental missiles UR-200, UR-500, UR-700, and then manned stations “Salyut”, “Almaz”, “Mir”, twenty-ton class modules “Kvant”, “Kristall”, "Nature", "Spectrum", modern modules for the International Space Station (ISS) "Zarya" and "Zvezda", launch vehicles of the "Proton" family. Creative cooperation between the designers of these design bureaus and the machine-building plant named after. M.V. Khrunichev made it possible by the beginning of the 21st century to create the Angara family of launch vehicles, a complex of small spacecraft and manufacture ISS modules. The merger of the design bureau and the plant and the restructuring of these divisions made it possible to create the largest corporation in Russia - the State Space Research and Production Center named after. M.V. Khrunicheva.

Much work on the creation of launch vehicles based on ballistic missiles was carried out at the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau, headed by M.K. Yangel. The reliability of these light-class launch vehicles has no analogues in the world astronautics. In the same design bureau under the leadership of V.F. Utkin created the Zenit medium-class launch vehicle - a representative of the second generation of launch vehicles.

Over four decades, the capabilities of control systems for launch vehicles and spacecraft have increased significantly. If in 1957-1958. When placing artificial satellites into orbit around the Earth, an error of several tens of kilometers was allowed, then by the mid-1960s. The accuracy of the control systems was already so high that it allowed a spacecraft launched to the Moon to land on its surface with a deviation from the intended point of only 5 km. Design control systems N.A. Pilyugin were one of the best in the world.

Great achievements of astronautics in the field of space communications, television broadcasting, relaying and navigation, the transition to high-speed lines made it possible already in 1965 to transmit photographs of the planet Mars to Earth from a distance exceeding 200 million km, and in 1980 an image of Saturn was transmitted to Earth from distances of about 1.5 billion km. The Scientific and Production Association of Applied Mechanics, headed for many years by M.F. Reshetnev, was originally created as a branch of the S.P. Design Bureau. Queen; This NPO is one of the world leaders in the development of spacecraft for this purpose.

Are being created satellite systems communications covering almost all countries of the world and providing two-way operational communication with any subscribers. This type of communication has proven to be the most reliable and is becoming increasingly profitable. Relay systems make it possible to control space groups from one point on Earth. Satellite navigation systems have been created and are being operated. Without these systems it is no longer conceivable today to use modern Vehicle- merchant ships, civil aviation aircraft, military equipment and etc.

Qualitative changes have also occurred in the field of manned flights. The ability to successfully operate outside a spacecraft was first proven by Soviet cosmonauts in the 1960s-1970s, and in the 1980s-1990s. the ability of a person to live and work in conditions of weightlessness for a year was demonstrated. During the flights, a large number of experiments were also carried out - technical, geophysical and astronomical.

The most important are research in the field of space medicine and life support systems. It is necessary to deeply study man and life support equipment in order to determine what can be entrusted to a person in space, especially during a long space flight.

One of the first space experiments was to photograph the Earth, showing how much observations from space could provide for the discovery and wise use of natural resources. Tasks for the development of complexes for photo- and optoelectronic sensing of the earth, mapping, research of natural resources, environmental monitoring, as well as the creation of medium-class launch vehicles based on R-7A missiles is carried out by the former branch No. 3 of the OKB, transformed first into TsSKB, and today into the State Research and Production Center "TsSKB - Progress" headed by D.I. Kozlov.

In 1967, during the automatic docking of two unmanned artificial Earth satellites “Cosmos-186” and “Cosmos-188”, the largest scientific and technical problem of meeting and docking spacecraft in space was solved, which made it possible to short time create the first orbital station (USSR) and choose the most rational scheme for the flight of spacecraft to the Moon with the landing of earthlings on its surface (USA). In 1981, the first flight of a reusable transport space system Space Shuttle (USA), and launched in 1991 domestic system"Energy" - "Buran".

In general, solving various problems of space exploration - from launching artificial Earth satellites to launching interplanetary spacecraft and manned spacecraft and stations - has provided a lot of invaluable scientific information about the Universe and planets of the solar system and significantly contributed to the technical progress of mankind. Earth satellites, together with sounding rockets, have made it possible to obtain detailed data about near-Earth space. Thus, with the help of the first artificial satellites, radiation belts were discovered; during their research, the interaction of the Earth with charged particles emitted by the Sun was further studied. Interplanetary space flights have helped us to better understand the nature of many planetary phenomena - solar wind, solar storms, meteor showers, etc.

Spacecraft launched to the Moon transmitted images of its surface, including photographing its side invisible from Earth with a resolution significantly superior to the capabilities of terrestrial means. Samples of lunar soil were taken, and automatic self-propelled vehicles "Lunokhod-1" and "Lunokhod-2" were delivered to the lunar surface.

Automatic spacecraft have made it possible to obtain Additional information about the shape and gravitational field of the Earth, clarify the fine details of the shape of the Earth and its magnetic field. Artificial satellites have helped to obtain more accurate data about the mass, shape and orbit of the Moon. The masses of Venus and Mars were also refined using observations of spacecraft flight trajectories.

The design, manufacture and operation of very complex space systems have made a major contribution to the development of advanced technology. Automatic spacecraft sent to the planets are, in fact, robots controlled from Earth via radio commands. The need to develop reliable systems for solving problems of this kind has led to a better understanding of the problem of analysis and synthesis of various complex technical systems. Such systems are used both in space research and in many other areas of human activity. The requirements of astronautics necessitated the design of complex automatic devices under severe restrictions caused by the carrying capacity of launch vehicles and conditions outer space, which was an additional incentive for the rapid improvement of automation and microelectronics.

Design bureaus led by G.N. made a great contribution to the implementation of these programs. Babakin, G.Ya. Guskov, V.M. Kovtunenko, D.I. Kozlov, N.N. Sheremetyevsky and others. Cosmonautics gave birth to a new direction in technology and construction - spaceport construction. The founders of this direction in our country were teams led by prominent scientists V.P. Barmina and V.N. Solovyova. Currently, there are more than a dozen cosmodromes operating in the world with unique ground-based automated complexes, test stations and other complex means of preparing spacecraft and rocket launch vehicles for launch. Russia is intensively launching from the world-famous Baikonur and Plesetsk cosmodromes, and also conducts experimental launches from the Svobodny cosmodrome being created in the east of the country.

Modern needs for communications and remote control over long distances have led to the development of high-quality command and control systems that have contributed to the development of technical methods for tracking and measuring spacecraft over interplanetary distances, opening up new applications for satellites. In modern cosmonautics this is one of the priority areas. Ground-based automated control complex developed by M.S. Ryazansky and L.I. Gusev, and today ensures the functioning of the Russian orbital group.

The development of work in the field of space technology has led to the creation of space weather support systems that, with the required frequency, receive images of the Earth's cloud cover and conduct observations in various spectral ranges. Weather satellite data are the basis for making operational weather forecasts, primarily for large regions. Currently, almost all countries of the world use space weather data.

The results obtained in the field of satellite geodesy are especially important for solving military problems, mapping natural resources, increasing the accuracy of trajectory measurements, and also for studying the Earth. With the use of space means appears unique opportunity solving problems of environmental monitoring of the Earth and global control of natural resources. The results of space surveys turned out to be effective means monitoring the development of agricultural crops, identifying vegetation diseases, measuring some soil factors, the state of the aquatic environment, etc. A combination of various satellite imaging methods provides virtually reliable, complete and detailed information about natural resources and the state of the environment.

In addition to the already defined directions, new directions for the use of space technology will obviously develop, for example, the organization of technological production that is impossible under terrestrial conditions. Thus, weightlessness can be used to obtain crystals of semiconductor compounds. Such crystals will find application in the electronics industry to create a new class of semiconductor devices. Free-floating in zero-gravity conditions liquid metal and other materials are easily deformed by weak magnetic fields. This opens the way to obtaining ingots of any predetermined shape without crystallizing them in molds, as is done on Earth. The peculiarity of such ingots is the almost complete absence of internal stresses and high purity.

The use of space assets plays a decisive role in creating a unified information space in Russia and ensuring global telecommunications, especially during the period of mass introduction of the Internet in the country. The future in the development of the Internet is the widespread use of high-speed broadband space communication channels, because in the 21st century the possession and exchange of information will become no less important than the possession of nuclear weapons.

Our manned space mission is aimed at further development of science, rational use of the Earth's natural resources, and solving problems of environmental monitoring of land and ocean. This requires the creation of manned means both for flights in near-Earth orbits and for realizing the age-old dream of mankind - flights to other planets.

The possibility of implementing such plans is inextricably linked with solving the problems of creating new engines for flights in outer space that do not require significant reserves of fuel, for example, ion, photon, and also using natural forces - gravity, torsion fields, etc.

The creation of new unique samples of rocket and space technology, as well as space research methods, conducting space experiments on automatic and manned spacecraft and stations in near-Earth space, as well as in the orbits of the planets of the Solar System, is fertile ground for combining the efforts of scientists and designers from different countries.

IN beginning of XXI centuries, tens of thousands of objects of artificial origin have been in space flight. These include spacecraft and fragments (last stages of launch vehicles, fairings, adapters and separable parts).

Therefore, along with the urgent problem of combating pollution of our planet, the issue of combating the pollution of near-Earth space will arise. Already at the present time, one of the problems is the distribution of the frequency resource of the geostationary orbit due to its saturation with satellites for various purposes.

The problems of space exploration have been and are being solved in the USSR and Russia by a number of organizations and enterprises headed by a galaxy of heirs to the first Council of Chief Designers Yu.P. Semenov, N.A. Anfimov, I.V. Barmin, G.P. Biryukov, B.I. Gubanov, G.A. Efremov, A.G. Kozlov, B.I. Katorgin, G.E. Lozino-Lozinsky and others.

Along with development work, serial production of space technology also developed in the USSR. To create the Energia-Buran complex, more than 1,000 enterprises participated in the cooperation for this work. Directors of manufacturing plants S.S. Bovkun, A.I. Kiselev, I.I. Klebanov, L.D. Kuchma, A.A. Makarov, V.D. Vachnadze, A.A. Chizhov and many others quickly adjusted production and ensured production. It is especially necessary to note the role of a number of space industry leaders. This is D.F. Ustinov, K.N. Rudnev, V.M. Ryabikov, L.V. Smirnov, S.A. Afanasyev, O.D. Baklanov, V.Kh. Doguzhiev, O.N. Shishkin, Yu.N. Koptev, A.G. Karas, A.A. Maksimov, V.L. Ivanov.

The successful launch of Cosmos-4 in 1962 began the use of space in the interests of the defense of our country. This problem was solved first by NII-4 MO, and then TsNII-50 MO was separated from its composition. Here, the creation of military and dual-use space systems was justified, to the development of which the famous military scientists T.I. made a decisive contribution. Levin, G.P. Melnikov, I.V. Meshcheryakov, Yu.A. Mozzhorin, P.E. Eliasberg, I.I. Yatsunsky et al.

It is generally accepted that the use of space assets makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of the actions of the armed forces by 1.5-2 times. The peculiarities of waging wars and armed conflicts at the end of the 20th century showed that the role of space in solving problems of military confrontation is constantly increasing. Only space means of reconnaissance, navigation, and communications provide the ability to see the enemy to the entire depth of his defense, global communications, high-precision operational determination of the coordinates of any objects, which allows fighting practically "on the fly" in militarily unequipped territories and remote theaters of military operations. Only the use of space assets will ensure the protection of territories from nuclear missile attacks by any aggressor. Space is becoming the basis of the military power of every state - this is a bright trend of the new millennium.

Under these conditions, new approaches are needed to the development of promising models of rocket and space technology, radically different from current generation space assets. Thus, the current generation of orbital vehicles is mainly a specialized application based on pressurized structures, tied to specific types of launch vehicles. In the new millennium, it is necessary to create multifunctional spacecraft based on unpressurized platforms of modular design, and develop a unified range of launch vehicles with a low-cost, highly efficient system for their operation. Only in this case, relying on the potential created in the rocket and space industry, will Russia in the 21st century be able to significantly accelerate the process of development of its economy and ensure a qualitatively new level scientific research, international cooperation, solving socio-economic problems and strengthening the country’s defense capability, which will ultimately strengthen its position in the world community.

Leading enterprises in the rocket and space industry played and are playing a decisive role in the creation of Russian rocket and space science and technology: GKNPTs im. M.V. Khrunichev, RSC Energia, TsSKB, KBOM, KBTM, etc. This work is managed by Rosaviakosmos.

Currently, Russian cosmonautics is experiencing better days. Funding for space programs has been sharply reduced, and a number of enterprises are in an extremely difficult situation. But Russian space science does not stand still. Even in these difficult conditions, Russian scientists are designing space systems for the 21st century.

Abroad, space exploration began with the launch of the American Explorer 1 spacecraft on February 1, 1958. The American space program was headed by Wernher von Braun, who was one of the leading specialists in the field of rocket technology in Germany until 1945, and then worked in the USA. He created the Jupiter-S launch vehicle based on the Redstone ballistic missile, with the help of which Explorer 1 was launched.

On February 20, 1962, the Atlas launch vehicle, developed under the leadership of K. Bossart, launched the Mercury spacecraft into orbit, piloted by the first US astronaut J. Tlenn. However, all these achievements were not complete, since they repeated the steps already taken by the Soviet cosmonautics. Based on this, the US government has made efforts aimed at gaining a leading position in the space race. And in certain areas of space activity, in certain sections of the space marathon, they succeeded.

Thus, the United States was the first to launch a spacecraft into geostationary orbit in 1964. But the greatest success was the delivery of American astronauts to the Moon on the Apollo 11 spacecraft and the access of the first people - N. Armstrong and E. Aldrin - to its surface. This achievement was made possible thanks to the development, under the leadership of von Braun, of Saturn-type launch vehicles, created in 1964-1967. under the Apollo program.

The Saturn launch vehicles were a family of two- and three-stage launch vehicles of the heavy and super-heavy class, based on the use of standardized blocks. The two-stage version of Saturn-1 made it possible to place a payload weighing 10.2 tons into low-Earth orbit, and the three-stage Saturn-5 - 139 tons (47 tons on the flight path to the Moon).

A major achievement in the development of American space technology was the creation of the reusable Space Shuttle space system with an orbital stage with aerodynamic quality, the first launch of which took place in April 1981. And, despite the fact that all the capabilities provided by reusability were never fully realized used, of course, this was a major (albeit very expensive) step forward on the path of space exploration.

The early successes of the USSR and the USA prompted some countries to intensify their efforts in space activities. American carriers launched the first English spacecraft "Ariel-1" (1962), the first Canadian spacecraft "Alouette-1" (1962), the first Italian spacecraft "San Marco" (1964). However, launches of spacecraft by foreign carriers made the countries that own the spacecraft dependent on the United States. Therefore, work began on creating our own media. The greatest successes in this field were achieved by France, which launched the A-1 spacecraft already in 1965 on its own Diaman-A carrier. Subsequently, developing this success, France developed the Ariane family of launch vehicles, which is one of the most cost-effective.

The undoubted success of the world cosmonautics was the implementation of the ASTP program, the final stage of which - the launch and docking in orbit of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft - was carried out in July 1975. This flight marked the beginning of international programs that successfully developed in the last quarter of the 20th century. century and the undoubted success of which was the manufacture, launch and assembly in orbit of the International Space Station. International cooperation in the field of space services has acquired particular importance, where the leading place belongs to the State Research and Production Space Center named after. M.V. Khrunicheva.

In this book, the authors, based on their many years of experience in the field of design and practical creation of rocket and space systems, analysis and generalization of the developments known to them in astronautics in Russia and abroad, set out their point of view on the development of astronautics in the 21st century. The near future will determine whether we were right or wrong. I would like to express my gratitude to academicians of the Russian Academy of Sciences N.A. for valuable advice on the content of the book. Anfimov and A.A. Galeev, Doctors of Technical Sciences G.M. Tamkovich and V.V. Ostroukhov.

The authors thank Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor B.N. for assistance in collecting materials and discussing the manuscript of the book. Rodionov, candidates of technical sciences A.F. Akimova, N.V. Vasilyeva, I.N. Golovaneva, S.B. Kabanova, V.T. Konovalova, M.I. Makarova, A.M. Maksimova, L.S. Medushevsky, E.G. Trofimova, I.L. Cherkasov, candidate of military sciences S.V. Pavlov, leading specialists of the Research Institute of CS A.A. Kachekana, Yu.G. Pichurina, V.L. Svetlichny, as well as Yu.A. Peshnina and N.G. Makarov for technical assistance in preparing the book. The authors express their deep gratitude for valuable advice on the content of the manuscript to candidates of technical sciences E.I. Motorny, V.F. Nagavkin, O.K. Roskin, S.V. Sorokin, S.K. Shaevich, V.Yu. Yuryev and program director I.A. Glazkova.

The authors will gratefully accept all comments, suggestions and critical articles, which, we believe, will follow after the publication of the book and will once again confirm that the problems of astronautics are truly relevant and require the close attention of scientists and practitioners, as well as all those who live in the future.

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History of the development of astronautics

To evaluate the contribution of a person to the development of a certain field of knowledge, it is necessary to trace the history of the development of this field and try to discern the direct or indirect influence of the ideas and works of this person on the process of achieving new knowledge and new successes. Let us consider the history of the development of rocket technology and the subsequent history of rocket and space technology.

The Birth of Rocket Technology

If we talk about the very idea of ​​jet propulsion and the first rocket, then this idea and its embodiment were born in China around the 2nd century AD. The propellant of the rocket was gunpowder. The Chinese first used this invention for entertainment - the Chinese are still leaders in the production of fireworks. And then they put this idea into service, in the literal sense of the word: such a “firework” tied to an arrow increased its flight range by about 100 meters (which was one third of the entire flight length), and when it hit, the target lit up. There were also more formidable weapons on the same principle - “spears of furious fire.”

In this primitive form, rockets existed until the 19th century. It was only at the end of the 19th century that attempts were made to mathematically explain jet propulsion and create serious weapons. In Russia, Nikolai Ivanovich Tikhomirov was one of the first to take up this issue in 1894 32 . Tikhomirov proposed using as a driving force the reaction of gases resulting from the combustion of explosives or highly flammable liquid fuels in combination with an ejected environment. Tikhomirov began to deal with these issues later than Tsiolkovsky, but in terms of implementation he moved much further, because he thought more down to earth. In 1912, he presented a project for a rocket projectile to the Navy Ministry. In 1915 he filed a petition for a privilege to new type"self-propelled mines" for water and air. Tikhomirov's invention received a positive assessment from the expert commission chaired by N. E. Zhukovsky. In 1921, at the suggestion of Tikhomirov, a laboratory was created in Moscow for the development of his inventions, which later (after being transferred to Leningrad) received the name Gas Dynamic Laboratory (GDL). Soon after its founding, the activities of the GDL focused on the creation of rocket shells using smokeless powder.

In parallel with Tikhomirov, he worked on solid fuel rockets former colonel tsarist army Ivan Grave 33. In 1926, he received a patent for a rocket that used a special composition of black powder as fuel. He began to push through his idea, even wrote to the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, but these efforts ended quite typically for that time: Colonel of the Tsarist Army Grave was arrested and convicted. But I. Grave will still play his role in the development of rocket technology in the USSR, and will take part in the development of rockets for the famous Katyusha.

In 1928, a rocket was launched using Tikhomirov's gunpowder as fuel. In 1930, a patent was issued in the name of Tikhomirov for the recipe for such gunpowder and the technology for making checkers from it.

American genius

The American scientist Robert Hitchings Goddard 34 was one of the first to study the problem of jet propulsion abroad. In 1907, Goddard wrote an article “On the Possibility of Movement in Interplanetary Space,” which is very close in spirit to Tsiolkovsky’s work “Exploration of World Spaces with Jet Instruments,” although Goddard is so far limited to only qualitative estimates and does not derive any formulas. Goddard was 25 years old at the time. In 1914, Goddard received US patents for the design of a composite rocket with conical nozzles and a rocket with continuous combustion in two versions: with a sequential supply of powder charges to the combustion chamber and with a pump supply of two-component liquid fuel. Since 1917, Goddard has been conducting design developments in the field of solid fuel rockets. various types, including multi-charge pulse combustion rockets. Since 1921, Goddard began experiments with liquid rocket engines (oxidizer - liquid oxygen, fuel - various hydrocarbons). It was these liquid fuel rockets that became the first ancestors of space launch vehicles. In his theoretical works, he repeatedly noted the advantages of liquid rocket engines. On March 16, 1926, Goddard successfully launched a simple propellant rocket (fuel - gasoline, oxidizer - liquid oxygen). The launch weight is 4.2 kg, the achieved height is 12.5 m, the flight range is 56 m. Goddard holds the championship in launching a liquid fuel rocket.

Robert Goddard was a man of difficult, complex character. He preferred to work secretly, in a narrow circle of trusted people who blindly obeyed him. According to one of his American colleagues, " Goddard considered rockets his private reserve, and those who also worked on this issue were considered as poachers... This attitude led him to abandon the scientific tradition of reporting his results through scientific journals..." 35. One can add: and not only through scientific journals. Goddard’s answer on August 16, 1924 to Soviet enthusiasts of research into the problem of interplanetary flights, who sincerely wanted to establish scientific connections with American colleagues, is very characteristic. The answer is very short, but it contains all of Goddard’s character :

"Clark University, Worchester, Massachusetts, Department of Physics. To Mr. Leutheisen, Secretary of the Society for the Study of Interplanetary Communications. Moscow, Russia.

Dear sir! I am glad to know that a society for the study of interplanetary connections has been created in Russia, and I will be glad to collaborate in this work. within the limits of the possible. However, there is no printed material relating to work currently underway or experimental flights. Thank you for introducing me to the materials. Sincerely yours, Director of the Physical Laboratory R.Kh. Goddard " 36 .

Tsiolkovsky’s attitude towards cooperation with foreign scientists looks interesting. Here is an excerpt from his letter to Soviet youth, published in " Komsomolskaya Pravda" in 1934:

"In 1932, the largest capitalist Metal Airship Society sent me a letter. They asked for detailed information about my metal airships. I didn't answer questions asked. I consider my knowledge to be the property of the USSR " 37 .

Thus, we can conclude that there was no desire to cooperate on either side. Scientists were very zealous about their work.

Priority disputes

Theorists and practitioners of rocketry at that time were completely disunited. These were the same “... unrelated studies and experiments of many individual scientists attacking an unknown area at random, like a horde of nomadic horsemen,” about which, however, in relation to electricity, F. Engels wrote in “Dialectics of Nature” . Robert Goddard knew nothing about Tsiolkovsky’s work for a very long time, as did Hermann Oberth, who worked with liquid rocket engines and rockets in Germany. Equally lonely in France was one of the pioneers of astronautics, engineer and pilot Robert Esnault-Peltry, the future author of the two-volume work “Astronautics”.

Separated by spaces and borders, they will not soon learn about each other. On October 24, 1929, Oberth would probably get the only typewriter in the entire town of Mediasha with Russian font and send a letter to Tsiolkovsky in Kaluga. " I am, of course, the very last person who would challenge your primacy and your merits in the rocket business, and I only regret that I did not hear about you until 1925. I would probably be in mine own works today much further and would have done without those many wasted efforts, knowing your excellent works"Obert wrote openly and honestly. But it’s not easy to write like that when you’re 35 years old and you’ve always considered yourself first. 38

In his fundamental report on cosmonautics, the Frenchman Esnault-Peltry never mentioned Tsiolkovsky. Popularizer of science writer Ya.I. Perelman, having read Esnault-Peltry's work, wrote to Tsiolkovsky in Kaluga: " There is a reference to Lorenz, Goddard, Oberth, Hohmann, Vallier, but I did not notice any references to you. It seems that the author is not familiar with your works. It's a shame!"After some time, the newspaper L'Humanité will write quite categorically: " Tsiolkovsky should rightly be recognized as the father of scientific astronautics". It turns out somehow awkward. Esnault-Peltry tries to explain everything: " ...I made every effort to obtain them (works by Tsiolkovsky - Ya.G.). It turned out to be impossible for me to obtain even a small document before my reports in 1912". Some irritation is detected when he writes that in 1928 he received " from Professor S.I. Chizhevsky a statement demanding confirmation of Tsiolkovsky's priority." "I think I have fully satisfied him", writes Esnault-Peltry. 39

Throughout his life, the American Goddard never named Tsiolkovsky in any of his books or articles, although he received his Kaluga books. However, this difficult man rarely referred to other people's works.

Nazi genius

On March 23, 1912, Wernher von Braun, the future creator of the V-2 rocket, was born in Germany. His rocket career began with reading non-fiction books and observing the sky. He later recalled: " This was a goal that could be dedicated to for the rest of my life! Not only observe the planets through a telescope, but also break into the Universe yourself, explore mysterious worlds “40. A serious boy beyond his years, he read Oberth’s book about space flights, watched Fritz Lang’s film “The Girl on the Moon” several times, and at the age of 15 he joined the space travel society, where he met real rocket scientists.

The Brown family was obsessed with war. Among the men of the von Braun house, there was only talk about weapons and war. This family, apparently, was not devoid of the complex that was inherent in many Germans after defeat in the First World War. In 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany. Baron and true Aryan Wernher von Braun with his ideas for jet missiles came to the court of the country's new leadership. He joined the SS and began to quickly climb the career ladder. The authorities allocated huge amounts of money for his research. The country was preparing for war, and the Fuhrer really needed new weapons. Wernher von Braun had to forget about space flights for many years. 41

Thoughts about human penetration into outer space were recently considered unrealistic. And yet, the flight into space became a reality because it was preceded and, apparently, accompanied by a flight of fantasy.

Only 50 years have passed since man “stepped into space,” but it seems like it happened a long time ago. Space flights have become commonplace, but every flight is a heroic act.

Time changes the pace of life, each era is characterized by specific scientific discoveries and their practical use. The current state of astronautics, when cosmonauts work at orbital stations on long-term space flights, when the route Earth - orbital station manned and automatic and cargo transport ships ply, the content of the work performed by astronauts allows us to speak about exclusively national economic and scientific significance practical space exploration

Objective and thorough monitoring of the condition earth's atmosphere only possible from space. Artificial communication satellites, space weather service, space geological exploration and much more solve important government issues and tasks. For the first time, information was received from space about the pollution of Lake Baikal, about the size of oil spills in the ocean, about the intensive advance of deserts into forests and steppes.

Main names

People have long dreamed of flying to the stars; they offered hundreds of different flying machines capable of overcoming gravity and going into space. And only in the 20th century the dream of earthlings came true...

And our compatriots made a huge contribution to the realization of this dream.

Nikolai Ivanovich Kibalchich(1897-1942), a native of the Chernigov province - a brilliant inventor, sentenced to death penalty for making the bombs that killed Emperor Alexander II. While awaiting execution of the sentence, in the casemates of the Peter and Paul Fortress, he created a project for a human-controlled rocket, but scientists learned about his ideas only 37 years later, in 1916. Some elements of this project were so well thought out that they are still used today.

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky(1857-1935) was not familiar with N.I. Kibalchich, but they can be considered siblings, if only because both of them were faithful sons of Russia, and because both were obsessed and imbued with the idea of ​​space exploration. The great worker of Russian science and technology K. E. Tsiolkovsky is the creator of the theory of jet propulsion in interplanetary space. He developed the theory of multi-stage rockets, orbital satellites of the Earth, and examined in detail the possibility of traveling to other planets. Tsiolkovsky’s greatest service to humanity is that he opened people’s eyes to real ways of carrying out space flights. In his work “Exploration of World Spaces with Jet Instruments” (1903), a coherent theory of rocket propulsion was given and it was proven that the rocket would be the means of future interplanetary flights.

Ivan Vsevolodovich Meshchersky(1859-1935) was born two years later than K. E. Tsiolkovsky. Theoretical research on mechanics of bodies variable mass(derived an equation that is still the starting point for determining the thrust of a rocket engine), who played such a significant role in the development of rocket science, put his name in the same honorable row of names of space explorers.

And here Friedrich Arturovich Zander(1887-1933)), a native of Latvia, devoted his entire life to the practical implementation of the idea of ​​space flight. He created a school of theory and design of jet engines, and trained many talented followers of this important work. F. A. Tsander was burning with a passion for space flight. He did not live to see the day the rocket was launched from his jet engine DR-2, which paved the first space route.

Sergei Pavlovich Korolev(1907-1966) – chief designer of rockets, the first artificial earth satellites and manned aircraft. We owe it to his talent and energy that the first spacecraft was created and successfully launched in our country.

It is with particular pride that I mention the name of my fellow countryman, Yuri Vasilievich Kondratyuk. The space biography of Novosibirsk began with the name of this self-taught scientist, who in 1929 published the results of his calculations in the book “Conquests of Interplanetary Spaces.” It was on the basis of his works that American astronauts and Soviet automatic stations reached the Moon. The war that cut short his life did not allow all his plans to come true.

Academician made an invaluable contribution to the development of astronautics in our country Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldysh (1911-1978). He headed the decisive area of ​​work on the study and exploration of space. Identification of new scientific and technical problems, new horizons in space exploration, issues of organization and flight control - this is far from the full range of activities of M. V. Keldysh.

Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin- Earth's first cosmonaut. The whole country admired his feat. He became a hero of space thanks to his will, perseverance and loyalty to a dream that began in childhood. Tragic death ended his life, but the trace of this life remained forever - both on Earth and in space.

Unfortunately, I cannot name everyone by name and tell in detail about all those scientists, engineers, test pilots and cosmonauts whose contribution to space exploration is enormous. But without these names, astronautics is unthinkable. (Appendix 1)

Chronology of events

October 4, 1957 was launched first satellite. The mass of Sputnik 1 was 83.6 kg. Eighteenth International Congress in astronautics approved this day as the beginning space age. The first satellite “spoke Russian.” The New York Times wrote: “This concrete symbol of man's future liberation from the forces that chain him to the Earth was created and launched by Soviet scientists and technicians. Everyone on Earth should be grateful to them. This is a feat of which all humanity can be proud.”

1957 and 1958. became the years of the assault on the first cosmic speed, the years of artificial Earth satellites. Appeared new area science – satellite geodesy.

January 4, 1959. Earth's gravity was "overcome" for the first time. The first lunar rocket "Dream" reported aircraft"Luna-1" weighing 361.3 kg second escape velocity(11.2 km/s, became the first artificial satellite of the Sun. Complex problems were solved technical problems, new data on the radiation field of the Earth and outer space were obtained. From this time on, the exploration of the Moon began.

At the same time, persistent and painstaking preparations continued for the first human flight in the history of the Earth. April 12, 1961 The one who was the first in the world to step into the unknown abyss of outer space, a citizen of the USSR, a pilot, climbed into the cabin of the Vostok spacecraft Air Force Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin. Then there were other Vostoks. A October 12, 1964 The era of the Voskhods began, which, compared to the Vostoks, had new cabins that allowed cosmonauts to fly without spacesuits for the first time, new instrumentation, improved viewing conditions, improved soft landing systems: the landing speed was practically reduced to zero.

IN March 1965. for the first time a man went into outer space. Alexey Leonov flew in space next to the Voskhod-2 spacecraft at a speed of 28,000 km/h.

Then, with talented heads and golden hands, a new generation of spacecraft - the Soyuz - was brought to life. On the Soyuz, extensive maneuvering and manual docking were carried out, the world's first experimental space station was created, and transfer from ship to ship was carried out for the first time. Orbital scientific stations of the Salyut type began to function in orbit and carry out their scientific watch. Docking with them is carried out by spacecraft of the Soyuz family, the technical capabilities of which allow you to change the altitude of the orbit, search for another ship, approach it and dock. "Unions" have found complete freedom in space, since they can carry out autonomous flight without the participation of a ground-based command and measurement complex.

It should be noted that in 1969 An event occurred in space exploration comparable in significance to the first flight into space by Yu. A. Gagarin. The American spacecraft Apollo 11 reached the Moon, and two American astronauts landed on its surface on July 21, 1969.

Satellites of the "Molniya" type laid the radio bridge Earth - space - Earth. The Far East has become close, since radio signals along the Moscow-sputnik-Vladivostok route travel in 0.03 s.

1975 in the history of space research was marked by an outstanding achievement - the joint flight in space of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the US spacecraft Apollo.

Since 1975. A new type of space relay for color television broadcasts is in operation - the Raduga satellite.

November 2, 1978 A very long manned flight in the history of cosmonautics (140 days) was successfully completed. Cosmonauts Vladimir Kovalenok and Alexander Ivanchenkov successfully landed 180 km southeast of the city of Dzhezkazgan. During their work on board the Salyut-6 - Soyuz - Progress orbital complex, a wide program of scientific, technical and medical-biological experiments was carried out, natural resources were studied and the natural environment was studied.

I would like to note another outstanding event in space exploration. November 15, 1988. The reusable orbital ship Buran, launched into space by the unique Energia rocket system, performed a two-orbit flight in orbit around the Earth and landed on the landing strip of the Baikonur Cosmodrome. For the first time in the world, the landing of a reusable spacecraft was carried out automatically

In the assets of our cosmonautics annual stay in orbit and fruitful research activities. The long space mission to the Mir station ended successfully for Vladimir Titov and Musa Makarov. They returned safely to their native land.



Cosmonautics in Russia largely inherits space programs Soviet Union. The main governing body of the space industry in Russia is the state corporation Roscosmos.

This organization controls a number of enterprises, as well as scientific associations, the vast majority of which were created during the Soviet era. Among them:

• Mission control center. Research division of the Institute of Mechanical Engineering (FSUE TsNIIMash). Founded in 1960 and based in a science city called Korolev. The mission of the Mission Control Center is to control and manage the flights of spacecraft, which can be serviced simultaneously by up to twenty devices. In addition, the MCC carries out calculations and research aimed at improving the quality of apparatus control and solving certain problems in the field of management.
• Star City is a closed urban-type settlement, which was founded in 1961 on the territory of the Shchelkovsky district. However, in 2009 it was separated into a separate district and removed from Shchelkovo. On an area of ​​317.8 hectares there are residential buildings for all personnel, Roscosmos employees and their families, as well as all cosmonauts who undergo space training at the Cosmonaut Training Center here. As of 2016, the number of residents of the town is more than 5,600.
• Cosmonaut training center named after Yuri Gagarin. Founded in 1960 and located in Star City. Cosmonaut training is provided by a number of simulators, two centrifuges, a laboratory aircraft and a three-story hydro laboratory. The latter makes it possible to create weightless conditions similar to those on the ISS. This uses a full-size mock-up of the space station.
• Baikonur Cosmodrome. Founded in 1955 on an area of ​​6,717 km² near the city of Kazaly, Kazakhstan. Currently leased by Russia (until 2050) and is the leader in the number of launches - 18 launch vehicles in 2015, while Cape Canaveral is one launch behind, and the Kourou spaceport (ESA, France) has 12 launches per year. The maintenance of the cosmodrome includes two amounts: rent - $115 million, maintenance - $1.5 billion.
• The Vostochny cosmodrome began to be created in 2011 in the Amur region, near the city of Tsiolkovsky. In addition to creating the second Baikonur on Russian territory, Vostochny is also intended for commercial flights. The cosmodrome is located close to developed railway junctions, highways, and airfields. In addition, due to the favorable location of the Vostochny, the separated parts of the launch vehicles will fall in sparsely populated areas or even in neutral waters. The cost of creating the cosmodrome will be about 300 billion rubles; a third of this amount was spent in 2016. On April 28, 2016, the first rocket launch took place, which launched three satellites into Earth orbit. The launch of the manned spacecraft is scheduled for 2023.
• Cosmodrome "Plesetsk". Founded in 1957 near the city of Mirny, Arkhangelsk region. Occupies 176,200 hectares. "Plesetsk" is intended for launches of strategic defense complexes, unmanned space scientific and commercial vehicles. The first launch from the cosmodrome took place on March 17, 1966, when the Vostok-2 launch vehicle took off with the Kosmos-112 satellite on board. In 2014, the newest launch vehicle called Angara was launched.

Launch from the Baikonur Cosmodrome

Chronology of the development of domestic cosmonautics

The development of domestic cosmonautics dates back to 1946, when Experimental Design Bureau No. 1 was founded, the goal of which is the development of ballistic missiles, launch vehicles, and satellites. In 1956-1957, through the efforts of the bureau, an intercontinental launch vehicle was designed ballistic missile R-7, with the help of which the first artificial satellite, Sputnik-1, was launched into Earth orbit on October 4, 1957. The launch took place at the Tyura-Tam research site, which was developed specifically for this purpose, and which would later be named Baikonur.

On November 3, 1957, the second satellite was launched, this time with a living creature on board - a dog named Laika.

Laika is the first Living being in earth's orbit

Since 1958, launches of interplanetary compact stations began to study, within the framework of the program of the same name. On September 12, 1959, for the first time, a human spacecraft (“Luna-2”) reached the surface of another cosmic body – the Moon. Unfortunately, Luna 2 fell onto the lunar surface at a speed of 12,000 km/h, causing the structure to instantly turn into a gas state. In 1959, Luna 3 received photographs reverse side The moon, which allowed the USSR to name most of its landscape elements.