Personal characteristics of Svyatoslav. Reign of Svyatoslav (briefly)

Score (2009)
Density
515,870 people (170s)
18.13 people/km² GDP
Total (2011)
Per capita
$840 million
$1522 HDI (2013) ▲ 0.530 (low) (143rd) Currency Solomon Islands dollar (SBD) Internet domain .sb Telephone code +677 Timezone +11 Coordinates: 9°40′00″ S w. 160°12′00″ E. d. /  9.66667° S w. 160.20000° E. d. / -9.66667; 160.20000(G) (I)

Geography

The state occupies most of the archipelago of the same name in the Pacific Ocean, in Melanesia, east of the island of New Guinea. Largest islands: Guadalcanal, Santa Isabel, Malaita, San Cristobal, Choiseul, New Georgia. Also occupies the island groups of Duff, St. Croix, Swallow and the islands of Bellona, ​​Rennell, etc.

The islands are predominantly of volcanic origin; active volcanoes. The country's highest point is the 2,335-meter Popomanaseu Peak on Guadalcanal. Short high-water rivers.

The climate is subequatorial, very humid. Average monthly temperatures range from 26 to 28 °C. Precipitation ranges from 2300 to 7500 mm per year. From May to October the southeast trade wind prevails, from December to March the northwest equatorial monsoon prevails.

Most of the islands are covered with evergreen forests (palm trees, ficus trees, etc.); in the driest places - savannas; along the banks there are mangroves. Fauna: rats, bats, crocodiles, lizards, snakes, giant frogs; birds - wild pigeons, parrots, etc.

Seismology

The Solomon Islands are located in a seismic region where earthquakes occur frequently. In January 2010, an earthquake occurred, the magnitude of which was 7.2, the tremors provoked the appearance of a tsunami with a maximum wave height of 2.5 meters. In total, about a thousand people were left homeless. On April 23, 2011, an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.9 was recorded. On February 6, 2013, an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 occurred.

Story

The first settlers speaking Papuan languages ​​began arriving in the Solomon Islands around 3000 BC. e. Speakers of Austronesian languages ​​- approximately 4000 years ago. They brought with them cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between approximately 1200 and 800 BC. e. The ancestors of the Polynesians (people of the Lapita culture) from the Bismarck Archipelago, who knew pottery production, arrived on the Islands.

The Solomon Islands were discovered in 1568 by the Spanish navigator A. Mendaña de Neira, who exchanged gold from the local residents and named these islands Solomon, comparing them with "Golden Country of Solomon". Founded in 1595 by Mendaña by decree of King Philip II on the island of Santa Cruz, the Spanish colony did not last long and was soon abandoned due to conflicts with warlike natives.

For the next century and a half, the islands were not visited by Europeans. They were discovered a second time by the Englishman F. Carteret in 1767.

Since the mid-1840s, Catholic and Protestant missionaries have repeatedly tried to settle in the Solomon Islands, but for a long time They did not succeed: many of them were killed by the Aborigines.

The development of the Solomon Islands by Europeans began only in the 1860s, when the first white traders began to establish themselves there. The natives tried to kill these traders, but they, unlike the missionaries, managed to organize their defense.

Data on the literacy level of the population of the Solomon Islands is not available.

Urban population - 19.7% (101,798 people) (2009 census).

Languages

Religion

Religions: Church of Melanesia - 31.9% (164,639 people), Catholics - 19.6% (100,999 people), Evangelicals south seas- 17.1% (88,395 people), Seventh-day Adventists - 11.7% (60,506 people), United Church - 10.1% (51,919 people), Christian Fellowship Church - 2.5% ( 13,153 people), other Christians - 4.4%, others - 2.7% (14,076 people). (according to the 2009 census).

Approximately 97% of the Solomon Islands population is Christian faith. The largest Christian denominations: 31.9% of the population belong to the Church of Melanesia, 19.6% belong to the Roman Catholic Church, 17.1% to the South Seas Evangelical Church, 11.7% to Seventh-day Adventist Church, 10.1% - United Church of Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands, 2.5% - Christian Fellowship Church. 2.9% of the population practices indigenous religious beliefs. There are approximately 350 Muslims (2007 data).

Policy

The political system of the Solomon Islands is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. Queen Elizabeth II is the monarch of the Solomon Islands and head of state. Its power is exercised through the Governor-General, who is elected by Parliament for a term of five years.

The parliament is unicameral, consists of 50 representatives, and is elected every four years. According to the results of the last elections (August 2010), there are 19 independent deputies and representatives of 12 political parties in parliament (the largest party has 13 deputies, the rest have from 3 to 1 deputies). Parliament can be dissolved early by a majority vote of its members.

Any citizen over 21 years of age has the right to vote in elections. The head of government is the Prime Minister, he is elected by Parliament and appoints other ministers. The Cabinet of Ministers consists of 20 people. Each ministry is headed by a minister, who is assisted by a Permanent Secretary, who supervises the ministry's employees.

Solomon Islands' political parties are weak and parliamentary coalitions are extremely unstable. Votes of no confidence are often announced in the government, as a result of which the composition of the government often changes.

There are no military units as such in the Solomon Islands, although the police force, numbering about 500 people, includes a border security unit. The police function as firefighters, assist in emergency situations and carry out maritime patrols. The police are led by a commissioner appointed by the governor general. The Commissioner is under the control of the Prime Minister.

Main buyers (in 2009) - China 54.1%, South Korea 6.2%, Philippines 6%, Spain 4.9%.

Imports - $0.26 billion in 2008 - food, industrial goods, fuel, chemical products.

The main suppliers (in 2009) are Singapore 24.7%, Australia 23.1%, New Zealand 5.2%, Fiji 4.5%, Papua New Guinea 4.3%, Malaysia 4%.

Culture

The Solomon Islands have largely retained their former cultural appearance.

The villages are dominated by houses of the traditional type: light, rectangular huts on pillars with wicker walls and a gable roof made of palm leaves. However, in large settlements there are many buildings of European type.

In clothing, European elements have significantly supplanted the tradition, but some local residents continue to wear loincloths and short skirts.

In the spiritual culture of the islanders, tradition is also closely intertwined with modernity. Folklore, original songs and dances are relatively well preserved among the local population. applied arts, however, modern culture is also being introduced.

Sport

see also

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Notes

Literature

• Oceania. Directory. - M.: Nauka, 1982.
• Rubtsov B. B. Oceania. - M.: Science, 1991.

Links

• - article from the Krugosvet encyclopedia
• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

States Associated States Dependents territories

general information Countries and territories Capitals and largest cities Melanesian peoples Melanesian languages

Excerpt describing the Solomon Islands

Napoleon started the war with Russia because he could not help but come to Dresden, could not help but be overwhelmed by honors, could not help but put on a Polish uniform, could not succumb to the enterprising impression of a June morning, could not refrain from an outburst of anger in the presence of Kurakin and then Balashev.
Alexander refused all negotiations because he personally felt insulted. Barclay de Tolly tried the best way control the army in order to fulfill his duty and earn the glory of a great commander. Rostov galloped to attack the French because he could not resist the desire to gallop across a flat field. And so it is, due to their personal properties, habits, conditions and goals, all those innumerable persons who participated in this war acted. They were afraid, they were conceited, they rejoiced, they were indignant, they reasoned, believing that they knew what they were doing and that they were doing it for themselves, and all were involuntary instruments of history and carried out work hidden from them, but understandable to us. This is the unchangeable fate of all practical figures, and the higher they stand in the human hierarchy, the more free they are.
Now the figures of 1812 have long since left their places, their personal interests have disappeared without a trace, and only the historical results of that time are before us.
But let’s assume that the people of Europe, under the leadership of Napoleon, had to go deep into Russia and die there, and all the self-contradictory, senseless, cruel activities of the people participating in this war become clear to us.
Providence forced all these people, striving to achieve their personal goals, to contribute to the fulfillment of one huge result, about which not a single person (neither Napoleon, nor Alexander, nor even less any of the participants in the war) had the slightest aspiration.
Now it is clear to us what was the cause of death in 1812 French army. No one will argue that the reason for the death of Napoleon’s French troops was, on the one hand, their entry into late time without preparation for a winter campaign deep into Russia, and on the other hand, the character that the war took on from the burning of Russian cities and the incitement of hatred of the enemy among the Russian people. But then not only did no one foresee that (which now seems obvious) that only in this way could the army of eight hundred thousand, the best in the world and led by the best commander, die in a clash with the Russian army, which was twice as weak, inexperienced and led by inexperienced commanders; not only did no one foresee this, but all efforts on the part of the Russians were constantly aimed at preventing the fact that only one could save Russia, and on the part of the French, despite the experience and so-called military genius of Napoleon, all efforts were directed towards this to stretch out to Moscow at the end of summer, that is, to do the very thing that should have destroyed them.
In historical works about 1812, French authors are very fond of talking about how Napoleon felt the danger of stretching his line, how he was looking for a battle, how his marshals advised him to stop in Smolensk, and give other similar arguments proving that it was already understood there was danger of the campaign; and Russian authors are even more fond of talking about how from the beginning of the campaign there was a plan for the Scythian war to lure Napoleon into the depths of Russia, and they attribute this plan to some Pfuel, some to some Frenchman, some to Tolya, some to Emperor Alexander himself, pointing to notes, projects and letters that actually contain hints of this course of action. But all these hints of foreknowledge of what happened, both on the part of the French and on the part of the Russians, are now exhibited only because the event justified them. If the event had not happened, then these hints would have been forgotten, just as thousands and millions of opposing hints and assumptions that were in use then, but turned out to be unfair and therefore forgotten, are now forgotten. There are always so many assumptions about the outcome of every event that takes place that, no matter how it ends, there will always be people who will say: “I said then that it would be like this,” completely forgetting that among the countless assumptions, completely opposite.
Assumptions about Napoleon's awareness of the danger of stretching the line and on the part of the Russians - about luring the enemy into the depths of Russia - obviously belong to this category, and historians can only attribute such considerations to Napoleon and his marshals and such plans to Russian military leaders only with great reserve. All the facts completely contradict such assumptions. Not only throughout the war was there no desire on the part of the Russians to lure the French into the depths of Russia, but everything was done to stop them from their first entry into Russia, and not only was Napoleon not afraid of stretching his line, but he rejoiced at how triumph, every step forward, and very lazily, unlike in his previous campaigns, he looked for battle.
At the very beginning of the campaign, our armies are cut up, and the only goal to which we strive is to unite them, although in order to retreat and lure the enemy into the interior of the country, there does not seem to be any advantage in uniting the armies. The emperor is with the army to inspire it to defend every step of the Russian land, and not to retreat. The huge Dries camp is being built according to Pfuel's plan and it is not intended to retreat further. The Emperor reproaches the commander-in-chief for every step of retreat. Not only the burning of Moscow, but the admission of the enemy to Smolensk cannot even be imagined by the emperor, and when the armies unite, the sovereign is indignant because Smolensk was taken and burned and was not given a general battle before the walls of it.
The sovereign thinks so, but the Russian military leaders and all Russian people are even more indignant at the thought that ours are retreating into the interior of the country.
Napoleon, having cut up the armies, moves inland and misses several occasions of battle. In August he is in Smolensk and thinks only about how he can move on, although, as we now see, this movement forward is obviously detrimental for him.
The facts clearly show that neither Napoleon foresaw the danger in moving towards Moscow, nor Alexander and the Russian military leaders then thought about luring Napoleon, but thought about the opposite. The luring of Napoleon into the interior of the country did not happen according to anyone’s plan (no one believed in the possibility of this), but occurred from the most complex game of intrigues, goals, desires of people - participants in the war, who did not guess what should be, and what was the only salvation of Russia. Everything happens by accident. The armies are cut up at the start of the campaign. We are trying to unite them with the obvious goal of giving battle and holding off the enemy’s advance, but even in this desire to unite, avoiding battles with the strongest enemy and involuntarily retreating at an acute angle, we lead the French to Smolensk. But it’s not enough to say that we are retreating at an acute angle because the French are moving between both armies - this angle is becoming even sharper, and we are moving even further because Barclay de Tolly, an unpopular German, is hated by Bagration (who will become under his command ), and Bagration, commanding the 2nd Army, tries not to join Barclay for as long as possible, so as not to become under his command. Bagration does not join for a long time (although this is the main goal of all commanders) because it seems to him that he is putting his army in danger on this march and that it is most profitable for him to retreat to the left and south, harassing the enemy from the flank and rear and recruiting his army in Ukraine. But it seems that he came up with this because he did not want to obey the hated and junior German Barclay.
The emperor is with the army to inspire it, and his presence and lack of knowledge of what to decide on, and a huge number of advisers and plans destroy the energy of the 1st army’s actions, and the army retreats.
It is planned to stop at the Dris camp; but unexpectedly Paulucci, aiming to become commander-in-chief, influences Alexander with his energy, and Pfuel’s entire plan is abandoned, and the whole matter is entrusted to Barclay. But since Barclay does not inspire confidence, his power is limited.
The armies are fragmented, there is no unity of leadership, Barclay is not popular; but from this confusion, fragmentation and unpopularity of the German commander-in-chief, on the one hand, follows indecision and avoidance of battle (which could not be resisted if the armies were together and Barclay was not the commander), on the other hand, more and more indignation against the Germans and excitement of the patriotic spirit.
Finally, the sovereign leaves the army, and as the only and most convenient pretext for his departure, the idea is chosen that he needs to inspire the people in the capitals to initiate a people's war. And this trip of the sovereign and Moscow triples the strength of the Russian army.
The sovereign leaves the army in order not to hamper the unity of power of the commander-in-chief, and hopes that more decisive measures will be taken; but the position of the army command is even more confused and weakened. Bennigsen, Grand Duke and a swarm of general adjutants remain with the army in order to monitor the actions of the commander-in-chief and excite him to energy, and Barclay, feeling even less free under the eyes of all these sovereign eyes, becomes even more careful for decisive actions and avoids battles.
Barclay stands for caution. The Tsarevich hints at treason and demands a general battle. Lyubomirsky, Branitsky, Wlotsky and the like are inflating all this noise so much that Barclay, under the pretext of delivering papers to the sovereign, sends the Poles as adjutant generals to St. Petersburg and enters into an open fight with Bennigsen and the Grand Duke.
In Smolensk, finally, no matter how Bagration wished it, the armies are united.
Bagration drives up in a carriage to the house occupied by Barclay. Barclay puts on a scarf, goes out to meet him and reports to the senior rank of Bagration. Bagration, in the struggle of generosity, despite the seniority of his rank, submits to Barclay; but, having submitted, she agrees with him even less. Bagration personally, by order of the sovereign, informs him. He writes to Arakcheev: “The will of my sovereign, I cannot do it together with the minister (Barclay). For God's sake, send me somewhere, even to command a regiment, but I can’t be here; and the entire main apartment is filled with Germans, so it’s impossible for a Russian to live, and there’s no point. I thought I was truly serving the sovereign and the fatherland, but in reality it turns out that I am serving Barclay. I admit, I don’t want to.” The swarm of Branitskys, Wintzingerodes and the like further poisons the relations of the commanders-in-chief, and even less unity emerges. They are planning to attack the French in front of Smolensk. A general is sent to inspect the position. This general, hating Barclay, goes to his friend, the corps commander, and, after sitting with him for a day, returns to Barclay and condemns on all counts the future battlefield, which he has not seen.
While there are disputes and intrigues about the future battlefield, while we are looking for the French, having made a mistake in their location, the French stumble upon Neverovsky’s division and approach the very walls of Smolensk.
We must take on an unexpected battle in Smolensk in order to save our messages. The battle is given. Thousands are being killed on both sides.
Smolensk is abandoned against the will of the sovereign and all the people. But Smolensk was burned by the residents themselves, deceived by their governor, and the ruined residents, setting an example for other Russians, go to Moscow, thinking only about their losses and inciting hatred of the enemy. Napoleon moves on, we retreat, and the very thing that was supposed to defeat Napoleon is achieved.

The day after his son’s departure, Prince Nikolai Andreich called Princess Marya to his place.
- Well, are you satisfied now? - he told her, - she quarreled with her son! Are you satisfied? That's all you needed! Are you satisfied?.. It hurts me, it hurts. I'm old and weak, and that's what you wanted. Well, rejoice, rejoice... - And after that, Princess Marya did not see her father for a week. He was sick and did not leave the office.
To her surprise, Princess Marya noticed that during this time of illness the old prince also did not allow m lle Bourienne to visit him. Only Tikhon followed him.
A week later, the prince left and began his old life again, being especially active in buildings and gardens and ending all previous relations with m lle Bourienne. His appearance and cold tone with Princess Marya seemed to say to her: “You see, you made it up about me, lied to Prince Andrei about my relationship with this Frenchwoman and quarreled me with him; and you see that I don’t need either you or the Frenchwoman.”
Princess Marya spent one half of the day with Nikolushka, watching his lessons, herself giving him lessons in the Russian language and music, and talking with Desalles; she spent the other part of the day in her quarters with books, an old nanny, and with God's people, who sometimes came to her from the back porch.
Princess Marya thought about the war the way women think about war. She was afraid for her brother, who was there, horrified, without understanding her, by human cruelty, which forced them to kill each other; but she did not understand the significance of this war, which seemed to her the same as all previous wars. She did not understand the significance of this war, despite the fact that Desalles, her constant interlocutor, who was passionately interested in the progress of the war, tried to explain his thoughts to her, and despite the fact that the people of God who came to her all spoke with horror in their own way about popular rumors about the invasion of the Antichrist, and despite the fact that Julie, now Princess Drubetskaya, who again entered into correspondence with her, wrote patriotic letters to her from Moscow.
“I am writing to you in Russian, my good friend,” wrote Julie, “because I have hatred for all the French, as well as for their language, which I cannot hear spoken... We in Moscow are all delighted through enthusiasm for our beloved emperor.
My poor husband endures labor and hunger in Jewish taverns; but the news I have makes me even more excited.
You probably heard about the heroic feat of Raevsky, who hugged his two sons and said: “I will die with them, but we will not waver!” And indeed, although the enemy was twice as strong as us, we did not waver. We spend our time as best we can; but in war, as in war. Princess Alina and Sophie sit with me all day long, and we, unfortunate widows of living husbands, have wonderful conversations over lint; only you, my friend, are missing... etc.
Mostly Princess Marya did not understand the full significance of this war because the old prince never talked about it, did not acknowledge it and laughed at Desalles at dinner when he talked about this war. The prince's tone was so calm and confident that Princess Marya, without reasoning, believed him.
Throughout the month of July, the old prince was extremely active and even animated. He also pawned new garden and a new building, a building for courtyard workers. One thing that bothered Princess Marya was that he slept little and, having changed his habit of sleeping in the study, changed the place of his overnight stays every day. Either he ordered his camp bed to be set up in the gallery, then he remained on the sofa or in the Voltaire chair in the living room and dozed without undressing, while not m lle Bourienne, but the boy Petrusha read to him; then he spent the night in the dining room.
On August 1, a second letter was received from Prince Andrei. In the first letter, received shortly after his departure, Prince Andrei humbly asked his father for forgiveness for what he had allowed himself to say to him, and asked him to return his favor to him. The old prince responded to this letter with an affectionate letter and after this letter he alienated the Frenchwoman from himself. Prince Andrei's second letter, written from near Vitebsk, after the French occupied it, consisted of a brief description of the entire campaign with a plan outlined in the letter, and considerations for the further course of the campaign. In this letter, Prince Andrei presented his father with the inconvenience of his position close to the theater of war, on the very line of movement of the troops, and advised him to go to Moscow.
At dinner that day, in response to the words of Desalles, who said that, as heard, the French had already entered Vitebsk, the old prince remembered the letter from Prince Andrei.
“I received it from Prince Andrei today,” he said to Princess Marya, “didn’t you read it?”

The Solomon Islands are a country located in Melanesia, in the southwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. It consists of 992 islands.

In 1568, the Spanish traveler A. Mendaña de Neira discovered these islands. The navigator managed to exchange a lot of gold from local residents. And he gave the name to the Solomon Islands in honor magical land Ophir, where, according to legend, King Solomon hid his treasures.

For the next two centuries, Europeans did not visit here. Only in 1767 the islands were discovered a second time by the Englishman F. Carteret.

Since the 1860s Europeans began to actively develop the territory of the Solomon Islands. The Aborigines quickly realized the danger posed by the white man and killed any European who set foot on their land. That is why the Solomon Islands at that time had a reputation as the most hostile islands in the Pacific Ocean.

In 1893, the islands came under British rule. And from the beginning of the 20th century, the British created the first coconut palm plantations here.

During World War II, part of the islands was captured by the Japanese. Bloody battles were fought here for a long time, and many warships sank.

The Solomon Islands gained independence only in 1978.

The ethnic composition of the islands' population is heterogeneous. The majority are Melanesians (more than 90%), followed by Polynesians (3%), Micronesians (1.2%), Europeans and Chinese.

Holidays in the Solomon Islands are suitable primarily for those who want to enjoy untouched nature this region, as well as extreme sports enthusiasts, lovers of diving, snorkeling and fishing.

Capital	Honiara
Population	478,000 people
Population density	17 people/km²
	English
Religion	Christianity (97%)
Form of government	a constitutional monarchy
	Solomon Islands dollar
Timezone
International dialing code
Domain zone
Electricity

Climate and weather

The climate of the Solomon Islands is subequatorial, very humid and hot. The thermometer does not fall below +21 °C in winter, but in summer the temperature often exceeds +30 °C. Winter falls here from April to November. This is a dry season, characterized by cool (+23...+27 °C) weather. The time from December to March is called the wet season. The air temperature reaches its maximum and humidity rises to 90%. Rainfall varies depending on the region of the archipelago.

IN summer time Hurricane-force winds are possible, but here they are not as destructive as east of the Solomon Islands.

The most favorable time to travel to the Solomon Islands is June - December. At this time there is no sweltering heat, and in June-August various festivals and celebrations are held.

Nature

About 80% of the islands are covered with dense equatorial forests(ficus, palm trees); dry places are characterized by savannas; mangrove forests and swamps grow on the coasts.

The flora of the Solomon Islands is represented by more than 4,500 plant species, including more than 200 species of orchids alone. You can often find sumai, nalato, and hibiscus.

The fauna of the islands is also diverse: crocodiles, snakes, lizards, rats, bats, parrots, wild pigeons and others. You can often see rare giant butterflies here. The coastal waters are home to green turtles, tuna, dolphins, barracuda, sharks and many other species of fish.

The Solomon Islands are also rich in minerals: silver, gold, copper, nickel.

In the east O. Rennell The National Wildlife Park was created with the support of UNESCO.

The Solomon Islands are of volcanic origin. The highest point in the country is the peak Popomanaseu (Guadalcanal Island). Its height reaches 2335 meters.

Attractions

The Solomon Islands attract tourists, first of all, for their naturalness and lack of desire to create something specifically for tourists. They offer recreation in natural conditions, and this is why the islands are valuable for the traveler.

Traveling around the islands usually starts from the capital of the state - Honiara. Here is a place called Point Cruz. According to legend, a Spaniard first landed here Mendana and erected a cross in honor of the discovery of the island.

It will also be interesting to visit National Museum, Parliament, Botanical Gardens, colorful Chinatown.

Just a few kilometers from the capital are the famous waterfalls Mataniko. The water falls into a cave filled with stalagmites and stalactites, after which it disappears into the bowels of the island.

A trip to the lagoon will be unforgettable Marovo. Here is the best tourist village in the country - World Heritage. The state, trying to preserve the unique flora and fauna of this place, limited logging. Local residents receive their main income from tourism.

Village Nusambaruku (Gizo Island) is an example of a traditional isolated village. It consists of several buildings that are located high on stilts. The village can only be reached by boat or along a narrow dam.

Islands Anarvon are located 280 km from the capital. This is a group of 100 islands, none of which are permanently inhabited, and many of them protrude only 20-30 cm above the sea, but this place is famous for being home to rare sea turtles. A natural reserve was organized here: several dozen specially trained people monitor the safety of turtles’ lives and accompany tourists.

The Western Province is famous for the beauty and richness of the underwater world. Fans of extreme sports and water sports flock here. The most comfortable resorts are also located here.

The lagoon can rightly be called the pearl of the Western Province Marovo. This is the largest salt lagoon in the world (150 by 96 kilometers). Thousands of islands and coral reefs surround the lagoon.

Almost the entire southern part O. Rennell occupies the lake Tengano. It is the largest freshwater lake in the Pacific region. The lake and surrounding areas form a national wildlife park, which is listed world heritage UNESCO.

Nutrition

The cuisine of the Solomon Islands is a mixture of culinary traditions of Southeast Asia, Europe and Oceania. It is characterized by the use of yams and colocasia leaves, tapioca (obtained from the roots of the cassava plant), and coconut. Chefs at local restaurants mix ingredients in random order and often create new, unique dishes.

Food is often cooked in special earthen ovens called umu. Meat and fish are usually baked over coals with little spice.

In addition to Melanesian and Polynesian dishes, European and Asian dishes are excellently prepared here. Moreover, they are no different from similar dishes prepared in Beijing or London.

Honiara has several European, Chinese and even Japanese restaurants. All of them are popular with tourists and locals.

The choice of drinks here is huge: local alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, as well as wines and beer imported from Chile, China, New Zealand.

Accommodation

The Solomon Islands has a poorly developed tourism infrastructure. Comfortable accommodation is provided only on the largest islands of the archipelago: Guadalcanal, Hueli, Mangalonga, Gizo.

The hotels on these islands are something like resort complexes with tennis courts, swimming pools, and children's playgrounds. This could be several colorful eco-huts or bungalows.

Prices range from $30-150 per night.

Before checking in, be sure to check if there are mosquito nets in your room: the local insects can be dangerous.

IN Honiara, right on the beach, the most modern and prestigious hotel in the country is located - Heritage Park. To fully enjoy the nature of the Pacific coast, you can rent an apartment at the hotel. An excellent double room will cost you $300 per night.

Outside the capital and other large cities, it is possible to stay directly in the homes of local residents. In this case, payment is agreed upon in advance (guide the amount around $12-20 per day). Housing is often paid for with food.

Entertainment and relaxation

The underwater world of the Solomon Islands literally attracts extreme sports enthusiasts from all over the world. Sunken ships and planes, Coral reefs, the diversity of underwater inhabitants allows you to fully enjoy diving and snorkeling.

Good area for snorkeling O. Guadalcanal. About 50 huge warships are buried in these waters. In most cases, they are located at a depth to which scuba diving is prohibited. However, the transparency of the water and the features of the bottom topography make it possible to see details without deep immersion.

Island Savo called a paradise for divers. The island, which is of volcanic origin, is constantly shrouded in clouds. There are no comfortable conditions for tourists here, but all this is more than compensated for by the abundance of sunken ships, many hot mineral springs, and crystal clear water.

The most picturesque reefs can be seen near the lagoon Marovo, nearby islands Tavanipulu And Arnavon.

Diving in the Solomon Islands cannot be called a cheap pleasure. For one dive you will have to pay from $50-70.

Another way to spend time on the islands is fishing. The local waters are known for the variety of species of fish and marine animals. Some travel agencies organize entire fish tours to Lola Island, to the lagoons Marovo And Wona-Wona.

Those wishing to get acquainted with the strange and fascinating rituals of the local residents simply need to visit the outskirts of the city Auki(100 km from Honiara). Here you will witness a most dangerous ritual "shark challenge". Local sorcerers somehow manage to put the shark to sleep right in the water, and then manually raise it to the surface.

Center for cultural life of the state - Honiara. The Queen's Birthday is celebrated here on the second Friday of June. The celebration is accompanied by a police parade, dancing and sports competitions. On July 7, the whole country celebrates Independence Day.

If you find yourself in the Solomon Islands in mid-December, you can take part in the Western Seas Festival. At this time, numerous fishing competitions, canoe races and other competitions take place.

There are many good hiking trails in the Solomon Islands. Trekking enthusiasts will be pleased with the walking tour routes organized from Honiara to the waterfalls Mataniko, from Guizot before Titians.

Purchases

Large shops and supermarkets are concentrated in the capital of the Solomon Islands. Prices for imported goods are very high.

When purchasing food products, carefully monitor the shelf life: often the goods take a long time to travel from Singapore, China and other countries and spoil on the way.

Prices in stores on the islands are not regulated by the state, so do not be surprised if the cost of the same goods in neighboring stores differs significantly.

Be sure to visit the colorful markets of the country. Here you can buy all kinds of vegetables and tropical fruits, fresh fish, shells, and handicrafts. Markets are open throughout the week. Remember that bargaining is not encouraged here.

As a souvenir from the Solomon Islands, you can bring handmade wooden figurines that symbolize peace and tranquility.

Ritual wooden balls are very popular among tourists. According to legend, with their help you can summon the spirit of a deceased ancestor and ask for advice.

Local hand-painted wooden masks are also unusual. They, according to popular belief, give strength and dexterity to their owner and protect against evil spirits.

Brooches, keychains, beads, bracelets made of shells and corals would be a good gift.

Some goods (especially handmade goods) have two different prices: the first for local residents, the second for tourists.

Transport

international Airport Henderson Field is located 11 km from the capital and is named after a US major who died in the Battle of Midway. For the runway, which later became the airport, there were hot battles between the Japanese and the Americans. The airport is small, but there is everything you need: taxi, car rental, ATM and exchange office. There are also about 30 small airports on the islands that serve local flights.

Only 2% of all roads in the Solomon Islands are paved. Most of the roads belong to private plantation owners.

The most common transport that allows you to move from island to island is a ferry, or, as the locals call it, a water taxi. You will get a lot of impressions from your sea voyage. In most cases, sea transport does not follow any schedule, and the fare is quite low.

The most convenient way to get around in Honiara is by taxi. You can “vote” on the street or call him in advance. Taxi cost is $1.5 per kilometer.

There are few buses in the capital; the most common form of transport here is minibuses, the ticket price is $0.4.

You can also rent a car. But drivers should be especially careful: the roads outside Honiara are in poor condition.

Connection

In the Solomon Islands, standard cellular communications GSM 900. The level of communication is not very high yet. The only mobile operator Solomon Telekom provides good reception only in the area of ​​Honiara, Auki, Gizo. In other areas, coverage is partial.

While on the islands, you can either buy a SIM card from a local operator or rent a phone.

There are about 300 payphones in the country, and almost all of them are concentrated in Honiara, near banks, large shops and hotels. To use a payphone, you need to buy a prepaid card. It is sold in stores, kiosks, and communication shops.

If you need to make an international call, it is better to use the services Solomon Telekom. The company's offices operate around the clock and are located in the capital, in many provincial centers, and in all major hotels.

Internet connectivity is available in Honiara and some provinces. There is a whole network of Internet cafes in the capital. Wi-Fi network has just begun its development. Trial sites are only open in Honiara and Gizo.

Safety

Residents of the Solomon Islands are quite friendly towards tourists. Thefts are here a rare event, but in crowded places, beware of pickpockets. Do not leave valuables and documents unattended, and do not visit isolated areas alone.

It is recommended to visit picturesque local settlements only with experienced guides who will tell you about certain features of local traditions. To avoid omissions and insults from the natives, it is necessary to obtain consent before visiting their home.

Property rights are very important to Melanesians. A tree, flower or fruit in the vicinity of a populated area may well belong to one of the residents. Therefore, in order not to provoke a conflict, do not tear anything without permission.

Be careful with your clothing: swimsuits and shorts are only allowed on the beach; in other cases, you need to hide your body as much as possible.

Local water can be hazardous to health, so drink only boiled or bottled water. Milk, meat, and fish can be eaten only after heat treatment. Wash vegetables and peel fruits thoroughly.

The danger is fraught with animal world islands. Scorpions, Java centipedes, blood-sucking insects, poisonous fish and snakes, some reptiles, and forest ants can pose a threat not only to health, but also to life. To avoid meeting them, move around the islands (especially the jungle) only accompanied by an experienced guide.

Business climate

The economy of the Solomon Islands has recently developed rapidly and offers good opportunities for business in areas such as mining, tourism infrastructure, agricultural industry, fishing, forestry.

Resident companies (shareholders who have voting rights and are residents of the islands) pay 30% tax on profits from any source, regardless of their location. Non-resident companies are subject to 35% tax on income received on the islands.

Real estate

Exotic nature, good climate, low prices explain the demand for real estate in the Solomon Islands. You won't see high-rise apartment buildings here. Most of the local population still lives in rural houses. Only in the capital there are luxurious modern buildings.

The law allows the purchase of real estate by foreigners. But for this you need documents confirming the legality of the transaction.

Buying property in the Solomon Islands is quite problematic. The fact is that 95% of all the islands' land belongs to indigenous peoples. For a foreign investor to buy a house, for example, it is necessary to conduct lengthy negotiations with members of various clans in order to find the owner of the land and agree on a deal. Usually such negotiations take a lot of time and there are no guarantees that everything will be resolved in your favor. Community lands are rarely sold. But it is possible to lease them for up to 75 years.

In the Solomon Islands, as in most other countries in Polynesia and Melanesia, it is not customary to leave a tip. According to local tradition, a tip is perceived as a gift and implies a gift in return. By smiling and saying “thank you,” you are fully expressing your gratitude for the services provided.

Currency can be exchanged at a bank, in large stores and restaurants, some hotels, and special exchange bureaus. There are also exchange machines in the capital, which are located mainly near bank offices. In the provinces, the easiest way to exchange currency is at branches National Bank of the Solomon Islands. They are located in shops and post offices.

In Honiara you can pay by credit card, in the provinces you can only pay in cash.

Often, especially in the southern regions of the islands, US and Australian dollars are accepted for payment.

Jewelry and gold must be declared upon entry.

The export and import of items of historical value is prohibited: products made of coral, skins of tropical animals, bird feathers, sea turtle shells.

When planning a trip, make sure that your first aid kit has all the necessary medications. In the Solomon Islands it may be difficult to purchase them.

Visa information

The Solomon Islands are an archipelago largely untouched by tourism. Quite a few people visit this poor country. But, despite this, they attract with the genuine naturalness of everything that you will either see or visit.

Back in the 16th century, these islands were discovered by the Spaniard A. Medanya. It was the Spaniards who held the opinion and put forward the assumption that in ancient times this archipelago belonged to Solomon, the biblical king. Hence the origin of the name. Already in the 20th century, Great Britain established its power over the islands. But soon the Solomon Islands gained internal self-government and then independence.

This area is attractive because there is practically nothing that has been created artificially in order to please tourists. Therefore, it will be very comfortable and interesting here, first of all, for those travelers who are looking for natural extraordinary

After all, every part of this small country will not disappoint its guests, as it has rightfully earned a reputation as the best place in the world, where it is as if nature itself has created all the conditions for fishing, snorkeling and diving. Here the water and air are particularly clean. And the animal and vegetable world will surprise any tourist with its diversity and beauty.

The Solomon Islands are quite home to their own taboos. And all visitors should know about them. Thus, on the islands of Bu-su and Laulasi, the taboo colors are red and black, since they are considered the colors of blood. They should be avoided when choosing jewelry or clothing for a trip.

Certain taboos still surround the life of villages on the islands. It is impossible to explain the meaning of all. But when visiting any local settlements, you must exercise some caution and limit your curiosity as much as possible. Since the term “taboo” here is given the meaning not only of prohibition, but also of sacredness or holiness. And you shouldn’t forget about this.

Apart from this, property rights are also very important here. Therefore, it is most likely that the flower, fruit or tree by the side of the road belongs to someone. Since many islanders live by selling what they grow, when you pick the fruit, be prepared to leave the owner a decent compensation.

Guests on the islands must be fully clothed. While local residents' clothing may be different or absent altogether. A woman should not be or stand above a man. It is also prohibited to swim under a canoe containing women. After all, after this it is subject to destruction. And for many residents it is the only means to get food.

The Solomon Islands have preserved a tradition in which, as in all world cultures, taboos are designed to protect their society, playing the role of certain codes or moral precepts. Following them, it is not customary to punish uninitiated people. Although foreigners belong to this category, it is nevertheless advisable to respect local customs.

For those who love a varied and eventful holiday, the Solomon Islands are an ideal option. Mainly because their entire territory consists of nine provinces, each of which has something to show even the most jaded visitor.

Consider those provinces where local residents, despite the rapid development of civilization in general and the predominance of European elements in clothing in particular, continue to wear short skirts and

Not all resort islands, like the Solomon Islands, have largely retained their primitive cultural appearance. All the villages here are predominantly dominated by traditional houses. They are rectangular lightweight huts with wicker walls on pillars and made of palm leaves.

Although buildings of the European type are found here, they are only found in large populated areas. Traditionality is also quite closely intertwined with modernity. The local population preserves applied arts, original dances and songs, and folklore relatively well, but modern culture is still being introduced.

Prince of Novgorod, Grand Duke of Kiev from 945 to 972. The famous ancient Russian commander went down in history as a warrior prince. Karamzin called him the Russian Alexander of Macedno.

Having lived only about 30 years, for the last 8 of them Svyatoslav personally led his squads on campaigns. And he invariably defeated stronger opponents or achieved a profitable peace with them. Killed in battle.

I. Prince Svyatoslav and his time

Reign of Svyatoslav

The year 942 is mentioned as the year of Svyatoslav’s birth only by the Ipatiev list of the Tale of Bygone Years. The First Novgorod Chronicle tells about the birth of Svyatoslav, following the story about the marriage of Igor and Olga. Both of these messages are placed in that part of the chronicle where there are no dates at all. A little later, the date 920 appears. The chronicle connects it with Igor’s first campaign against the Greeks. (PVL dates this campaign to 941.) Perhaps starting from the Novgorod Chronicle, the Russian historian of the 18th century. V. Tatishchev attributed the date of birth of Svyatoslav to 920. There are also reports in the literature that Svyatoslav was born around 940-941.

Prince of Kiev Svyatoslav Igorevich was the head of the Old Russian state in 945-972. However, since Svyatoslav was in his 4th year at the time of his father’s death in the Drevlyan polyudie, the real ruler of Rus' in 945-962 (964) his mother Princess Olga appeared. And even after Svyatoslav matured, when he began to go on his famous military campaigns, inner life Rus' was apparently ruled by Olga until her death in 969.

Svyatoslav Igorevich

at the monument "Millennium of Russia"

Svyatoslav went down in history as a warrior prince. In 964, he and his retinue headed to the Volga, to the land of the Vyatichi, whom he most likely made his allies, freeing them from the need to pay tribute to the Khazars. In 965-966. Russian troops had already fought in the Middle and Lower Volga region. As a result, with historical map such a powerful state controlling transit trade routes as the Khazar Kaganate disappeared, and Volga Bulgaria was forced to pay tribute to the Kyiv prince and agree to allow Russian merchants through its territory. Russian outposts in the Great Steppe became the former Khazar Sarkel, now called White Vezha, as well as the Greek trading city with a multinational population - Tamarakhta, which Russian chronicles will call Tmutarakanya. Svyatoslav's invasion of the North Caucasus into the lands of Khazaria's allies - the Alans, Yases and Kasogs - was also successful. Returning to Kyiv, Svyatoslav defeated the Vyatichi, forced them to recognize their supreme power and pay tribute to Kyiv.

During the Volga campaigns 964-966. followed by two Danube campaigns of Svyatoslav in 967-971. In the course of them, Svyatoslav tried to create a huge Russian-Bulgarian kingdom centered in Pereslavets on the Danube, which in geopolitical terms could become a serious counterweight to the Byzantine Empire in the South-East of Europe. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Second Danube Campaign of Svyatoslav (969-971) resulted in an open clash between Rus' and the Roman Empire. During the Danube expeditions of Svyatoslav, Rus' had problems with the Pechenegs. The defeat of Khazaria contributed to the fact that the tribes of this Turkic people, who did not know statehood, finally established themselves in the steppes bordering Russia.

In 968, the Pechenegs were already besieging Kyiv. With the help of the northerners, led by governor Pretich, the Kievans fought back, and later the Pechenegs were defeated by Prince Svyatoslav, who hastily returned from the Balkans. The siege of Kyiv by the Pechenegs caused the displeasure of Princess Olga, the Kyiv boyars and townspeople. For better protection territories subject to Kyiv, after the death of his mother in 969, Svyatoslav planted his sons in the main, in his opinion, centers at that time: Yaropolk - in Kyiv, Oleg - among the Drevlyans in Ovruch, Vladimir - in Novgorod. Subsequently, this led to an internecine war between the brothers, and then, having organized Rus' in this way, mourned and buried his mother, Svyatoslav rushed off again to the Danube. For Rus', the Second Danube Campaign 969-971. ended in defeat. Svyatoslav had to renounce his claims to Danube Bulgaria. This country actually lost its independence for a time and came under the control of Constantinople. The latter made peace with Kievan Rus and paid Svyatoslav a kind of “farm payment” - tribute. Upon returning to Rus', Svyatoslav died in a battle with the Pechenegs on the Dnieper rapids in 972.

All historians recognize Svyatoslav Igorevich as a great commander of the early Russian Middle Ages, however, when assessing him as statesman Expert opinions differ. Some see in the prince a great politician who tried to create already in the 10th century. a vast Russian Empire, controlling lands from the Balkans, Volga and Black Sea steppes to the North Caucasus. For others, Svyatoslav is a talented military leader, of whom many were known during the era of the Great Migration of Peoples and the era of the “barbarian kingdoms.” For these leaders, war, military spoils and military glory were a way of life and the limit of their thoughts. Both of these approaches to the analysis of the achievements of Prince Svyatoslav do not deny that his military achievements significantly expanded the fame of the Old Russian state and strengthened its authority, both in the East and in the West.

In our further story we will focus on military history. Concluding a brief summary of the reign of Svyatoslav as a whole, we will report on the range of sources on the basis of which scientists reconstruct the activities of this Kyiv prince. From domestic sources, this is, first of all, The Tale of Bygone Years (Ipatiev and Lavrentiev editions). From foreign - History of the Byzantine author of the second half of the 10th century. Leo the Deacon, which has come down to us as part of the work of a Byzantine scientist of the late 11th - early 12th centuries. Scilicia. Also worth mentioning are two more Byzantine evidence: the History of Kedrin and the Annals of Zonara. Additional sources include reports from Arab, Khazar and Western European authors. Folklore epic material, such as ancient Russian epics and Scandinavian sagas, plays a certain role in recreating the impression of Svyatoslav’s campaigns against his contemporaries.

Prince and squad

Childhood and early youth Svyatoslav passed in a friendly environment. He was, in fact, a student of his squad. The name of his “breadwinner” is also known - Asmud. Judging by the name, he was a Varangian, like another prominent governor - Sveneld. The latter was the head of the Kyiv squad under four rulers: Prince Igor (912-945), regent Princess Olga (945-969), Prince Svyatoslav (945-972), Prince Yaropolk Svyatoslavich (972-980).

The presence of Varangian governors at the court of the Kyiv princes in the 9th-11th centuries. was commonplace. Since the time of Rurik’s calling, immigrants from Scandinavia have been hired soldiers in Rus', served as princely envoys in diplomatic, judicial and trade affairs, and could sit as governors in certain regions Kievan Rus along with representatives of the East Slavic tribal nobility (deliberate children). In addition to the Varangians, the personal squad of the Kyiv princes included many representatives of the Polyan tribe, whose tribal center at one time was Kyiv. However, the squad also included warriors from other East Slavic tribes (Northerners, Drevlyans, Ilmen Slovenes, etc.), as well as Finno-Ugrians (“Chudins”) and representatives of other ethnic groups of the East European Plain and surrounding countries. In the 10th century courage and martial art, and social differences did not yet divide the country’s population so much. It is no coincidence that in the first written legislation of Rus' - “Russian Truth”, for the murder of a free city dweller or community peasant, the same fine was imposed (vira of 40 hryvnia silver) as for the life of a “youth”, i.e. an ordinary member of the princely squad. The most common were the diamond-shaped Kiev hryvnia, the weight of which fluctuated around 90 grams. silver, and a more stick-shaped Novgorod hryvnia weighing about 200 grams. silver

The mentioned military teachers of the young Prince Svyatoslav, Asmud and Sveneld, of course, were not ordinary warriors (“youths, swordsmen, grids, children”, etc.). They belonged to the senior squad (“princely men”, “boyars” - according to one version, the origin of the term “boyar” is associated with the Slavic word “fights”). The senior squad consisted of governors and advisers to the prince. The prince sent them as ambassadors. He appointed them as his governors in the lands under his control. Unlike the tribal nobility (“deliberate children”), which was associated with the land and communities, the senior squad was associated specifically with the prince. In the prince, as the source of supreme central power, men and boyars saw the source of their benefits and social power. Since the time of Svyatoslav’s grandson, Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich the Wise, the life of a representative of the senior squad was guarded by a 80 hryvnia silver coin.

With his husbands and boyars, the ruler held the “Duma”, i.e. consulted on the most important domestic and foreign policy matters. In the IX-XI centuries. council with the squad (both senior and junior), as well as spontaneously, in a moment of danger, a veche (city or army-wide, which, in addition to the princely squad, included “war” militias) were the limiters of princely power during the times of Kievan Rus. At the same time, councils with the squad and the veche were a way to establish social compromise in ancient Russian society, which, in turn, served as a strong support for the newborn state power.

In the early centuries of the existence of Rus', the connection between the prince and the squad was very strong. The younger squad generally lived near the prince, in his house, fed from his hands, received payment in shares of military booty, tribute, trade profits, and gifts from the prince. The princely men had their own warriors. In addition to the income mentioned above, they could receive the right to collect tribute in their favor from entire territories. So from the PVL we know that Prince Igor granted Sveneld the collection of tribute from part of the Drevlyan lands. This right was respected during the reign of Olga and Svyatoslav and even in the first years after the death of Svyatoslav, until his son Oleg Drevlyansky killed Sveneld’s son Lyut, considering that Lyut Sveneldich’s hunting in the Drevlyan forests violated his rights as the ruler of the entire Drevlyansky land.

As we have already reported, Russian chronicles say that Svyatoslav grew up among the squad. According to ancient custom, a noble boy (prince, son of a “deliberate child” or princely husbands) “turned into a man” at 3 years old. It was at this age that “tonsuring” took place, a symbolic holiday when a boy’s hair was cut for the first time (a lock of hair was cut off), he was transferred from the female half of the house to the male half, the father gave his son a horse and a child’s weapon. This weapon differed from the real one only in size and weight. The princely son was also entitled to a “breadwinner”, i.e. teacher, who most often was one of his father’s boyars. But this could also be an experienced, devoted “youth,” a member of the junior squad, who could very well turn out to be a prince’s slave. But this, of course, was no ordinary slave. His social status and position could be very high, and upon the death of the owner or the age of the pupil, he acquired complete freedom, remaining in the closest and most noble circle of the prince. Asmud was directly involved in Svyatoslav’s upbringing, and the boy’s life was surrounded by druzhina life.

When reconstructing the appearance of the princely squad of the 9th-11th centuries, historians rely partly on chronicle reports, but the main source is archaeological material: finds of weapons and weapons elements at battle sites or settlements, military items from mounds and other burial places of the pagan era.

Under the first Russian princes, their personal squad (without the Varangians called “from across the sea”, who under Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise were regularly called for one or another campaign; and without militia soldiers, the so-called “warriors” from free townspeople and rural residents) ranged from 200 to 500 people. Most of the warriors were of East Slavic origin. Domestic historians L. Klein, G. Lebedev, V. Nazarenko, based on the study of kurgan archaeological material, concluded that non-Slavic warriors made up the princely squad of the 10th century. approximately 27% of its composition. The non-Slavic contingent consisted of people from Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, Summer-Lithuanian, Turkic, and Iranian ethnic groups. Moreover, the Scandinavian Varangians made up 4-5% of the total number of princely warriors. (Klein L., Lebedev G., Nazarenko V. Norman antiquities of Kievan Rus on modern stage archaeological study. History of relations between Scandinavia and Russia (IX - XX centuries). - L., 1970. S. 239 -246, 248-251).

The squad was not only the core of the prince’s army. The warriors also carried out various assignments, including economic ones, at the prince’s court and in his state. They could be judges, messengers, tribute collectors, etc.

Loyalty to the prince, courage, military art and physical strength, as well as the ability to give practical advice to the prince - these are the virtues that were cultivated in the military environment. However, if the warrior was a free man, he could leave the service and go to another prince. This, of course, did not concern the slave warriors. While the trade route “From the Varangians to the Greeks,” which connected Western European countries with Byzantium and other countries of the developed East, was of great international importance, the main wealth of the ancient Russian elite stemmed from the income from this trade artery. An Old Russian merchant is, first of all, a warrior who, being a trading agent of the Kyiv prince, comes in accordance with the Russian-Byzantine treaties of 911 and 944. with a princely charter to Constantinople, sells there part of the tribute collected by the prince in Polyudye (furs, honey, wax, servants) and buys expensive weapons, expensive fabrics (wools, brocade), jewelry, wines, fruits and other things that are sold in the princely - the military and urban environment in Rus' or are transported for further sale to Western European countries.

In the 10th century It made no sense for the warriors to leave Kyiv and its ruler. The Kiev prince controlled all trade along the route “From the Varangians to the Greeks.” He also acted as a leader in campaigns against neighboring countries. In case of victory, he rewarded the warriors with their share of the spoils of war. The Kiev prince led the consolidation of the East Slavic lands and part of the tribute, the tax collected by the prince during polyudye, also became the property of the squad. No other income except military booty, tribute, princely gifts and part of trade profits in the 10th century. representatives of the senior and junior squads did not have. Land holdings of the Russian nobility (patrimony) will begin to form in Rus' only from the end of the 11th, in the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. The “settling to the ground” of the princes and the senior squad will be facilitated by a decrease in the significance of the path “From the Varangians to the Greeks.” This will happen due to the opening by the Western crusaders of a short sea road from Europe to the Levant (eastern coast of the Mediterranean), as well as due to the “clogging” of the lower reaches of the Dnieper by the Cumans hostile to Rus'.

Judging by the burial mounds of the 10th century, initially the main armor of the ancient Russian princely warriors was simple ring armor, better known as chain mail. Somewhat later, simple chain mail began to be strengthened with scale armor located on top of the chain mail. Only at the end of the 12th century. other types of armor appeared, which were worn over chain mail (shells, mirrors, etc.). The arms and legs of the warriors were covered with bracers and greaves. They were made of durable leather with metal scales. In contrast to the pot-shaped Scandinavian helmet, a conical helmet was common in Rus', widely known in eastern countries. It ended with a sharp pommel. Gradually, nasals and aventail, chain mail protection that covered the neck and went down to the shoulders, began to be added to such helmets. Among the Varangians, the so-called “masks” and “half-masks” were widespread, covering the face or part of it. The shields of ancient Russian warriors were of two shapes - round and teardrop-shaped. The shields were made of wood, but had an iron or leather edging. In the center of the shield was the “umbon”, a metal bowl. It could be round or conical.

A warrior's weapon depended on whether he was a lightly or heavily armed infantryman or horseman. A lightly armed warrior on foot had a bow, a quiver of arrows, 2-3 darts (“sulitsy”), a sword or ax and a shield. His heavily armed brother wielded a shield, spear, sword or axe. The horsemen were also lightly or heavily armed. Light cavalry was armed with bows and arrows, shields, battle axes, swords, and sometimes sabers. Heavy - had spears, shields, swords. In general, the armament of ancient Russian warriors was influenced by neighbors who served the Russian princes or, on the contrary, were their opponents. Russian (Slavic) warriors borrowed from the Scandinavians favorite weapon northern Germans - a battle ax and a long, double-edged sword. From the eastern steppes - a saber.

The total weight of the warrior's weapons in the 10th century. did not exceed 13-20 kg.

The princely squad and the Varangians invited “from overseas” often moved on boats - “dragons”. The bow of the ship was decorated with a dragon's head. The Greeks called these ships “monoxyles” (single-trees). Scientists believe their keel was made from a single tree trunk. Such a boat could take on board up to 40 people, plus a supply of food and goods. The shallow draft of the vessel made it possible to navigate in shallow water, both in the seas and in rivers. Having unloaded the ship, it could be dragged from one water body to another. Usually the boat was rolled on logs or placed on wooden wheels. Without routine maintenance, the Monoxyl could travel from 1,500 to 2,000 km in one season. It sailed and rowed and was undoubtedly the best European ship in the 9th-11th centuries.

The warriors fought on foot, but there were also mounted formations of the squad and Varangians. Slavic “warriors” from the militia, which gathered in addition to squads to participate in large campaigns, preferred to fight on foot. The warriors, in accordance with the military traditions developed in the pre-state era, were united into regiments according to tribes and attacked “en masse.” The warriors also liked to set up ambushes. The military system of the warriors appeared later than the 10th century. And the tactics of vigilantes in the 10th century. often resembled the sum of numerous personal duels on the battlefield. Close combat often turned into hand-to-hand combat, where knives and fists were used.

The enemy army in Rus' until the 14th century. was called "army". The phrase “military warrior” meant an enemy warrior.

Very often the battle opened with a duel best fighters. In pre-Mongol Rus', they were called “braves”; the word “hero” is of Mongolian origin and appeared in the Russian lexicon in the 13th century. The duel of the brave had a sacred connotation: they wondered whose side the gods and fate were on. Sometimes the defeat of one’s “brave” led to abandonment of the battle, retreat, or even the flight of an entire army. But more often this did not happen, and archers entered the battle. They showered the enemy with arrows. This did not cause serious damage to the enemy, but the archers irritated the enemy and encouraged their own. As the sides approached, lightly armed foot soldiers threw darts. Then everyone rushed forward, wanting to overthrow the enemy and put him to flight. It was during the flight of the enemy that the greatest extermination was observed. Heavily armed foot warriors advanced more or less in formation. They lined up in three or more rows, closed their shields, put their spears forward, forming a kind of “wall”. The horsemen supported the foot squad. They could deliver effective attacks from the flanks; the cavalry strike at the end of the battle was even more destructive, when the enemy was weakened and ready to retreat. During the battle, individual warriors tried to get through to the leader of the “military”, kill or wound him, or, at worst, overturn the banner or other symbols of the enemy.

By the age of 20-22, Prince Svyatoslav perfectly understood all these wisdom of military tactics and strategy of his century. Judging by his actions and speeches recorded in historical sources, the only measure of his decisions was the opinion of the squad. It is no coincidence that the offer of the mother of Princess Olga, who converted to Christianity during her visit to Constantinople in 955 (or 957), was refused with the explanation: “the squad will laugh!” Svyatoslav himself did not prevent his subjects from being baptized; only, as the chronicle reports, he laughed at them. One of the main ideals of the prince was the glory of a selflessly brave warrior who never betrayed the traditions of the squad: “...and he walked easily, like a pardus,” the chronicler writes about Svyatoslav, “and gathered many warriors. He did not take carts or boilers on campaigns, did not cook meat, but thinly cut horse meat, animal meat or beef, baked it on coals and ate it. He did not have a tent, he slept on the ground, spreading a sweatshirt and with a saddle in his head. All his warriors were the same. When going on a hike, I sent him to say: I’m coming to you!”

Svyatoslav fought his first battle as a prince in 946. Then his mother Olga moved the Kiev army against the Drevlyans, who were responsible for the death of her husband, Prince Igor. The regiments stood in the field opposite each other. Four-year-old Svyatoslav Igorevich threw a dart towards the enemy. The spear flew between the horse's ears and fell at its feet. “Svyatoslav was very young,” the chronicler noted and continued: “And Sveneld [the governor] and Asmud [the breadwinner] said: “The prince has already begun; Let’s follow, squad, the prince!” The Kievans won a complete victory.

In 964, the already matured Svyatoslav set off at the head of a large army on his first real campaign to the Volga, so that he could fight incessantly for the rest of his life (8 years).

II. Prince Svyatoslav's campaigns on the Volga

Hike to the Vyatichi

Svyatoslav's campaigns on the Volga were explained by several reasons. The main geopolitical enemy of Rus' at that moment was Khazaria. Firstly, for a long time (from the 7th to the 9th centuries) she took regular tribute from the southern and eastern edge of the East Slavic world: from the Drevlyans, Northerners, Polyans, Vyatichi. The Vyatichi, as we learn from the PVL, remained tributaries of the Khazars by 964, and the others were freed from tribute by Askold and Dir and the founder of the Kyiv state, Prince Oleg of Novgorod. However, the Khazars were not ready to give up their old custom so easily. In addition, they, being the largest rival of Byzantium in trade affairs, interfered with Russian-Byzantine trade - the basis of all trading enterprises Rus' on the way “From the Varangians to the Greeks.” All this was supposed to push the rulers of Kievan Rus to war with the Khazars. Such wars went on with varying degrees of success under Oleg and Igor.

By the way, the last clash between the Rus and the Khazars before Svyatoslav’s campaigns turned out to be unsuccessful. In 941, on the Volga, within the Turkic borders, the country of the Volga Bulgars, Khazars and Burtases, the army of Prince Igor died. As a true son of his time, Svyatoslav had to remember the sacred duty of an avenger for his father’s insults. Historians can only guess which reason - the thirst for revenge or the thought of control over the Great Volga trade route - was more important for Svyatoslav when he worked out his plan to strike Khazaria. From a military strategic point of view, his plan turned out to be an example of perfection. Svyatoslav will always be characterized by offensive actions. However, in 964, he abandoned a direct attack on Khazaria through the Volga-Don interfluve, choosing a roundabout maneuver. He moved to the northeast. Having ascended the Desna River, Svyatoslav dragged his boats to the upper reaches of the Oka and ended up in the land of the Vyatichi.

The Vyatichi were a warlike union of tribes, while they were the most “primitive” among the Eastern Slavs. Having once arrived under the leadership of the legendary Vyatka from the west (from the lands that would become Poland in the future), the Vyatichi in the impenetrable forest wilds with the harsh natural and climatic conditions of the Volga-Oka interfluve lost the skills of developed agriculture. The Vyatichi began to live, like the surrounding Finno-Ugric peoples, mainly on trades: hunting, fishing, gathering. They were not averse to attacking and robbing merchants and other visiting travelers who found themselves in their possessions. In my time Kyiv prince Oleg (880-912) forced the Vyatichi to recognize their supremacy and obliged them to pay tribute to Kyiv. However, in accordance with the tribal mentality, the Vyatichi did not believe that they were part Kyiv State. They considered themselves personally dependent on Oleg, the conqueror of their princes. With the death of Oleg, they considered their relationship with Kiev to be over, and the Kyiv prince Igor (912-945) had to convince them otherwise with a sword. With Igor's death, history repeated itself.

Until 964, the Vyatichi turned out to be independent, and Svyatoslav set out to prove his seniority. It was part of that great domestic policy for the consolidation of all East Slavic tribes around Kyiv, which was started by Oleg, the founder of the Old Russian state, and will be completed by one of the brightest princes of the heyday of united Rus' - Vladimir the Red Sun ( 980-1015).

From the point of view of Svyatoslav’s foreign policy intentions, it was risky to fight with the Khazar Kaganate, leaving in his rear the rebellious and warlike Vyatichi, tributaries, and, consequently, formal allies of Khazaria.

Numerous regiments of Svyatoslav appeared in the lands of the Vyatichi in 964. Both sides showed diplomatic abilities. The Vyatichi did not dare to fight. And Svyatoslav, who was inclined to decide everything with the sword, this time went for negotiations. He did not demand tribute from the Vyatichi, as his predecessors did. The Kiev prince simply made it clear to the Vyatichi that his war with the Khazars freed them temporarily or forever from the need to pay tribute to the Khazars, and the Vyatichi allowed Svyatoslav’s squads to pass through their possessions.

Along the Volga, Svyatoslav in 965 moved to Khazaria, which did not expect a blow from Rus' from the north.

Khazaria. Brief historical background

The Khazar state arose thanks to the process of the Great Migration of Peoples, which covered Europe and Asia in the 2nd-13th centuries. During its course, the Turkic peoples, which included the Khazars, created the vast Turgic Khaganate. However, it turned out to be an unstable union, and in the 7th century, during the collapse of its western part, the Khazar state was formed. At this time, the Khazars controlled the steppe expanses of the Lower Volga region and the eastern part of the North Caucasus. The capital of Khazaria was originally the city of Semender in Dagestan, and from the beginning of the 8th century. - Itil on the Lower Volga. They depended on the Khazars from the second half of the 7th century. Savir, Yas and Kasog tribes living in the North Caucasus, from the 10th century. - inhabitants of Caucasian Albania, in the 7th-10th centuries. Azov Bulgars.

The relatives of the latter - the Bulgars, who settled in the Middle Volga, led in the 8th-9th centuries. fight against Khazar rule. By the beginning of the 10th century. Volga Bulgaria was quite autonomous from Itil. The Bulgars converted to Islam and sought an alliance with the eternal enemies of Khazaria, the Arabs. In 922, the ambassador of the Baghdad caliph, Susann ar-Rasi, arrived in Bulgaria. The Arab scientist Ibn Fadlan, who served as his secretary, left his notes on Volga Bulgaria. They contain the famous story about the funeral of a noble Russian on the Volga. Some scholars see Ibn Fadlan’s “Rus” as a description of East Slavic warrior-merchants. Most researchers are inclined to consider Ibn Fadlan’s “Rus” to be Scandinavian warrior-merchants who arrived in Bulgaria to trade. By the middle of the 10th century. Volga Bulgaria was already a virtually independent state from the Khazars.

Another part of the Turkic nomadic people of the Bulgars, a union of tribes led by Khan Asparukh, back in the late 7th century. migrated to the Danube. Here Asparuh, uniting with the South Slavic tribes, entered into a struggle for the Balkan territories with the Byzantine Empire.

However, all these difficulties in communicating with the Bulgars did not prevent Khazaria by the beginning of the 8th century. turn into a huge and powerful state. In addition to the Caspian and Black Sea steppes up to the Dnieper, it included the entire North Caucasus and most of Crimea. The population was predominantly nomadic and Turkic, but there were also Indo-European tribes, in particular, Iranian-speaking Alans, who led sedentary image life. Being originally nomadic pastoralists, the Khazars, however, quickly realized that organizing transit international trade brought much greater income. In the course of establishing transit trade, cities arose in Khazaria, where, in addition to trade, crafts began to develop, and gardening flourished in the urban environs.

Khazaria and surrounding countries in the 10th century.

The religion of the majority of the Khazars was and remained paganism. The Khazars worshiped many gods, and their main deity was the sky god Tengri. The Khazars associated the head of state - the kagan - with the manifestation of Tengri's patronage on earth. The Khazars believed that the true Kagan possessed the so-called “kut,” a special vital force that ensured the prosperity of all Khazars. If they failed, the Khazars could decide that their kagan was “untrue”, kill and replace him. This interpretation of the Kagan gradually turned him from a real ruler into a sacred semi-deity, powerless in real politics, whose personal fate depended on the state of domestic and foreign policy affairs of the state.

However, the elite, led by the tsar and the sacred head of state - the kagan, changed their confessional preferences twice. As controllers of the steppe international trade routes, the Khazars turned out to be competitors of the Arabs. In 735, the Arabs invaded Khazaria and defeated the Khazar Khaganate. Kagan and his associates, for the sake of peace, briefly accepted Islam, which did not spread among the masses of the Khazarian population. Within Khazaria, in organizing transit trade, Jewish merchants associated with the Jewish diaspora around the world played an increasingly important role, which greatly contributed to the Kaganate’s establishment of its international trade relations. Under the influence of Jewish merchants, the Kagan and the entire Khazar elite adopted Judaism. Obadiah, the Kagan of the late 8th - early 9th centuries, declared Judaism the state religion of Khazaria, but the majority of the Khazar nomads, ordinary subjects of the Kagan and the Tsar, remained pagans.

Under the influence of trade relations with Byzantium, part of the urban population converted to Christianity. In the 8th century The Patriarchate of Constantinople even opened 7 dioceses in Khazaria. However, initially the allied relations of the Khazars with the Romans on the basis of joint opposition to the Arabs, in the 9th-10th centuries. developed into competition on trade routes and foreign policy hostility, which, naturally, did not contribute to the spread of Christianity among the Khazars in these centuries.

The Roman Empire, interested in undermining the trading power of Khazaria, gradually set the wild nomads surrounding it against the Kaganate, in particular the Pechenegs, who from the east put pressure on the Khazar borders, trying to break into the Black Sea steppes. By the end of the 9th century. they succeeded. Not knowing statehood, warlike and independent from each other, the Pecheneg tribal unions made their way through the Khazar possessions and began to populate the steppes of the Lower Dnieper, pushing out the Magyars who had temporarily settled near the Dnieper to the Danube.

Relations with Khazaria of the East Slavic world before the formation of the state of Rus' were contradictory. As we have already mentioned, some of the Eastern Slavs paid tribute to the Khazars for 200 years. However, since the Khazars allowed all their tributaries to trade, which was conducted and controlled by the Kaganate, the Polyans, Northerners, and Drevlyans were partially drawn into it, which, judging by archaeological excavations, contributed to their socio-economic development. Separate military and trade expeditions of the Scandinavian-Varangians, looking for trade routes leading from Northern Europe to Byzantium and to the East through the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands, judging by the archaeological material, began in the 9th century and continued in the 10th century. However, the Great Volga Route turned out to be difficult and inaccessible for the Varangians, because Volga Bulgaria and the Khazar Kaganate strictly guarded their monopoly on it. After the formation of the state of Rus', the liberation of the Eastern Slavs from Khazar tribute became one of the main tasks of the Kyiv princes. “Trading, city, Dnieper, Kievan Rus,” as it was defined in the 9th-11th centuries. IN. Klyuchevsky turned out to be a competitor to Khazaria in international transit trade, which also led to aggravation of Russian-Khazar relations. The internal weakening of Khazaria, clearly noticeable by the middle of the 10th century, attracted the attention of the Kyiv rulers to it from the point of view of military booty, the usual companion of victorious medieval wars.

A more detailed history of Khazaria can be found in the works of historians M.I. Artamonova, S.A. Pletnevoy, P.B. Golden et al.

March on Volga Bulgaria and the defeat of Khazaria

The invasion of Khazaria by troops led by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav from the north was unexpected for the Kaganate. However, the Khazar rulers had long ago realized the threat from the Rus. In the middle of the 10th century. The Khazar king Joseph wrote to Hasadai ibn Shafrut, the minister of Abdarrahman III of the Umayyad Caliph of Spain: “I live at the entrance to the river [Volga] and do not allow the Rus in.” Joseph was looking for allies among the Muslim rulers and wanted to present the matter in such a way that his control over the Lower Volga steppes was also the protection of Muslim interests. A little later, the Khazars tried to get help from Central Asian Khorezm.

But by the mid-960s. there was little that could save Khazaria. She was exhausted in conflicts with the Arabs and Byzantines. Attempts to find a compromise with the part Arab world were ephemeral. Its borders were cracking from the onslaught of the Pecheneg Turks. Clashes with Russia and even individual victories over the Russians only prepared the decisive onslaught of the young, growing Russian state against the decrepit Khazar Khaganate.

“The Tale of Bygone Years” very briefly outlines the events associated with the defeat of the Khazar Kaganate by Svyatoslav.

“Per year 6473 (965). Svyatoslav went against the Khazars. Having heard, the Khazars came out to meet them, led by their prince Kagan, and agreed to fight, and in the war with them Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars and took their city Belaya Vezha. And he defeated the Yasses and Kasogs, and came to Kyiv.”

From another source, reports from a contemporary of the events of the Arab geographer Ibn Haukal, we know that before falling on Khazaria, Svyatoslav fought with Volga Bulgaria, defeated its troops, and took great booty. Many cities, in particular Bulgar, were devastated. Having defeated the Bulgars, according to Ibn Haukal, the Kiev prince moved deep into Khazaria. Ibn Haukal’s dating of Svyatoslav’s campaign against Bulgaria and Khazaria does not correspond to the PVL. The Arab scientist dates the campaigns to 358 AH according to the Muslim calendar, which falls on November 25, 968 - November 13, 969. according to the account from the birth of Christ.

“...and the Rus came to Kharasan, Samandar and Itil in the year 358...,” writes Ibn Haukal, “And al-Khazar is a side, and there is a city in it called Samandar (the old capital of Khazaria in the North Caucasus), and...were in there are numerous gardens... but then the Russians came there and there were no grapes or raisins left in that city.” (Kalinina T.M. Ancient Rus' and the countries of the East in the 10th century. Abstract of a candidate's dissertation. M., 1976. P. 6).

The same evil fate befell new capital Khazar Itil on the Lower Volga. According to the hypothesis of the famous specialist in the history of Khazaria M.I. Artamonov, Svyatoslav’s troops floated down the Volga on boats, and Itil fell before the Russians dragged their ships to the Don. Itil was literally wiped off the face of the earth. Another large Khazar city, Sarkel on the Don, had a different fate. The Russes of Svyatoslav captured it and turned it into their fortress. Even the name of the city was retained. It was simply translated into Russian. “Sarkel” means “White Tower”, i.e. tower in Russian. For a long time, a Russian garrison settled in Belaya Vezha, and the city itself turned out to be the most important center of Russian influence on the expanses of the Great Steppe. At the same time, Svyatoslav took control of Tmutarakan. This is how Russian sources called one of the most ancient cities of the Taman Peninsula. In ancient times it was called Hermonassa, the Byzantine Greeks knew it as Tamatarcha, and the Khazars as Samkerts. Now on the site of the city is the village of Taman. Apparently, there was a detachment of Rus in Tmutarakan even before Svyatoslav’s invasion of Khazaria. After 965 and until the 12th century. Tmutarakan becomes a strong autonomous Russian possession on Taman. It competes with the Byzantine cities in Crimea, both in geopolitical and trade terms.

Having taken the largest Khazar centers in the Lower Volga, Don and Taman, Svyatoslav attacked the Yases and Kasogs, previously subject to the Khazars, in the North Caucasus. These tribes were also defeated.

Considering the inconsistency in dates between the PVL and Arab sources, a number of historians admit the possibility of the existence of not one campaign of Svyatoslav against Khazaria, but two. The first, as stated in the PVL, took place in 965. During it, Svyatoslav destroyed some of the main centers of Khazaria and established himself in others. In the second, which, as Ibn Haukal reports, could have occurred in 968 - early 969 (after the hasty return of the prince from his First Danube Campaign of 967-968 due to the news of the siege of Kiev by the Pechenegs), Svyatoslav finally took control Caspian possessions of the Khazars. The Rus received huge war booty (material assets, livestock, captive slaves). The trade elite of the Kaganate was brought to Kyiv - Jewish merchants, Khazars and Jews by origin, who were compactly settled in the Russian capital, which is why later one of the gates in Kyiv was called Zhidovsky. (The word “Jew” in Russian until the 19th century meant a person professing Judaism.)

In domestic historiography, the prevailing opinion is that after the defeat of Khazaria by Svyatoslav, the Khazar Kaganate, as a state, ceased to exist. However, specialist on Khazaria A.P. Novoseltsev suggests that in a small territory in the Lower Volga the Khazar state existed back in the 90s of the 10th century, although we cannot say anything concrete about its territory (Novoseltsev A.P. The Khazar state and its role in the history of Eastern Europe and Caucasus. M., 1990). The inhabitants of this Khazaria converted to Islam, and the Khazar state was finally liquidated during the next wave of migrations associated with the Great Migration of the Asian steppe peoples in 1050-1160. The breakthrough of the Kipchak Turks (Cumans) forced the last Khazars to flee to the Central Asian Islamic states. In the Lower Volga region, the influence of the Volga Bulgaria and the Polovtsian Steppe strengthened.

One way or another, in the 960s. The defeat of Khazaria brought Svyatoslav and his power enormous glory and wealth. Returning home, Svyatoslav passed through the lands of the Vyatichi again. Now he already demanded from them recognition of his seniority and tribute, to which the Vyatichi were forced to agree. The international authority of Rus' and its territory grew. Byzantine sources do not tell us anything about Svyatoslav’s wars with the Khazars, but from Greek chronicles it is known that at that moment the Roman Empire, one of the most powerful and civilized empires of the medieval world, sought to maintain good allied relations with Russia, and at the same time expand its territorial dominance by the hands of the brave Russian “archon” and his warriors.

III. Danube campaigns of Svyatoslav

“Diplomatic games” around Danube Bulgaria

In 967, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas sent his ambassador, the noble patrician Kalokir, to Kyiv. Having richly rewarded the prince and his entourage, the emperor, apparently, offered Svyatoslav to conquer Danube Bulgaria for Byzantium for a large tribute.

This country was formed on the European political map during the Great Migration. Unlike the Western Roman Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire (Roman Empire, also known as Byzantium) survived. In the VI century. a stream of South Slavic settlers poured into its northern Danube and Balkan territories. “The whole country became glorified,” stated the Greek chroniclers. In the 7th century On the Danube, a Union of seven South Slavic tribes arose, which began to fight with Byzantium for independence. It was with this alliance that the above-mentioned Bulgar khan Asparukh, who migrated to the Balkans from the Volga, united. According to L.N. Gumilyov, the real Turks among Asparukh’s subjects were only his immediate circle and the nobility. The rest of Asparukh's nomads were Turkic-speaking Magyars. In 681, Asparukh, at the head of the Slavic-Bulgar army, defeated Emperor Constantine IV and forced him not only to recognize the independence of part of the Balkan lands, but also to pay an annual tribute. Thus was born the First Bulgarian Kingdom, which lasted until 1018. The nomads were soon assimilated by the Slavs, who significantly outnumbered them. All that remained from the Horde of Asparukh was the name of the country - Bulgaria, and the first ruling dynasty, dating back to the Bulgarian khan. At the time of its greatest prosperity, Danube Bulgaria occupied most of the Balkan Peninsula, its possessions were washed by three seas. The proximity to Byzantium gave rise not only to struggle, but also to beneficial cultural influence. During the reign of Boris I (852-889), Greek monks and natives of Thessaloniki, Cyril and Methodius, created the Slavic alphabet and literacy. This happened in 863, and in 865 Bulgaria adopted Christianity. The Old Bulgarian language formed the basis of the written Old Church Slavonic language; it was in it that the Old Russian “Tale of Bygone Years” was written. Under Simeon the Great (893-927), the “golden age of Bulgarian literature” began. The First Bulgarian Kingdom reached its maximum territorial size.

However, the endless confrontation with the Roman Empire and internal unrest (in particular, strife between Orthodox Christians and Bogomils) undermined the power of Bulgaria. During the reign of Peter I (927-969), the decline of Bulgaria began, and Byzantium decided that it was time to take revenge. Meanwhile, the Empire’s wars with the Arabs distracted its forces from resolving the Bulgarian issue, so Nikifor Phokas thought that involving the winner of Khazaria, Svyatoslav, in the defeat of Danube Bulgaria was an advantageous move.

The defeat of Danube Bulgaria by Svyatoslav

Svyatoslav Igorevich agreed. And his army of ten thousand marched to the southwest from Kyiv. The warriors and warriors rafted on boats down the Dnieper, went out into the Black Sea and soon found themselves within the Bulgarian borders. This came as a complete surprise to the Bulgarian Tsar Peter. He fielded an army superior to the Russians, but was defeated. Peter decided to turn to his former enemies, the Byzantines, for help. But this did not help, because soon the tsar himself, his son-heir Boris and all the royal household members found themselves captives of the Prince of Rus' Svyatoslav. PVL reports Svyatoslav’s new victories very briefly:

“There are 6475 (967) in a year. Svyatoslav went to the Danube to attack the Bulgarians. And they fought, and Svyatoslav defeated the Bulgarians, and took eighty cities along the Danube, and sat down to reign there in Pereyaslavets, taking tribute from the Greeks.”

But from this remark of the chronicler it follows that Svyatoslav received the Byzantine payment for the defeat of the Bulgarians, but was in no hurry to leave the Danube. As subsequent developments of events showed, Svyatoslav planned to create his own empire, which was supposed to stretch from Belaya Vezha and Tmutorakan to the Balkans. Svyatoslav, apparently, was going to make the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube its capital.

This turn of events meant a real catastrophe for the foreign policy of the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. For her he paid with his life and the throne. Nikephoros Phocas' cousin, the famous Roman commander John Tzimiskes, carried out a coup, killed his brother and was himself proclaimed emperor. John had to oust Svyatoslav from the Danube, fighting with the newborn Russian-Bulgarian alliance.

Pecheneg siege of Kyiv in 968

Meanwhile, the Pechenegs said their first “word” hostile to Rus'. Having defeated Khazaria, Svyatoslav himself helped ensure that the Pechenegs became masters of the Black Sea steppes. Perhaps the first Pecheneg attack on Rust in 968 was associated with secret Byzantine diplomacy. This could have been an independent action of the Pechenegs, to whom Kyiv, left without serious protection after the departure of Svyatoslav’s army to Bulgaria, seemed an easy prey.

Russian chronicles talk about the siege of Kyiv by nomads and subsequent events in much more detail than about the wars of Svyatoslav with the Vyatichi, Volga Bulgaria and Danube Bulgaria. Let us give the floor to Nestor, the supposed author of “The Tale of Bygone Years”:

“Per year 6476 (968). The Pechenegs came to the Russian land for the first time, and Svyatoslav was then in Pereyaslavets. And Olga locked herself with her grandchildren - Yaropolk, Oleg and Vladimir in the city of Kyiv. And the Pechenegs besieged the city with great force: there were countless numbers of them around the city, and it was impossible to leave the city or send messages, and the people were exhausted from hunger and thirst. And people from the opposite side of the Dnieper gathered in boats and stood on the other bank, and it was impossible for any of them to get to Kyiv, or from the city to them. And the people in the city began to grieve and said: “Is there anyone who could get over to the other side and tell them: if you don’t approach the city in the morning, we will surrender to the Pechenegs.” And one youth said: “I can pass.” The townspeople were delighted and said to the youth: “If you know how to get through, go.” He left the city, holding a bridle, and walked through the Pecheneg camp, asking them: “Has anyone seen a horse?” For he knew Pecheneg and was accepted as one of their own. And when he approached the river, he threw off his clothes, threw himself into the Dnieper and swam. Seeing this, the Pechenegs rushed after him, shot at him, but could not do anything to him. They noticed him from the other bank, drove up to him in a boat, took him into the boat and brought him to the squad. And the youth said to them: “If you do not approach the city early tomorrow morning, then the people will surrender to the Pechenegs.” Their commander, named Pretich, said: “We will go tomorrow in boats and, taking with us the princess and princes, we will rush off to this shore. If we don’t do this, then Svyatoslav will destroy us.” And the next morning, close to dawn, they sat down in the boats and blew a loud trumpet, and the people in the city shouted. The Pechenegs decided that the prince had come, and ran away from the city in all directions. And Olga came out with her grandchildren and people to the boats. The Pecheneg prince, seeing this, returned alone to the governor Pretich and asked: “Who came?” And he answered him: “The people of the other side<Днепра>" The Pechenezh prince asked: “Aren’t you a prince?” Pretich replied: “I am his husband, I came with an advance detachment, and countless warriors follow me.” He said this to scare them. The Prince of Pecheneg said to Pretich: “Be my friend.” He replied: “It will be so.” And they shook hands with each other, and the Pecheneg prince presented Pretich with a horse, a saber and arrows. The same one gave him chain mail, a shield and a sword. And the Pechenegs retreated from the city, and it was impossible to water the horse: the Pechenegs stood on Lybid. And the people of Kiev sent to Svyatoslav with the words: “You, prince, are looking for someone else’s land and taking care of it, but you will lose yours, after all, we were almost taken by the Pechenegs, and your mother and your children. If you don’t come and protect us, they will take us. Don’t you feel sorry for your fatherland, your old mother, your children?” Hearing this, Svyatoslav and his retinue quickly mounted their horses and returned to Kyiv; He greeted his mother and children and lamented what he had suffered from the Pechenegs. And he gathered soldiers and drove the Pechenegs into the steppe, and peace came.

Per year 6477 (969). Svyatoslav said to his mother and his boyars: “I don’t like to sit in Kiev, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube, for there is the middle of my land, all the good things flow there: from the Greek land - pavoloks, gold, wine, various fruits, from the Czech Republic and from Hungary silver and horses, from Rus' furs, wax, honey, and slaves.” Olga answered him: “Don’t you see, I’m sick; where do you want to go from me? - because she was already sick. And she said: “When you bury me, go wherever you want.” Three days later Olga died, and her son, and her grandchildren, and all the people cried for her with great tears, and they carried her and buried her in the chosen place. Olga bequeathed not to perform funeral feasts for her, since she had a priest with her - he buried blessed Olga. She was the forerunner of the Christian land, like the morning star before the sun, like the dawn before the dawn...

Per year 6478 (970). Svyatoslav put Yaropolk in Kyiv, and Oleg with the Drevlyans. At that time, the Novgorodians came, asking for a prince: “If you don’t come to us, then we will get ourselves a prince.” And Svyatoslav said to them: “Who would go to you?” And Yaropolk and Oleg refused. And Dobrynya said: “Ask Vladimir.” Vladimir was from Malusha, the almswoman Olgina. Malusha was Dobrynya’s sister; his father was Malk Lyubechanin, and Dobrynya was Vladimir’s uncle. And the Novgorodians said to Svyatoslav: “Give us Vladimir.” And the Novgorodians took Vladimir to themselves, and Vladimir went with Dobrynya, his uncle, to Novgorod, and Svyatoslav went to Pereyaslavets.”

Second Danube campaign of Svyatoslav, 969-971

Having divided the Russian land into 3 regions in 969 and entrusted them to the guardianship of his sons, Svyatoslav left for Bulgaria. The idea of ​​a Russian-Bulgarian state inspired little of the Bulgarians. In the absence of the Russian prince, they took possession of Pereyaslavets on the Danube, and when Svyatoslav returned to this “capital” of his, the Bulgarians came out to fight him. At the beginning of the battle, the Bulgarians even managed to push back the Rus, but victory still remained with Svyatoslav. After the death of Tsar Peter, his son Boris II became the Bulgarian rulers. New king was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of Svyatoslav.

All this provoked a big war with Byzantium. True to himself, Svyatoslav himself attacked the Greeks. At the head of the Russian infantry and Bulgarian cavalry, led by Tsar Boris II and Sveneld, Svyatoslav attacked the Byzantine “valley of roses” and occupied Philippopolis (Plovdiev), populated mainly by Bulgarians. According to the Byzantine historian Leo the Deacon, here Svyatoslav executed 20 thousand prisoners, wanting to break the desire of local residents to support the Byzantine emperor.

The Russian prince intended to reach Constantinople through Adrianople. He sent to tell the Greeks: “I want to go against you and take your capital, like this city (Philippopolis).” The Greeks entered into negotiations, during which they tried to find out the size of Svyatoslav’s army. The Russian prince demanded tribute for 20 thousand soldiers, although in reality he had fewer fighters. Negotiations allowed John Tzimiskes to gather an army that was superior to the forces of Svyatoslav. Near Adrianople, the Byzantine commander Vardas Sklir defeated Svyatoslav. Detachments of mercenary Hungarians and Pechenegs who joined Svyatoslav’s Second Danube Campaign chose to leave it. However, things did not go entirely smoothly for John Tzimiskes. In Asia, Bardas Phocas raised a rebellion against him; to suppress it, John agreed to a truce with Svyatoslav.

Having defeated the rebels, in the spring of 971 the emperor crossed the Balkans and invaded Svyatoslav-controlled Bulgaria. John Tzimiskes led 30 thousand infantry and 15 thousand horsemen. After a two-day siege, the Greeks took Pereslavets (Preslava). The Russian commander Sveneld, who was sitting there with his retinue, a valiant man of enormous stature, according to the description of Leo the Deacon, was forced to retreat to Svyatoslav, who was then in Dorostol on the Danube. The fall of Preslava caused the city of Pliska and other Bulgarian fortresses to withdraw from the alliance with Svyatoslav.

Soon Svyatoslav and his thinned army found themselves locked in Dorostol. Emperor John Tzimiskes, according to the historian Leo the Deacon, a direct participant in the siege of Dorostol, ordered his soldiers to build a fortified camp near Dorostol, surrounded by a rampart and a ditch. Relying on it, the Byzantines fought with the “Scythians.” So, according to Byzantine tradition, Lev the Deacon called “Rosov”.

The battles went on with varying degrees of success, Leo the Deacon noted the courage of the fighters on both sides. Soon, combat triremes equipped with devices for throwing Greek fire approached the Greeks. Svyatoslav's squad was saddened. “After all, they... heard from the old men of their people,” notes Lev the Deacon, “that with this very “Median fire” the Romans turned the huge fleet of Ingor (Igor), the father of Sfendoslav (Svyatoslav) into ashes on the Euxine [Sea]. Food and medicine were delivered to the Byzantine camp. And in Dorostol, Svyatoslav’s soldiers suffered hunger, died from wounds and diseases. According to Lev the Deacon, Sfenkel (Sveneld) was killed near Dorostol; in fact, he was obviously seriously wounded, because later we see him alive in Kyiv according to PVL. The second most important leader of the Rus, Ikmor, fell in battle after Svyatoslav, according to Lev the Deacon. The Byzantine describes the death of Ikmor as follows: “a brave man of gigantic stature... surrounded by a detachment of warriors close to him, he fiercely rushed against the Romans and defeated many of them. Seeing this, one of the emperor's bodyguards, the son of the Cretan archig Anemas, rushed at Ikmor, overtook him and struck him in the neck - the Scythian's head, cut off along with his right hand, rolled to the ground. As soon as [Ikmor] died, the Scythians raised a cry mixed with a groan, and the Romans rushed at them. The Scythians could not withstand the enemy's onslaught; greatly depressed by the death of their leader, they threw their shields behind their backs and began to retreat to the city.”

But the Russians did not remain in debt. During a desperate foray by Russian warriors to set fire to the stone-throwing machines of the Greeks, which were causing colossal harm to the besieged in Dorostol, Master John Kurkuas fell. This was a relative of John Tzimisces, who commanded the soldiers serving the catapults. Seeing his expensive armor, Svyatoslav’s warriors decided that it was the emperor himself, and cut Kurkuas to pieces.

During the battle of Dorostol, the Rus began to master military skills that were previously unfamiliar to them. Leo the Deacon reports that before the “dews” preferred to fight on foot, but near Dorostol they once rode out on horseback.

The uncertainty of the outcome of the war weighed heavily on both sides. In Byzantium there was an attempt at a new coup d'etat, fortunately for John Tzimiskes, unsuccessful. Svyatoslav consulted with the squad: what to do? Some said that we must continue trying to break out of Dorostol. Others suggested sneaking out at night. Still others advised entering into negotiations. Svyatoslav ended the meeting by saying that if we do not fight, glory, the companion of Russian weapons, will perish; It’s better to die in battle, “for the dead have no shame.” However, the prince noted that if he falls, then his warriors are free to “think about themselves.” “Where your head lies, there we will lay ours,” was the response of the squad. On July 20, 971, Svyatoslav led her into a new attack.

“The Scythians attacked the Romans,” says Leo the Deacon, “they stabbed them with spears, hit their horses with arrows and knocked their horsemen to the ground. Seeing with what frantic fury Sfendoslav (Svyatoslav) rushed at the Romans and inspired his ranks to fight, Anemas... rushed at [the leader of the Ros] and, hitting him on the collarbone with a sword, threw him head down to the ground, but did not kill him. [Sfendoslav] was saved by a chain mail shirt and a shield... Anemas was surrounded by rows of Scythians, his horse fell, struck by a cloud of spears; he killed many of them, but he himself died... The death of Anemas inspired the Ros, and with wild, piercing cries they began to push back the Romans...

But suddenly a hurricane broke out, mixed with rain... and dust rose, which clogged... my eyes. And they say that some rider on a white horse appeared in front of the Romans; ... he miraculously cut through and upset the ranks of the Ros... Subsequently, the firm conviction spread that it was the Great Martyr Theodore..."

Svyatoslav's wound and the storm forced the Rus to take refuge in Dorostol. A little later, Svyatoslav went to negotiations. He agreed to renounce his claims to Danube Bulgaria, taking tribute for 10 thousand soldiers and Russian cities for this. He made peace with Byzantium, which allowed him to safely return to his homeland. During the negotiations, Svyatoslav personally met with John Tzimiskes, thanks to which Leo the Deacon was able to see and capture the appearance of the Russian prince-warrior:

The emperor, “covered in gilded armor, rode up on horseback to the bank of the Istra, leading behind him a large detachment of armed horsemen sparkling with gold. Sfendoslav also appeared, sailing along the river on a Scythian boat; he sat on the oars and rowed along with his entourage, no different from them. This is what his appearance was: of moderate height, not too tall and not very short, with shaggy eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub nose, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above his upper lip. His head was completely naked, but a tuft of hair hung from one side of it - a sign of the nobility of the family; the strong back of his head, wide chest and all other parts of his body were quite proportionate, but he looked gloomy and wild. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was decorated with a carbuncle (ruby) framed by two pearls. His robe was white and differed from the clothes of those close to him only in its cleanliness. Sitting in the boat on the rowers' bench, he talked a little with the sovereign about the terms of peace and left. Thus ended the war between the Romans and the Scythians.”

Death of Svyatoslav

About the end of the life of Svyatoslav, whom N.M. Karamzin called “Russian Alexander the Great,” says “The Tale of Bygone Years”:

“Having made peace with the Greeks, Svyatoslav set off in boats to the rapids. And his father’s governor Sveneld said to him: “Go around, prince, the rapids on horseback, for the Pechenegs are standing at the rapids.” And he did not listen to him and went on boats. And the Pereyaslavl people sent to the Pechenegs to say: “Here Svyatoslav with a small army is coming past you to Rus', having taken from the Greeks a lot of wealth and countless prisoners.” Hearing about this, the Pechenegs entered the rapids. And Svyatoslav came to the rapids, and it was impossible to pass them. And he stopped to spend the winter in Beloberezh, and they ran out of food, and they had a great famine, so they paid half a hryvnia for a horse’s head, and Svyatoslav overwintered. When spring came, Svyatoslav went to the rapids.

Per year 6480 (972). Svyatoslav came to the rapids, and Kurya, the prince of the Pechenegs, attacked him, and they killed Svyatoslav, and took his head, and made a cup from the skull, bound it, and drank from it. Sveneld came to Kyiv to Yaropolk.”

Already in our time, near the Dnieper rapids Nenasytensky, swords of the 10th century were discovered at the bottom of the river. This find allowed historians to point out the possible place of death of Svyatoslav and most of his soldiers who survived by the spring of 972. Only Sveneld and his warriors on horseback managed to get to Kyiv.

If you believe PVL, then Svyatoslav was only 30 years old at the time of his death. Of these, for 28 years he was the head of the Russian state. As we have seen, 8 recent years In his life, Svyatoslav personally led squads on campaigns. He won all the wars except the last one. The death of Svyatoslav did not diminish his military glory. Russian epics, as scientists suggest, preserved the memory of the prince’s exploits, creating an epic image of the most powerful hero of the Russian Land - Svyatogor. Its power was so great that over time, the storytellers said, Mother Cheese Earth stopped wearing it, and Svyatogor was forced to go to the mountains.

Chernikova T.V., Ph.D., Associate Professor MGIMO (U) MFA of the Russian Federation

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Internet

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