Armament of the armies. French army
Caliber of rifled small arms
The most popular pistol calibers are:
577 (14.7 mm) - the largest of the series, the revolver "Eley" (Great Britain);
45 (11.4 mm) - the "national" US caliber, the most common in the Wild West. In 1911, the Colt M1911 automatic pistol of this caliber entered service with the army and navy and, repeatedly upgraded, served until 1985, when the US military switched to 9mm for the Beretta_92.
38; .357 (9mm) - is currently considered optimal for handguns (less - the bullet is too "weak", more - the gun is too heavy).
25 (6.35 mm) - TOZ-8.
2.7 mm - the smallest of the serial ones, had a Hummingbird pistol of the Pieper system (Belgium).
Caliber of a smoothbore hunting weapon
For smoothbore hunting rifles, calibers are measured differently: caliber number means number of bullets, which can be cast from 1 English pound of lead (453.6 g). In this case, the bullets must be spherical, identical in mass and diameter, which is equal to the inner diameter of the barrel in its middle part. The smaller the barrel diameter, the greater the number of bullets. In this way twentieth gauge is less than sixteenth, but sixteenth less than twelfth.
| Caliber designation | Designation variant | Barrel diameter, mm | Varieties |
|---|---|---|---|
| 36 | .410 | 10.4 | - |
| 32 | .50 | 12.5 | - |
| 28 | - | 13.8 | - |
| 24 | - | 14.7 | - |
| 20 | - | 15.6 (15.5 magnum) | - |
| 16 | - | 16.8 | - |
| 12 | - | 18.5 (18.2 magnum) | - |
| 10 | - | 19.7 | - |
| 4 | - | 26.5 | - |
In the designation of cartridges for smoothbore weapons, as in the designation of cartridges for rifled weapons, it is customary to indicate the length of the sleeve, for example: 12/70 - a 12 gauge cartridge with a sleeve 70 mm long. Most common case lengths: 65, 70, 76 (magnum). Along with them there are: 60 and 89 (super magnum). The most widespread in Russia are hunting rifles of 12 gauge. There are (in descending order of prevalence) 16, 20, 36 (.410), 32, 28, and the distribution of caliber 36 (.410) is due solely to the release of Saiga carbines of the corresponding caliber.
The actual diameter of the bore of a given caliber in each country may differ from those indicated within certain limits. In addition, we should not forget that the barrel of a hunting shotgun usually has various types of constrictions (chokes), through which not any bullet of its caliber can pass without damage to the barrel, so in many cases the bullets are made according to the diameter of the choke and are supplied with easily cut sealing belts , which are cut down when passing the choke. It should be noted that the common caliber of signal pistols - 26.5 mm - is nothing more than the 4th hunting.
Caliber of Russian artillery, air bombs, torpedoes and rockets
In Europe the term artillery caliber appeared in 1546, when Hartmann from Nuremberg developed a device called the Hartmann scale. It was a prismatic tetrahedral ruler. Units of measure (inches) were marked on one side, the actual dimensions, depending on the weight in pounds, of iron, lead and stone cores, respectively, on the other three.
Example(approximately):
1 face - mark lead 1 pound kernels - corresponds to 1.5 inches
2 edge - iron cores 1 f. - from 2.5
3 face - stone cores 1 f. - from 3
Thus, knowing either the size or weight of the projectile, it was easy to complete, and most importantly, manufacture ammunition. A similar system existed in the world for about 300 years.
In Russia, before Peter 1, there were no standards. At the beginning of the 18th century, on behalf of Peter the Great, Feldzeugmeister General Count Bruce developed a domestic caliber system based on the Hartmann scale. She divided the guns according to artillery weight projectile (cast iron core). The unit of measurement was the artillery pound, a cast-iron ball 2 inches in diameter and weighing 115 spools (about 490 grams). A scale was also created that correlated artillery weight with the diameter of the bore, that is, with what we now call the caliber. At the same time, it did not matter what types of shells the gun fired - buckshot, bombs, or anything else. Only the theoretical artillery weight was taken into account, which the gun could shoot with its size. This system was introduced by royal decree in the city and lasted for a century and a half.
Example:
3 pound gun, 3 pound gun- official name;
artillery weight 3 pounds- the main characteristic of the weapon.
2.8 inch scale- diameter of the bore, an auxiliary characteristic of the gun.
In practice, it was a small cannon, firing rounds weighing about 1.5 kg and having a caliber (in our understanding) of about 70 mm.
D. E. Kozlovsky in his book translates the Russian artillery weight into metric calibers:
3 pounds - 76 mm.
A special place in this system was occupied by explosive shells (bomb). Their weight was measured in poods (1 pood = 40 trade pounds = approx. 16.3 kg). This is due to the fact that the bombs were hollow, with explosives inside, that is, they were made of materials of different densities. In their production, it was much more convenient to operate with generally accepted weight units.
D. Kozlovsky leads the next. ratios:
1/4 pud - 120 mm
For bombs, a special weapon was intended - a bombard, or mortar. Its tactical and technical characteristics, combat missions and calibration system make it possible to speak of a special type of artillery. In practice, small bombards often fired ordinary cannonballs, and then the same gun had different calibers- general at 12 pounds and special at 10 pounds.
The introduction of calibers, among other things, has become a good financial incentive for soldiers and officers. So, in the “Book of the Charter of the Sea”, printed in St. Petersburg in 1720, in the chapter “On Rewarding”, the amounts of award payments for cannons taken from the enemy are given:
30-pound - 300 rubles
In the second half of the 19th century, with the introduction of rifled artillery, the scale was adjusted due to changes in the characteristics of the projectile, but the principle remained the same.
Interesting fact: in our time, artillery pieces calibrated by weight are still in service. This is due to the fact that in the UK a similar system was maintained until the end of the Second World War. At the end of it, a large number of guns were sold and transferred to countries like that. called Third world. In the WB itself, 25-pound (87.6 mm) guns were in service until the end of the 70s. last century, and now remain in salute units.
In 1877, the inch system was introduced. At the same time, the previous dimensions according to the "brusov" scale had nothing to do with the new system. True, the “Bryusov” scale and artillery weight remained for some time after 1877 due to the fact that many obsolete guns remained in the army.
Example:
The "six-inch" cruiser "Aurora", from which the October Revolution began, had a caliber of 6 inches or 152 mm.
From 1917 to present. time gauge is measured in millimeters. In the USSR and Russia, it is measured by the fields of rifling (the smallest bore diameter). In the US, UK and some. other countries according to their bottoms (largest diameter), but also in millimeters.
Sometimes the caliber of a gun is used to measure barrel length.
Examples:
153 mm howitzer, 20 calibers (or 153-20). Finding the length of the barrel is quite simple.
24-pound gun, 10 calibers. Here you first need to find out in which system the tool is calibrated.
The caliber of aviation bombs adopted in Russia is measured by mass, that is, in kilograms and tons.
Torpedo caliber is measured in mm. according to their diameter.
Caliber of rocket projectiles (unguided
French artillery at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries
(Historical and technical essay)
Part 1
Guns and their ammunition.
Preface.
The artillery of the Russian regular army, created by the genius of Emperor Peter I, developed under the clear and strong influence of the European one. It is believed that the king was a great admirer of Holland and took a lot from there.
However, Surerey de Saint-Remy's book on artillery, published for the first time in France in 1697, republished in 1706, was translated into Russian in 1732. In the preface to this book, the author indicates that his work is original and that the book was then translated into a number of languages, including Dutch.
It can be assumed that French developments served as the basis for regulating the artillery of the Russian Imperial Army. This does not mean at all that before Peter I there was no artillery in Russia, or that it was something indefinite and amorphous, that guns were poured by whoever and as they had to. Peter I simply put things in order in this matter, gave the artillery harmony and clear regulations, not far behind Europe in this.
It seems that the description of the French artillery of the late 17th - early 18th centuries is of particular interest in this regard. So to speak, in order to understand "where the ears grow from" and be able to compare. And this, in turn, gives an understanding that in the construction of the Army, Emperor Peter did not blindly copy the experience of Europeans, but only used it to create Russian artillery that met the conditions of Russia.
Note that I do not use the original French book, but its translation into Russian, made by Field Marshal Count Munnich in 1732. Hence, I am not in a position to indicate the titles in the original language. The names are given as they were translated by Munnich.
The book contains quite a lot of figures indicating the dimensions and masses of products. However, it is not clear from the book which units of measurement are used in the text. Either Munnich changed French measures to Russian ones, or he made a translation without changing anything.
On top of that, until the introduction in France of a single metric system for the whole country, which happened only at the end of the 18th century, there was complete discord in this matter. Although the names of the units of measurement were generally the same, however, literally in every province the same pounds, feet, inches were their own. Even worse, in the same area they could change over time.
The difference is not particularly great, but it still exists. I think that Minich did not bother with recalculations, but gives data in French measures, leaving the reader to figure out for himself which pounds and feet the French author had in mind.
For the convenience of readers, I give sizes both in French and in units familiar to us, counting from French.
For reference:
*1 Russian inch = 2.54 cm.(divided into 10 lines),
*1 french inch = 2.71 cm. (divided into 12 lines),
*1 Russian foot = 0.3048 m.,
*1 French foot = 0.3001 m.,
*1 French royal foot = 0.3248 m.
*1 Russian pound = 409.51 grams,
*1 French pound = 489.502 grams,
*1 French artillery pound = 491.4144 gr.
*1 French ounce = 30.588 gr.
In addition, it is advisable to indicate the names of the elements of the gun barrels:
A - the bottom or the treasury with its carnation.
B - flat frieze and bottom decoration.
C - ignition field.
D- astragalus or friezes fuse.
E-first ledge.
F-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the first ledge.
G is the second ledge.
H- dolphins or ears.
I- pins.
K-flat hoop and decoration, or frieze of the second ledge.
L - belt or decoration, or frieze near the muzzle.
M-belted astragalus or frieze.
N-radius is sound.
O- izletny astragalus or frieze.
P-neck.
Q - burleite or muzzle decoration, or frieze.
R-barrel.
S-shell in which the fuse.
The cannon barrel is divided into three main parts, called ledges:
- the "first ledge" is highlighted in brown,
- the "second ledge" is highlighted in green
- "sound emission" is highlighted in blue.
The difference between these parts is mainly in the outer diameter, and accordingly, in the wall thickness. The highest pressure of powder gases is in the first ledge, and therefore this part of the table should be the most durable.
The second ledge, in addition to the internal pressure of the powder gases (which is already less than in the first ledge), also experiences external forces, since it is here that the trunnions are located, with the help of which the barrel is fixed on the carriage.
This structure of the gun barrel ensures its lower weight with the same strength in comparison with more ancient guns that had a barrel of the same diameter along the entire length.
From the author. I give these hard-to-remember names of the elements of the gun barrels so that I don’t obscure the text below, explaining each time what, say, “frieze”, “trunnions” or “astragalus” is. The reader himself will have to take the trouble either to memorize these terms or to refer to this figure each time.
And at the same time from here the reader can learn and understand some of the terms found in military history literature.
And further. It follows from the book that at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries in France, guns were either copper, or cast iron. There were no bronze cannons. There were attempts to make cannons from wrought iron and there were quite a few enthusiasts of such guns, but the first experiments were unsuccessful and at the beginning XVIII centuries, the attitude towards them was generally negative.
Attention! The text of the book is not flawless and you can find mathematical errors in it. Some of them are absurd and very obvious. I have corrected them as far as possible, but the reader should take into account that the data given in the book may differ from other sources. This is the result of either the errors of the author of the book, or the result of a discrepancy in units of measurement. In addition, the low quality of printing in some cases makes it difficult to read the numbers and you have to guess based on logic and similar data from different parts of the book.
End of preface.
Comment.
In artillery, there is the term "caliber", indicating the characteristics of the projectile being sent, i.e. weapon power. Today, the caliber is usually determined by the inner diameter of the gun barrel and the outer diameter of the projectile used, and it is measured in millimeters. However, until the advent of rifled guns and oblong projectiles (and in England also during the Second World War), the caliber of guns was determined by the weight of the core, which was placed in the gun barrel. It was measured in pounds.
But the caliber of mortars was measured in inches and lines, i.e. bore diameter.
From the author. A very, very inconvenient way to calibrate guns. First of all, pounds in different countries were different. Secondly, cores of the same weight could have different diameters depending on the material from which they were made. For example, the density of the same cast iron today fluctuates from 6.8 to 7.3 tons/cubic meters.
Hence, weighing the captured, and even their own, nuclei did not give anything in terms of answering the question - will these nuclei fit our guns?
The solution to the problem is very simple - you need to measure the diameter of the core and compare it with the inner diameter of the trunk. What has been done in practice. For this purpose, the artillerymen had special tools. In particular, artillery compasses and templates. Artillery arsenals, or magazines as they were then called, and shelves had templates, i.e. wooden, copper or iron rings with handles, which were called "kugellers". The hole of the kugeller was the exact size, and the caliber to which it corresponds was knocked out on the frame. These simple measuring devices were used to control the size of the nuclei.
One of the tables (p. 61 of the Memorium), which gives the diameters of the barrels in inches and lines, depending on the caliber, determined in pounds, I use to convert the calibers indicated in pounds into more familiar and understandable millimeters.
Please note that the pounds used here are French artillery pounds (different from regular French pounds). The caliber listed from inches and lines to millimeters is only approximate, indicative.
Cannons produced in the 16th-17th centuries and out of use by the end of the 17th century
De Saint-Remy points out that these cannons could still be found in fortresses at the beginning of the 18th century, in particular in Brest and Strasbourg, as well as in the French colonies. I took the liberty of giving double numbers in the table (converting pounds and feet to kilograms and meters we are used to) in order to make it easier to imagine the weight and dimensions of the guns.
| Gun name | Caliber | Weight pounds / tons |
Length feet / meters |
|
| pounds/ kilogram | millimeters | |||
| Basilisk (Basilisk) | 48 / 23.59 | 192.5 | 7200 / 3.54 | 10 / 3.25 |
| Dragon (serpent) | 40 / 19.66 | 181.3 | 7000 / 3.44 | 16.5 / 5.36 |
| Dragon shuttlecock (flying serpent) | 32 / 15.73 | 168.8 | 7200 / 3.54 | 22 / 7.15 |
| Serpentina (Zmeeevka) | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 4300 / 2.13 | 13 / 4.22 |
| Kulevrina (Hose) | 20 / 9.83 | 143.6 | 7000 / 3.54 | 16 / 5.2 |
| Pasmur | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4200 / 2.06 | 18 / 5.91 |
| Asp | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 4250 / 2.09 | 11 / 3.61 |
| Polukulevrina (Half hose) | 10 / 4.9 | 114.1 | 3850 / 1.89 | 13 / 4.27 |
| Passando | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 3500 / 1.72 | 15 / 4.93 |
| Pelican | 6 / 2.95 | 96.2 | 2400 / 1.18 | 9 / 2.96 |
| Saqr | 5 / 2.46 | 90.6 | 2850 / 1.4 | 13 / 4.27 |
| Sacret | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 2550 / 1.25 | 12.5 / 4.11 |
| Faucon (Falcon) | 3 / 1.47 | 76.3 | 2300 / 1.13 | 8 / 2.63 |
| Fokono (Sokolets) | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 1350 / 0.663 | 10.5 / 3.45 |
| Ribadekin big | 1 / 0.49 | 53.0 | 750 / 0.387 | 8 / 2.63 |
| Ribadekin small | 0.5 / 0.246 | 42.0 | 450 / 0.221 | 6 / 1.97 |
| Emirlon | 0.25 /0.123 | 33.3 | 400 /0.197 | 4 or 5 / 1.31 or 1.64 |
There is no information in the book about the metal from which the old type cannons were made. Based on their weight, it can be assumed that these guns were cast iron.
The transition to a new scale of artillery calibers at the end of the 17th century was accompanied by the fact that artillery pieces lost a proper name for each caliber.
Cannons produced since the end of the 17th century
The 48 and 40 lb guns were excluded from this scale as being too heavy, but not having much advantage over the 33 lb. The length of the trunks was sharply reduced. If earlier the longest trunk had more than 7 meters, now the maximum length was 3.32 meters. In turn, this led to a significant reduction in the mass of guns and an increase in their mobility while reducing the number of horses in a team.
In addition, the number of cannon samples was reduced from 17 to 14, and the number of calibers from 17 to 10. The latter greatly facilitated the work of ammunition supply services.
Classic copper cannons
| cannon pattern | Caliber | Weight pounds / tons |
Length feet / meters |
|
| pounds/ kilogram | millimeters | |||
| French 33 pound | 33 / 16.22 | 170.0 | 6200 / 3.05 | 11 / 3.32 |
| Semi-Cartoon Spanish 24-pound | 24 / 11 .79 | 153.0 | 5100 / 2.51 | 11/ 3.32 |
| Semi-Cartoon French (Hose) 16-lb. | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4100 / 2.02 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Quarter-cart Spanish 12-pounder | 12 / 5 .9 | 121.3 | 3400 / 1.67 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Quarter-card French. (Batard) 8-lb. | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 1950/0.958 | 10 / 3.28 |
| Short 8 pound | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | ? | 8.5 / 2.65 |
| Medium 4 pound | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1300 / 0.639 | 10.8 / 3.31 |
| Short 4-pound | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | ? | 8.5 / 2.65 |
| Faucon (Falcon) 2-pounder | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 800 / 0.393 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Other Faucon (Other Falcon) 2-pounder | 2 / 0.98 | 66.8 | 700 / 0.344 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Faucon (Falcon) 1 1/2 pound | 1.5 / 0.74 | ? | 500 / 0.245 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Fokonets (Sokolets) 1-pound | 1 / 0.491 | 53.0 | 400 / 0.197 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Another fokonets (Another Sokolets) 1-pounder | 1 / 0.491 | 53.0 | 200 / 0.098 | 7 / 2.3 |
| Fokonets (Sokolets) 1/2 - pound | 0.5 / 0.245 | 42.0 | 150 /0.074 | 7 / 2.3 |
The firing range of copper classical cannons according to de Saint-Remy was:
*33-pound gun: effective range 600 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*24-pounder: effective range 800 steps, maximum range 6000 steps,
*16-pound gun: effective range 800 steps, maximum range 8000 steps,
*12-pounder: effective range 450 steps, maximum range 5000 steps,
*8-pounder: effective range 400 steps, maximum range 4500 steps,
*4-pounder: effective range 300 steps, maximum range 3000 steps,
*2-pounder: effective range 150 steps, maximum range 1500 steps.
New invention copper cannons
As of 1706, in addition to the cannons described above, cannons of the latest type were already being cast, called in the book "cannons of a new invention (new invention)". These newly invented guns differed from the classic ones in that an oval-shaped chamber for gunpowder was made in the breech breech, which ensured an increase in the powder charge compared to classic guns, and hence an increased firing range.
This also made it possible to make the barrel shorter and significantly reduce the weight of the gun. For example, the weight of the 24-pound gun has been reduced from 2.5 tons to 1.5 tons, and the length from 3.3 to 2 meters.
The new guns were distinguished by an increased outer diameter of the first ledge, as increased strength was required.
From the author. It seems that for the new invention guns, a more durable metal was also required, since the problem of increasing the powder charge cannot be solved by thickening the walls of the breech alone. It also required a new technology for drilling barrels, as well as better gunpowder, which has a more complete combustion, because. it is quite difficult to remove unburned powder particles from the charging chamber.
Obviously, these moments predetermined that with the start of the production of new invention guns, the production of old ones was not curtailed.
Copper cannons of the new invention.
| cannon pattern | Caliber | Weight pounds / tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| 24 pound | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 3000 / 1.47 | 6.6 / 2.01 |
| 16 pound | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 2200 / 1.08 | 6.2 / 1.98 |
| 12 pound | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 2000 / 0.98 | 6 /1.97 |
| 8 pound | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 1000 / 0.49 | 4.9 / 1.37 |
| 4-pound | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 600 / 0.295 | 4.8 / 1.34 |
According to tests conducted by Lieutenant-General Mense in Flanders, the maximum range of fire from the guns of the new invention with a powder charge of 1/3 of the weight of the core and a barrel elevation angle of 45 degrees) was:
* 24-pound gun - 2250 toise (4386 m.),
* 16-pound gun - 2020 Tuaz (3937 m.),
* 12-pound gun -1870 toise (3645 m.),
* 8-pounder - 1660 toise (3235 m.),
* 4-pound gun -1520 toise (2963 m.).
At the same time, de Saint-Remy writes that the standard powder charge of the guns was half of the maximum and the range of aimed fire did not exceed 300 toise (585 meters). As the guns wore out, the powder charge had to be reduced to a quarter of the limit, and the firing range was reduced to 102 toise (200 meters). The same had to be done when reaching half the daily rate of shots, i.e. after 40-50 shots.
From the author. In general, this is reminiscent of a huge difference between the technically possible maximum speed of modern cool foreign cars of 250-300 km / h and the really possible driving speed in the city of 60-100 km / h. Of course, there are reckless drivers who accelerate to these maximum speeds, but the end result is always extremely sad - a pile of twisted iron from the car, and the driver in the cemetery. So it is with guns.
De Saint-Remy notes that in addition to standardized calibers, it is possible to find guns of larger calibers. (one of the cannons of the Strasbourg fortress has a caliber of 96 pounds), as well as cannons of intermediate calibers. Basically, these are trophy guns or guns cast privately.
Cast iron guns.
It was believed that their use is no longer appropriate due to the low quality of the metal, which rusts too quickly, especially from the inside of the barrel, as a result of which the actual caliber of the gun increases. Or fistulas form in the metal, which makes firing from cast-iron guns dangerous.
Of all the cast-iron cannons in this period, only the cannons cast at the Se-Gervais foundry were allowed to be used in French artillery, since very soft and viscous cast iron is smelted there. And even then, only a few coastal cities and cities in the mountains were supposed to be equipped with cast-iron guns.
From the author. I believe that the French returned to the manufacture of cast-iron cannons for reasons of economy. Copper was very expensive in those days. It is no coincidence that coins of small denominations were stamped from copper and their denomination was determined by their weight.
Cast iron cannons are noticeably heavier than copper ones. If the classic 24-pound copper gun weighed 2.5 tons, the new invention 1.5 tons, then the cast-iron gun weighed 2.7 tons.
The book gives the characteristics of the following cast-iron cannons:
| cannon pattern | Caliber | Weight pounds / tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | |||
| 24 pound | 24 / 11.79 | 153.0 | 5550 / 2.73 | ? |
| 16 pound | 16 / 7.86 | 133.2 | 4500 / 2.21 | ? |
| 8 pound | 8 / 3.93 | 106.0 | 2250 / 1.1 | ? |
| 4-pound | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1300 / 0.64 | ? |
In addition, in January 1693, 90 cast-iron cannons were purchased, cast in private forges in the cities of Angumoa and Perigio:
| cannon pattern | Purchased guns |
Caliber | Weight pounds/tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | ||||
| 36-pound | 3 | 36 / 17.69 | 174.9 | 7100 /3.49 | ? |
| 24-pound | 25 | 24 /11.79 | 153.0 | 5730 / 2.82 | ? |
| 18 pound | 14 | 18 / 8.85 | 138.9 | 4370/ 2.15 | ? |
| 12-pound | 23 | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3610 /1.78 | ? |
| 8-pound | 25 | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2310 / 1.14 | ? |
The cost of the purchased guns was 710 livres for 36-pounder guns, 573 livres for 24-pounder guns, and from 354 to 185 livres apiece for smaller calibers.
From the author. So, for a general idea, so that you can understand the scale of prices in France at that time and to understand that war is a very expensive business:
The livre was the currency of France until 1795. In 1 livre there are 20 soldi (su, salted), in 1 soldo 12 denier.
Prices - a pound of bread - 2-3 sous; a pound of beef or a liter of wine - 2-3 sous, chicken - 15 sous; a pound of butter - 5-8 sous, a pair of men's shoes - 3 livres, children's - 14 sous; a dozen wooden clogs - 25 sous.
A worker who received a livre a day was considered a wealthy person.
One 36-pound cast-iron cannon cost, therefore, 246 pairs of boots, or two years' wages for a skilled worker. But copper guns, which were the majority, were much more expensive.
Successful testing of purchased cast-iron cannons and the impoverishment of the royal treasury prompted the government to order the manufacture of another 300 cast-iron cannons of some calibers for field troops. Their characteristics are as follows:
| cannon pattern | Cannons made | Caliber | Weight pounds/tons |
Length feet/meters |
|
| pounds/kilogram | millimeters | ||||
| 12-pound | ? | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3600 / 1.77 | 8.5 / 2.79 |
| 12-pound | ? | 12 / 5.9 | 121.3 | 3700 / 1/82 | 9 / 2.96 |
| 8-pound | ? | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2400 / 1/18 | 8 / 2/63 |
| 8-pound | ? | 8 /3.93 | 106.0 | 2600 /1.28 | 8.5 / 2/79 |
| 4-pound | ? | 4 / 1.97 | 84.2 | 1400 / 0/689 | 6.5 / 2/14 |
At the turn of the XVIII-XVIII there are quite exotic guns. For example, a twin 4-pounder gun. It consisted of two barrels cast together, 5 feet 4 inches (1.65 m) long, having a common ignition channel. The gun could fire both conventional cannonballs and rods connected to each other (the rods were each inserted into its own barrel, and the connecting jumper remained outside). The length of such a twin ammunition is 12 feet (3.95m.) With a weight of 65 pounds (32 kg.).
From the author. The book does not provide other data (firing range, striking capabilities, etc.). Obviously, this invention remained exotic, since there are few places where you can find information from such guns. I dare to suggest that one of the reasons was that it is difficult to achieve synchronization of shots from both barrels. Apparently, the paired rods flew away aimlessly or completely separated from each other during the flight, or even worse, damaged the barrels when fired.
There was a variant in which a third barrel was located a little higher in the hollow between two trunks, as well as a variant in which the trunk was cast in an oval shape and two channels were drilled in it but. Such guns had a common charging chamber.
De Saint-Remy writes that cast-iron semi-carton cannons (24- and 16-pounders) can fire from 90 to 100 shots a day in summer, 65-75 shots in winter. However, according to artillery officers, sometimes they fired up to 150 shots per day. But this is fraught with damage to the machine and swelling of the ignition channel.
16- and 12-pounder copper guns can fire up to 200 shots in 9 hours or 138 shots in 5 hours. But these are technical possibilities, since with such shooting there is no time left for proper aiming of the gun.
Ammunition
The main type of ammunition for all guns were spherical all-metal cores.
The translator of the book, de Saint-Remy, simply calls them nuclei.
Core. Usually they were cast from cast iron. The diameter of the shot must be slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore so that the shot can roll freely into the barrel without delay. So, for example, with an 8-pounder gun bore diameter of 106.026 mm. the core diameter for it should be according to the table 102.36 mm.
The core hits targets only due to its kinetic energy, i.e. mass and speed.
The cost of a thousand cast-iron cores at the turn of the century was about 3 livres.
Hard core. It is an ordinary core, which is heated to a red glow on a fire before loading. Designed to create fires in a besieged city or fortress. In order to be able to use a hardened cannonball in a cannon, a castle made of crumpled clay is placed between it and the powder charge. This castle also plays the role of a wad.
The use of hardened cores is only allowed in 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. Nuclei of smaller calibers cool down too quickly on the trajectory and cannot ignite anything. Larger cores (12 pounds or more) are too heavy, difficult to heat to the correct temperature, and often cracked and shattered due to uneven heating.
Empty core. It is a metal cylinder with a diameter of the caliber of a gun, 2.5 calibers long. Part of the internal space (one and a half calibers) was filled with lead, and the rest was a powder charge. At the end of the cylinder, which, when loading the gun, looked towards the powder charge of the gun, a hole was drilled into which a copper ignition tube filled with slowly burning gunpowder was screwed. The outer end of the ignition tube was closed with turpentine (a mixture of pine resin and essential oil).
When fired from a flash cannon powder charge the pyrotechnic composition in the ignition tube caught fire, the cylinder flew out of the gun, and after this composition burned out, an explosion occurred.
For example, a 24-pound empty core had a total weight of 79 pounds (38.32 kg.), i.e. more than three times as heavy as a regular round 24 lb. core. In the total weight of this projectile, gunpowder was 6 pounds (2.95 kg.), Metal case 60 pounds (29.5 kg.), 19 pounds (9.34 kg.). Projectile diameter 153 mm, length about 382.5 mm, wall thickness 27 mm.
From the author. From the book of de Saint-Remy, it turns out that oblong, and even explosive shells with a remote fuse, existed at the end of the 17th century. Of course, this cylinder tumbled on the trajectory and flew a distance three times less than a conventional core. Accuracy was very unsatisfactory. But such shells existed.
In passing, de Saint-Remy mentions (p. 105) that these "empty cannonballs" are very similar in design to some land mines or "diggers" that are set up on the ground. Unfortunately, he does not develop this thesis and does not describe it in detail. But the conclusion suggests itself that anti-personnel mines and minefields, in the sense in which we understand them today, were also used in the 18th century.
But just as today, very little and casually is written about mines, so it was with them in those distant times.
Kernel messenger. It is mainly a means of delivering written documents to and from a besieged fortress.
This is a hollow, screwed spherical core coated with lead or made of lead.
Chain core (knippel). There were several varieties of knippels. The simplest is two cores 
connected by a rigid jumper (the shape is similar to modern sports dumbbells). The knippel could be immediately cast in this mold. There were options when two semi-nuclei were connected by a chain. Or the semi-kernels were hollow, and the chain before the shot was laid in the cavities of the semi-nuclei.
In de Saint-Remy's book, only one option is given - just two nuclei connected by a chain.
Knipples are effective at relatively short distances and mainly on ships, where they are good at destroying spars and rigging. On land, they were sometimes used to fire at fortified camps or approaching infantry.
Shooting accuracy with knippels (obviously consisting of two cores with a chain) on land is unsatisfactory, and the firing range 
twice lower than conventional cores.
De Saint-Remy gives in his book a variant of a knipple of two half-cores connected by a rigid bridge. However, he points out that this kind of knipple is intended to be used as an incendiary projectile.
A core stuffed with an incendiary composition (incendiary knippel). Represents a knipple on 
a rigid bridge (shown just above), The gap between the semi-cores is filled with a solid incendiary composition based on rosin and wrapped in several layers of canvas impregnated with resin. When fired, the canvas ignites from the gunpowder charge, and falling at the target creates a fire.
There is a variant in which an ignition tube similar to the tube of an empty core is screwed into one of the two half-cores through a drilled hole. In this case, the shell of the knipple is made of lead.
From the author. De Saint-Remy does not provide descriptions of incendiary compositions. One of the books describes that powder balls could be placed inside the composition, which, when the fire got to them, exploded and scattered the burning composition, thereby increasing the source of the fire.
An interesting feature. The diameter of the cylindrical part of the knipple was slightly larger than the diameter of the semi-nuclei, due to which the knipple was inserted into the gun barrel with force. This made it possible not to use the wad, since the canvas of the knipple performed its role.
De Saint-Remy points out that incendiary knippels and "empty cores" in general did not justify the hopes placed on them due to the low reliability of the ignition system (pilot tubes). When fired, they did not light up at all, or, on the contrary, ignited the filling prematurely. Their use was more of a one-time or test character.
From the author. From these lines of the author of the book (p. 106) it becomes clear why incendiary knippels and cylindrical explosive shells, although they existed at the turn of the century, are little known and are not mentioned at all in most historical literature. Large weight, short firing range, unreliable operation, difficulty in manufacturing did not contribute to their introduction into artillery practice.
The use of empty cores generally posed a danger to guns. Often, the pressure of the powder gases during the shot squeezed out the ignition composition inside the projectile, which led to the rupture of the projectile in the bore.
These shortcomings will be eliminated much later.
In modern military-historical literature, hollow cannonballs filled with gunpowder are often mentioned, which explode at the target. They are usually named bombs and grenades. However, if you rely on the book of de Saint-Remy, then in France at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries guns did not have such ammunition.
Bombs were used only in mortars, and the ignition tube of the bomb was ignited separately before being fired. And the core was inserted so that the ignition tube did not look in the direction of the powder charge, but the opposite,
Grenades de Saint-Remy calls similar products, but which were used in fortresses for throwing them into the ditch by hand in order to destroy the enemy soldiers who penetrated the ditch, and which can no longer be obtained from cannons and rifles.
"MEMORIES OR NOTES OF ARTILLERIES, which describe MORTARIES, PETARDS, DOPPEL-hakens, muskets, fuzzies, and everything that belongs to all these weapons. bombs, frames and grenades, and so on. Casting cannons, saltpeter and gunpowder, bridges, mines, carts, carts and horses and, in general, everything that concerns artillery both at sea and on a dry path.disposition of stores, composing charges and stations at the army and in warehouses, marching order, and disposing of them in all battles a way to defend the strongholds and position Officers, etc. THROUGH MR. SUREYREY DE SAINT REMI VOLUME ONE. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH LANGUAGE PRINTED IN ST.
Page 137-142.
Kartuz, Its varieties are called - cartouche, garguzh, gargush, garguss, buckshot. 
Garguzh (gargush, garguss) is a cap made of canvas. It is a fabric shell inside which a sample of gunpowder is laid and a core or lead bullets can be laid.
Kartuz (cartouche) differs from gargouge in that it is made of parchment or multilayer paper. It can also contain only gunpowder or, in addition to gunpowder, also a core or lead bullets.
Caps made of tin and wood are called, respectively, "tin buckshot" and, accordingly, "wooden buckshot". They are necessarily equipped with a yadar or lead bullets.
From the author. From here it becomes clear the origin and essence of the term "buckshot" (in modern spelling - buckshot). Buckshot is an artillery shot (that is, a set) that necessarily includes a certain number of ready-made striking elements (lead, cast-iron bullets, nails, metal fragments, etc.). When fired, the striking elements fly out of the barrel in a divergent beam and hit the enemy personnel.
We used to call buckshot only the round bullets themselves, but it turns out that this is not so. Bullets are just an element of a canister shot.
Along the way. Artillerymen call a shot both the very phenomenon of ejection from a gun of a certain projectile, and a set of products for the production of this ejection.
Caps made of parchment are considered the best, since, unlike canvas and paper, parchment only twists during a flash of gunpowder, but does not light up and does not leave smoldering scraps stuck to the barrel walls in the barrel and does not require barrel cleaning (punching) before each new loading. When using parchment caps, it is quite enough to clean the barrel (ban) only after three shots.
Reference. Parchment - carefully cleaned and degreased thin skin. It was used before the invention of paper, and partly later for writing (documents, books, etc.).
End of help.
The advantage of a parchment cap over a tin and wooden one is that there is no problem of removing a spent cap from a cannon and, moreover, it does not require skilled labor for its manufacture.
The diameter of the cap is equal to the caliber of the gun.
The length of a cap made of parchment, paper or canvas, depending on the mass of the charge of gunpowder, reaches six calibers if the cap is with a core or bullets, or four calibers if the cap contains only gunpowder.
The length of a cap made of tin or wood is up to three calibers, of which one caliber is reserved for gunpowder, and two calibers for buckshot.
Cartridge loading is used in cases where hasty shooting is required and it is not possible, for this reason or due to weather conditions, to carry out the usual standard loading of guns (filling gunpowder into the barrel using a shuffle (schaufell), sealing with a bumper, inserting a wad and a shot or buckshot).
From the author. Please note that at the beginning of the 18th century, the main method of loading cannons was still filling the barrel with gunpowder using a special spoon (shuffle).
Cartridge loading, according to the author of the book, is a necessary measure for hasty shooting or shooting in bad weather conditions (strong wind, rain, snowfall). Obviously due to the fact that after a shot, smoldering remnants of a textile or paper shell may remain in the bore.
Various sources give drawings of caps that differ from those shown by me. I'm not going to argue about this. I draw up reconstructions of caps, based on the drawings given in the book of de Saint-Remy. It is very possible, and most likely not 
set out to show in the book all the possible variants of caps that could exist in different countries.
Unfortunately, de Saint-Remy does not explain how, when fired, the fire from the ignition channel of the cannon reached the powder charge in a wooden or tin cap. It is not advisable to make a hole in the cap in advance, since it is almost impossible to combine the channel with the hole when loading. Obviously, the hole was punched with a wire seed.
Also, the author does not explain how, after a shot, an empty wooden, and especially a tin, cap was removed from the cannon barrel. The latter is especially difficult, because when fired, it is distributed and tightly pressed against the walls of the bore.
Buckshot.
From the author. Although wooden and tin caps are called buckshot above, however, there are
also buckshot, so to speak, "uncapped". Such buckshot is invested in a cannon instead of a core when it is required to hit a mass of infantry at a relatively short distance (up to 100-200m.). I found it more convenient to separate these products into an independent type of cannon ammunition.
Buckshot is round-oblong.
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close range. It is a kind of projectile, having a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A core is laid on it, with a caliber less than the caliber of the gun. The core is lined with lead bullets. To keep the core and bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine tar or kolomaz (tar with tar, tar with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile was given the appearance of a truncated cone one and a half calibers long
To harden the projectile and maintain its shape at high air temperatures, the projectile is put on the so-called. a shirt, in other words, a canvas shell is glued.
Caps of this type are preferable for ship cannons, since they have a double effect - the destruction of ship sides and the destruction of personnel.
De Saint-Remy describes a simplified way of preparing such a buckshot. A core with a caliber smaller than the caliber of the gun is taken, dipped in melted resin, after which the core rolls over a layer of lead bullets. After the bullets stick to the core from all sides, all this is put together on a wooden pallet with a diameter of the caliber of the gun, the bullets and resin that go beyond the caliber are removed, and the resulting projectile is put into the gun.
Buckshot grapevine (buckshot in the form of a grape brush).
Designed to defeat enemy soldiers at close range. It is a kind of projectile, having a wooden pallet as a base with a diameter equal to the caliber of the gun. A wooden rod is embedded in the pallet along the length of the projectile. Lead bullets are placed around the rod. To keep the bullets on the pallet, they are filled with pine tar or kolomaz (tar with tar, tar with lard, tar with lard and soap).
The projectile is given the appearance of a truncated cone with a length of one and a half - two calibers.
To strengthen the projectile and retain its shape at high air temperatures the resin projectile is wrapped with twine, from which a net is formed. Outside, the mesh can be covered with glued canvas.
As soon as this projectile leaves the bore, the bullets fly forward in an expanding beam.
The book also states that for shooting at close range, instead of a core, lead bullets, nails, scraps of chains, and various metal fragments can be placed in the barrel in bulk.
From the author. The literature describes many variants of buckshot. However, some of them refer either to other times or to other countries. I confine myself to the types of buckshot described in de Saint-Remy's book. I am not sure that he described all the types that were available at that time in the French artillery, but I do not consider it possible to expand this list, since it is easy to mislead the reader as to where and when certain types of buckshot were used.
At the same time, I would like to describe one more ammunition, which does not apply to cannon ammunition, but is described in the book. It is called "musketeer's buckshot" or "musketeer's cap". It is a musket bullet, which is tied to a paper bag of gunpowder by its sprue. The length of the pouch is defined as 4 musket calibers. De Saint-Remy emphasizes that after the casting of the bullet, its sprue is not removed, but is used to connect with the gunpowder charge of the musket.
From the author. De Saint-Remy speaks of the musketeer's buckshot as a recent invention and notes that when loading a gun, the far end of the shell is bitten off, the gunpowder is poured into the barrel, and the bullet, along with the paper, is sent next. The paper shell plays the role of a wad. According to the text, he calls this product a cartridge and notes that this significantly speeds up the loading of the gun. obviously later this product was improved. The bullet began to be used without a sprue, they placed it in the bag itself.
Thus, the introduction into practice of a paper rifle cartridge should be attributed to the end of the 17th century. At least in France.
Thus, at the turn of the century, French cannons were used:
* conventional all-metal spherical cannonballs, which were fired both cold and red-hot,
* explosive cylindrical shells ("empty cores"),
* messenger cores,
* chain cores (knipples), which could be equipped with incendiary compositions,
* various kinds of canister shells.
Spherical explosive cores were not used in guns.
Note. In all books on the history of artillery it is written that initially gunpowder pulp was used in artillery, and then they learned how to granulate gunpowder. And they say fine-grained gunpowder was better suited for guns, and coarse-grained for guns and mortars. Here, they say, since then only coarse-grained gunpowder has been used in artillery.
I do not presume to argue on this score, but in the book of de Saint-Remy we find that in 1685 Mark de la Fresilière conducted a series of experiments with various gunpowder and found that a significant part of the large powder grains fly out of the cannon barrel without even catching fire, then how small grains burn completely. A charge of fine-grained powder provides a greater range than coarse-grained.
Based on the results of the experiments, it was decided to produce medium-grained gunpowder, which is equally suitable for muskets and cannons.
End of note.
Production of shooting from guns.
The gun crew (in modern terms) of 12-24 pound guns consists of two gunners and six gunlangers.
The first gunner (in the KP diagram) is located to the right of the gun. He carries with him a natruska (vessel) with seed gunpowder and two dressers (knitting needles for cleaning the ignition channel of the gun). His main duties include filling the gunpowder charge with the help of a shuffle into the gun and filling the seed powder into the ignition channel of the gun.
The second gunner (in the KL diagram) is located to the left of the gun. He carries with him a palnik (a pole with a burning wick at the end) and a leather bag for gunpowder (the bag is called captenarmus). His main duties are the delivery of a powder charge from a small powder magazine, filling it into a shuffle held by the first gunner and firing a shot on the orders of the commissar.
Gandlangers are located in threes on the left and right sides of the cannon.
The order of loading the gun calibers 12 - 24 pounds:
1. The first gunlangers (1p and 1l) banish the cannon with a banner, after which the third left handlanger (3l) inserts the seeder into the ignition channel of the gun and takes the shuffle.
2. At this time, the second gunner (KL), accompanied by the third right gunner (3p), brings a bag of gunpowder from a small store, which he pours into the shuffle held by the first gunner (KP).
3. The first gunner (KP) pours gunpowder into the cannon with a shuffle.
4. At this time, the second gunner (KL) puts the leather bag in a safe place and prepares the overcoat.
5. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a powder wad into the cannon.
6. The first handlangers (1p and 1l) together put a bailer into the barrel and inflict 8-10 blows on the wad.
7. The second left handlanger (2 l) rolls a cannonball into the cannon.
8. The first handlangers (1p and 1l), together with a hammer, push the core deep into the barrel.
9. The second right handlanger (2p) puts a wad of the cannonball into the cannon.
10. The first handlangers (1p and 1l) together put a puncher into the barrel and inflict 4 blows on the wad of the core.
11. The first handlangers (1p and 1l) take the levers in 
readiness to push them between the spokes in front of the wheels to turn the gun left or right in the direction of the target.
12. The second handlangers (2p and 2l) take the levers and stand behind the wheels in readiness to move the cannon forward to the loophole.
13. The third handlangers (3 l and 3p) with levers are located at the rear of the machine, ready to turn the gun left or right.
14. The first gunner (KP) removes the dresser from the ignition channel and pours the seed gunpowder into it from the natruse. He also fixes the position of the gun with a lever placed on the wheels at the back.
15. The second gunner (KL) keeps in readiness an overcoat with a burning wick in readiness to fire a shot on the order of the commissar.
Shot order.
After loading the gun and setting it in place, aiming at the target is performed. To do this, on the commands of the commissar, who puts a quadrant to the muzzle, the second handlangers (2p and 2l), acting with levers and wedges, give the barrel the desired elevation angle. At the same time, the third gunlangers (3p and 3l), again on the commands of the commissar, standing at the trunk of the machine and using levers, point the gun horizontally.
At the command of the commissar, the second gunner (KL) touches the fuse of the cannon with the burning wick of the cannon and fires a shot. The process of loading the gun is repeated.
From the author. The staff of officers on the battery is very unclear. It follows from the book that the battery is commanded by a commissar (Komi sar - in the spelling of 1732). He is assisted by two provincial commissioners, one ordinary and one extraordinary commissioner. There are five officers in total on the battery. And there are six guns on a standard battery. It follows from this that in the course of firing, the commissars move from cannon to cannon, and do not each command one cannon, as is done on mortar batteries.
August 2016
Sources and literature
1.U. fon Cranachs. Deliciae Cranachianae oder rare und kunstreiche Fried-und Krieges-Inventiones, bestehende in XI Kupfferstiche. Hamburg.1672
2.J.J. fon Wallhausen.Manuale Militare or Kriegs Manual. Auctorius Frankfurt. 1616
3.StandingWellBack website (www.standingwellback.com/home/2014/9/11)
4.P.S. de Saint-Remy. Memorials or artillery notes. Volume first. Academy of Sciences. Saint Petersburg. 1732
Since this question, to be honest, just FUCKED, and there are a bunch of "specialists" who very often poke me into land instructions on the firing range of guns and other similar issues, I decided to make a post to solve this problem once and for all.
First of all, a little theory - if you do not take fortress artillery, then a land gun in battle meets a rather flimsy defense. These may be earthen fortifications, lunettes, barriers using wood or stone, but the distinctive feature of these fortifications will be their relative low strength. That is, if these are wooden horns, then they are dug into the ground. If the stones are heaped, but not cemented, etc.
At sea, in battles of the line (or in battles of fortresses with ships), the cannon balls had to overcome quite serious protection in the form of the "armor" (hull) of the ship, and often this protection was multi-layered, as can be clearly seen here .:
This protection had a total thickness of 60 to 100 centimeters (that is, up to a meter). Most often, even the most powerful guns could not penetrate it, and firing at ships essentially amounted to maximum hits on the hull (if we are talking specifically about inflicting critical damage / sinking the ship). This maximum of hits gradually loosened the defense, potholes appeared somewhere, chips somewhere, connections were broken somewhere, the tree gradually sagged and broke, and most often in the area of the upper deck or gun ports, and finally that critical moment came when " armor" ceased to hold.
Speaking of analogies, perhaps the most accurate imitation of this explanation I met in the movie "Death Race" with Statham:
In the film, the role of the armor is played by a 6-inch armor plate on the back of Statham's car, which competitors use from all types of weapons. Sooner or later, this plate takes critical damage, and can no longer take hits. The meaning is exactly the same.
Now let's move on to the numbers. First of all, we note that the Gribovalevsky land guns could shoot as far as 2-2.5 km, but absolutely no one used such a range. Why? Yes, for two simple things - there were no sights at such distances yet, and the dispersion of fire was very large. Therefore, in the Gribovalevsky instructions for ground artillery, we see the following figures
Effective fire ranges for guns of various calibers
If we open the English naval shooting instructions (for example, from 1832), we will see the following numbers:
For long guns:
Maximum sighting range 500-400 meters
Effective sighting range - 200 meters
Pistol distance - 50 meters.
For carronade:
maximum sighting range - 200 meters
effective sighting range - 50 meters
pistol distance - 10 meters.
Why are the values of land and sea systems so divergent? Were the naval guns worse?
No, they were no worse, and sometimes even better. It’s just that the admirals set such values because it was not about maximum, but sighting range, and secondly, from these distances it was possible to cause damage to enemy ships. That is, in reality, naval guns could shoot much further, but with the accuracy of fire and damage from it, things were really bad at distances above the recommended ones. The question is - but could the guns be used outside the maximum effective range? The answer is why not? For example, there is no accuracy of carronade over 200 meters. But who prevents, for example, from conducting unaimed fire with carronades not on the sides, but on the sails of ships? Nobody! The area of the sails is much larger than the affected part of the side, therefore, according to the theory of probability, such a fire may well be effective. Yes, the speed of the core at such a distance is no longer enough to break through the bulwark or something wooden, but tearing the sail or knocking down the yard is enough.
One more thing you should not forget - land artillery fires from a fixed platform (ground, fortress wall, etc.) on a target that is stationary or slowly moving relative to the gun / battery. Even the gallop speed of a horse is 15-18 km / h, in the sea dimension - 8-8.5 knots, that is, the speed of an ordinary frigate. But most often the cavalry goes to battery(speaking in a marine term - into "longitudinal fire"), and does not jump along the battery(the meaning of the cavalry attack is clear - to suppress this very battery, and not to run away from its fire). The walking speed of infantry (110 steps per minute at a step of 70 cm) is much lower - about 4.6 km / h or 2.5 knots, but again - infantry goes to the battery, not along it.
Naval artillery has a completely different task - there the enemy is displaced precisely along the battery, since the movement is most often parallel relative to each other, and this leaves an additional imprint on the accuracy (or, if you like, inaccuracy) of shooting and on the effective battle distance.
Oddly enough, but land artillery, actions against ships, most often used naval instructions. This is understandable - ships, especially battleships, are a very specific enemy. And here it is necessary to introduce such a concept as the probability of hitting the target, which directly depended on the number of guns firing at the target. It is clear that an airborne salvo creates a kind of "cloud" of nuclei, with which the target is covered. As far as I understand, in the case of long distances this probability distribution of hits is akin to Gaussian, at close ranges it is linear uniform. That is, as in the case in the movie with Statham, the number of hits per unit of time plays a decisive role.
Now let's move from theory to practice.
The first dispute on this topic I had a long time ago, about the Toulon model of 1793. Let me remind you that Bonaparte then captured the forts of Aiguiit and Balaguier, located on one side of the exit of the Toulon harbor. The very width of the passage from the harbor is 1200 meters. The question is - could the guns of these forts unequivocally block the exit of ships from Toulon?
The answer is obvious - no, they could not. And this is even though (according to Nilus) "A 12 lb. core with a charge of 4 lb. at a distance of about 300 szhn. deepens: into the ground by 7-9 ft., into a tree - by 2.5 ft., into a stone - by 4 dm. 300 fathoms is about 650 m; 2.5 ft. = 0.75 m." Still, the sides of the ships are clearly not the earth, and what kind of tree Nilus had in mind - we will leave it to the author's conscience.
The next number of our program was my supposedly delusional ideas for shelling the brig "Mercury" with buckshot. And again, the author of the opus about my nonsense gave an alignment for land buckshot (the weight of one bullet is 23 grams). Well, how many times have I said - such buckshot was not used at sea!
In the same Russian fleet there were the following types of buckshot: near and far buckshot. Charge for both buckshot 1.64 kg. The weight of the long-range buckshot is 10.9 kg, it contained 48 bullets (each weighing 227 grams). The weight of the nearest buckshot is 11.2 kg, it contains 94 bullets (each weighing 119 grams). The maximum firing range of near buckshot is up to 400 meters, far up to 700. The British and French on 32-pound and 24-pound guns used bullets weighing 384 and 452 grams in buckshot! So it's one thing - buckshot in a hunting rifle for birds, another thing - buckshot on a battleship. She and aboard a small ship (for example, brig) can cause quite a lot of damage, and break the sails, break the yards, etc.
The first rapid-fire Mk I 18-pounder entered service with the Royal Artillery in 1904, and by 1914 it had become the standard field gun in service with British and Commonwealth armies. Some of its samples were produced even in India. The designs of the Woolwich factory, the workshops of Elswick and Vickers were embodied in the design of the 18-pounder. The barrel of the gun was wrapped with wire, had a simple breech and was mounted on a carriage with a trunk. A conventional shield was provided. Shrapnel was used as ammunition.
Very soon, the basic model of the gun was modified. Firstly, the inner tube of the gun barrel became removable, although when this gun went to war in 1914, it practically did not differ from the basic version. The return springs of the cannon, which returned the barrel to its original position after the rollback, could not withstand prolonged firing and broke, which turned the cannon into a pile of iron. All gunsmiths could do was change the springs, which took a lot of time and effort. This continued until a modification of this gun appeared in the troops. A completely new hydropneumatic recoil mechanism was developed, which was mounted inside the existing spring case, making the gun more reliable.
During the First World War, the gun was subjected to another modernization. In the original gun carriage, a trunk was provided that was suitable for horse traction. However, this trunk went under the breech, which limited the elevation angle, and consequently, the firing range. As a result, the 18-pounder Mk IV appeared (modifications were indicated by numbers). In fact, it was a new development. First of all, the Mk IV was equipped with a box frame, which provided a higher angle of the barrel and increased the firing range, in addition, a new Asbury model breech mechanism was proposed.
The new recoil mechanism, displaced under the gun barrel, adopted the principle of a free piston, which used oil and compressed air for a smoother and more reliable movement. The cradle has been changed. The result was a full-rotation gun. She had not only an increased firing range, but was also more stable and had a high rate of fire - for a prepared calculation, 30 rounds per minute was common.
By the time the 18-pounder Mk IV entered mass production, the war had already ended, but it was she who was preferred in the Royal Artillery in the interval between the wars. By that time, the gun began to be supplied not only to the troops of Britain and the Commonwealth countries. Since 1917, a large batch of these guns has been acquired by the US Army. Later they appeared in Ireland, the Baltic countries and China. Most of the 18-pounder guns found their way during the Second World War, and the last gun was withdrawn from service with the Irish army only in the 70s of the twentieth century.
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Shotgun AN-IX
French 6-pounder and 6-inch howitzers
However, even such a magnificent gun had drawbacks, such as insufficient reliability and a tendency to corrosion of some components. But the main thing was some difference in caliber of the issued guns and the need for individual fitting of parts. This created certain difficulties in creating and arming a mass army. Therefore, the French in 1801 adopted the AN-IX gun, which became the main one by the time of the invasion of Russia. This gun almost completely repeated the gun of the 1777 model and differed from the old one in greater unification of parts and the replacement of corroded, but not bearing heavy loads, iron parts with copper ones. In addition, it was possible to slightly reduce the weight of the gun.
Perhaps the excellent capabilities of the 1777 model gun had an effect, but less attention was paid to rifled weapons in France. The main model of rifled weapons was the "Carabiner de Versailles" of the 1793 model of the year in infantry and cavalry versions. Only in 1804 was a slightly improved AN-XII carbine developed, which differed only slightly from the Carbine de Versailles. The saturation of the French army with rifled weapons was somewhat lower than that of the Russian one. Basically, non-commissioned officers, sergeants and sappers from light infantry and 6 riflemen in a voltiger company were armed with rifled carbines.
The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.
Shotgun AN-IX. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.375 kg, length is 151.5 cm (bayonet length is 46.5 cm). Caliber - 17.5 mm, bullet weight - 27.2 g, gunpowder weight - 12.24 g. The maximum firing range is 300-400 steps, the effective range of aimed fire (the probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) - more than 100 steps.
Rifle carbine "Carbine de Versailles": Its weight (without bayonet) is 3.45 kg, length is 102.5 cm. Caliber is 13.5 mm, bullet weight is 17.5 g, gunpowder weight is 4 g. Maximum range is approximately 1 thousand steps, the effective range of aimed fire (the probability of hitting a standard target is more than 1/2) is more than 500 steps.
In the field of artillery, the French army held a leading position for a long time, which has not been lost in the quarter of a century that has passed since the Gribeauval reform. But Napoleon, himself an excellent artilleryman, noted the presence of excessive calibers in the Gribeauval system. So, for example, Napoleon pointed out that in most cases, commanders, when firing, do not make a difference between 8-pounder and 4-pounder guns. At the same time, 8-pounders are unnecessarily heavy, and 4-pounders have weak ammunition. As a result, it was decided to stop at the 6-lb cannon, which should replace both calibers.
It was also decided to switch to a new howitzer with a longer barrel and a smaller caliber. This made it possible to increase the flatness of the trajectory and more effectively use these guns in a maneuverable field battle. In addition, this allowed the ammunition to be unified with the 24-pounder siege gun.
Finally, Colonel Villentroy created heavy long-range howitzers with an increased charge of gunpowder and barrel length. These howitzers had calibers of 8, 9 and 11 inches. At the same time, the most powerful, 11-inch howitzer could fire at a distance of up to 5.8 miles. The 8-inch howitzer was also used in field battles. In addition to changes in the calibers used and barrel lengths, the guns of the new models were lightened and simplified in design.
The reform was supposed to bring French artillery to a new qualitative level. In fact, it was carried out not as resolutely and effectively as in Russia. The reason was the fact that at the time of the beginning of the reform there was some superiority of French artillery over the artillery of most opponents. The "patchwork" of Napoleon's empire and the lack of a clear management of military production also had a negative effect. Many factories of the Napoleonic empire, especially in the conquered territories such as the Confederation of the Rhine, produced according to old models and in the old caliber system. So in the end, the reform not only did not reduce, as required, the number of calibers in the army, but, on the contrary, increased it. Of the new guns, only the 6-pounder and the 24-pound howitzer were fired in significant numbers. The "Great Army" entered the war with more than two dozen artillery systems.
The characteristics of the main guns in service with the French army were as follows.
12-pound gun of the Gribeauval system:
Gun weight - 860 kg (54 pounds), system weight - 2160 kg (135 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.
Firing range: with a core - 2.7–3 km, with a grenade - about 1.2 km, with buckshot - up to 600 meters.
Gribeauval 8-pounder gun
Gun weight - 580 kg (36 pounds), system weight - 1760 kg (110 pounds), caliber - 4.1 inches (104 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.
Firing range: with a core - 2.7 km, with a grenade - about 1 km, with buckshot - up to 500 meters.
Gribeauval 4-pounder gun
Gun weight - 280 kg (18 pounds), system weight - 1120 kg (70 pounds), caliber - 4.76 inches (121 mm), barrel length - 16.5 calibers.
Firing range: with a core - 2.6 km, with a grenade - about 1.1 km, with buckshot - up to 400 meters.
6-pounder gun of the new system
Gun weight - 400 kg (25 pounds), system weight - 1440 kg (90 pounds), caliber - 3.9 inches (96 mm), barrel length - 16.5 caliber.
Firing range: with a core - 2.3 km, with a grenade - about 1 km, with buckshot - up to 400 meters.
6 inch extended howitzer
Gun weight - 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber - 6 inches (164 mm), barrel length - 4 1/3 calibers.
Firing range: core - 3 km, grenade - about 3 km, buckshot - up to 400 meters.
24-pound howitzer of the new system
Gun weight - 320 kg (20 pounds), caliber - 6 inches (155 mm), barrel length - 5 calibers.
Firing range: with a core - 3 km, with a grenade - about 3 km, with buckshot - up to 500 meters.
Although, in general, French artillery looked worse than Russian because of the wide variety of calibers and the large number of low-powered regimental guns, it had an advantage in the fight against fortifications and manpower at long distances due to the presence of large-caliber howitzers and with a steep trajectory, which made it possible to hit the enemy behind the fortifications .
When comparing the characteristics of Russian and French weapons, you need to take into account several general points related to their use.
During the Napoleonic wars, volley rifle and artillery fire dominated. In a different way, only huntsmen and voltigeurs in loose formation could fire. This was caused, among other things, by such a factor as the black powder used. When there was a difference in the volley, the latecomers fired into a smoky cloud, which, after each volley, clouded the battle formations.
The maximum rate of fire to a greater extent depended not on the characteristics of the weapon, but on the training of the soldiers. A well-trained soldier, as practical firing has shown even today, could without problems from a smoothbore gun provide a rate of fire of 3-4 rounds per minute through the use of a cartridge. Such a pace could not be maintained for long, but allowed 10-12 volleys to be fired at a battalion column attacking at a fast pace, 7-9 at a running attack and 2-3 at a galloping cavalry. Considering the low accuracy of fire even in close combat formations, only rifle fire usually failed to stop the attack of battalion columns or cuirassiers.
Field artillery in terms of firing range with "long-range" buckshot was superior to fire from smooth-bore guns. At the same time, the field gun had a maximum rate of fire due to cap loading of 7–9 rounds per minute. At the same time, the accuracy of artillery fire at equal distances was also higher. Here, too, a high pace could not be maintained for a long time, but it made it possible to make 25–35 volleys of buckshot against a battalion column attacking at a fast pace, 15–20 against a running attack, and 7–10 against a galloping cavalry. Such a rate of fire was a powerful stopping tool against both infantry and cavalry, provided there were enough guns for the length of the attacked front. Such superiority of artillery usually made it possible to win her skirmish with infantry even at short distances. The power of artillery on the battlefield in relation to other branches of the military was perhaps the greatest precisely at the beginning of the 19th century.
