The philosophy of ancient India, the Veda, in brief. Indian philosophy

Indian philosophy

Indian philosophy- a set of philosophical theories of all Indian thinkers, ancient and modern, Hindus and non-Hindus, theists and atheists. Since ancient times, it has developed continuously, without sharp turns, such as those experienced by Western philosophy, which often changed the direction of its development. Its oldest documents, which are still considered holy today, are contained in the Vedas (before 1500 BC). Almost all the literature on Indian philosophy is written in the language of art connoisseurs and scientists - Sanskrit. Since most of the changes in Indian philosophy were associated with commentary on the basic, recognized authoritative texts, the old European philosophical scholars believed that Indian philosophy should be defined as the prehistory of philosophy, when in fact its development ran parallel to the development of Western philosophy, although in other forms. The question of the existence in India of an equivalent to the European term “philosophia” is a traditional subject of discussion in Indology, to which scientists and philosophers give different, often contradictory, answers. Like medieval Western European philosophy, Indian philosophy also dealt primarily with religious problems, but it paid more attention to reflection on the knowledge of the transcendental. Since Hindus believe in the eternity of a cyclically renewed world process, they have not created a philosophy of history proper. Aesthetics and the doctrine of society and the state are special, separate sciences for them. In his historical development Indian philosophy falls into three periods:

1. Vedic period (1500-500 BC),
2. classical, or Brahmano-Buddhist (500 BC - 1000 AD) and
3. post-classical, or Hindu period (from 1000).

Vedic period

Modern period

Indian philosophy has had a huge influence on world culture. One of the greatest German philosophers of the 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer, under the influence of the Upanishads, was the first among famous European thinkers to carry out a synthesis of Western European and Indian philosophy.

He played a special role in the popularization of Indian philosophical thought in the USA and Europe. late XIX century Indian philosopher and public figure Swami Vivekananda.

Since the 19th century, under the influence of Western European thought - such teachings that represent modernized theism, or pantheism (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, teachings of R. Tagore, M. Gandhi, Aurobindo Ghosh). Modern Indian philosophy (S. Radhakrishnan) has made efforts to combine Indian and Western concepts of the good. The spiritual hybrid of Helena Blavatsky is based on Indian philosophy - theosophy (the Theosophical Society was founded in 1875, headquartered in Adyar, near Madras) and directions diverging from it (anthroposophy, etc.). Among the representatives of Indian philosophy of the 20th century one can name Pullu Tirupati Raju (1904-1992), Daya Krishna (born 1924), Pravas Jivan Chaudhuri (1916-1961), Abdul Rahman (born 1923), K. Satchidananda Murthy (born 1924 ), Mar Gregorios (1922-1996). It should be borne in mind that many modern Indian philosophers, while maintaining an inextricable connection with their philosophical tradition, live and work outside of India. One of the most significant of them is Jitendra Nath Mohanty (born 1928). He is known both as a phenomenological philosopher and as a historian of Indian philosophy. Among philosophers adhering to the Marxist tradition, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya (1918-1993) became widely known, having made a significant contribution to the study of ancient Indian philosophy.

Many movements appeared in the West using elements of Indian philosophy, which later became part of the New Age culture.

see also

Notes

Literature

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• Sheinman-Topshtein S. Ya. Plato and Vedic philosophy. - M., 1978. - 199 p.
• Shokhin V.K. To clarify the category “medieval philosophy” (based on the Indian philosophical tradition). // Sociocultural characteristics of medieval philosophy. - M., 1990.
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• Shokhin V.K. V. S. Solovyov, Indian philosophy and problems of comparative studies // Historical and philosophical yearbook, 1995. - M., 1996. - P. 106-121.
• Shokhin V.K. Ancient Indian rationalism as a subject of historical and philosophical science (problems of periodization of the history of ancient Indian thought) // Rationalistic tradition and modernity. India. M., 1988, p. 11-45.
• Shokhin V.K. The first philosophers of India. Tutorial. - M., 1997. - 302 p.
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• Lysenko V. G. Classical Indian philosophy in translations and studies of Russian scientists (1990-1996)." // Problems of the latest historiography of philosophy of the foreign East. Moscow: Institute of Philosophy, 1998.
• Mezentseva O. V. The problem of human activity in Indian philosophy of modern times // God - man - society in traditional cultures East. M., 1993.
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• Carmen Dragonetti: Essays on Indian philosophy in comparative perspective. Hildesheim, Olms, 2009

Links

• Satischandra Chatterjee, Dhirendramohan Datta “Ancient Indian Philosophy. Part one"

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See what “Indian philosophy” is in other dictionaries:

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The Vedas (sacred texts), as well as commentaries on them, were laid down. These texts are the oldest monument in Indo-Aryan culture. They were created in the 15th century BC. e. It was believed that the Vedas have always existed and were never created by anyone. That is why these sacred texts could not contain erroneous information. Most of them are written in mystical language. With the help of it, the universe communicates with man.

Part of the Vedas is represented by records of revelations, cosmic truths. "Shrudies" are available only to dedicated people. “Smriti” (another part of the sacred texts) are adapted texts for less gifted people (workers, women, representatives of lower classes (castes). In particular, the Indian sagas Mahabharata and Ramayana belong to the “smriti".

India reveals such a concept as “Karma”. It was believed that Karma is the law of effect and cause. Everyone depends on her, even the Gods.

Philosophy in one of the philosophical categories contained the idea that everything surrounding a person is an illusion. A person’s ignorance contributes to his illusory view of the world. This idea was called Maya.

Traditional Indian philosophical schools are divided into orthodox (following strictly the foundations of ancient teachings) and non-orthodox schools. The first recognized the authority of the Vedas.

The orthodox schools include Nyaya. According to the understanding, the material world existed. Human cognition was carried out through the five senses. Philosophy Ancient India at this school she taught that everything that goes beyond the senses does not exist. Four sources of knowledge were recognized: inference, perception, comparison, and the word of authority.

Another orthodox school was Vaisheshika. It was founded by Rishi Kanada. In this school, the philosophy of Ancient India recognized the existence of two worlds: the sensory and the supersensible. At the heart of everything were indivisible particles (atoms). The space between them is filled with ether (akasha). The life force of atoms was Brahman. This philosophy also recognized two inferences and perceptions.

Mimamsa (another school of philosophy) is also based on the authority of sacred texts. In this school, philosophers of ancient India focus on correct interpretation(Vedas), as well as the importance of the rituals described in them.

The features of the philosophy of Ancient India of the Sankhya school are presented in the awareness of the materiality and objectivity of the world.

The Yoga teaching was a system of practical actions. They were aimed at understanding the absolute. The doctrine is devoted to the definition of specific driving force in the process of liberation.

Among the unorthodox philosophies, individual materialism should be noted. Lokayadas (schools) reject the need for They recognize the existence only of what is felt (the soul is the body). Life goal, according to this teaching, consisted of obtaining satisfaction.

The teachings of Jainism recognized an eternal, uncreated substance. This fundamental principle of the world was a carrier of energy and had progressive and simple movement. Jainism teaches that atoms different weights make up the whole world. Indivisible particles merge into things. According to this doctrine, only inanimate matter and souls exist. The main principle of the philosophical school was non-harm to living things.

The teachings of Buddhism assumed four truths: life is suffering; the causes of suffering are in desires and passions; relief from suffering comes after renouncing desires; completes the entire liberation of a person from the bonds of samsara (a series of rebirths - life). Buddhism was propagated by Atisha, Shantarakshita, Chandrakirti and other philosophers.

The following periods can be distinguished in the development of Indian philosophy:

Vedic (XV1-U1 centuries BC);

Classical, or Brahman-Buddhist (VI century BC - 10th century AD);

Post-classical.

The peculiarity of Indian philosophy is its intellectual tolerance. Further religious and philosophical teachings of Brahmanism and Hinduism do not refute the teachings of the Vedas, but complement them, asserting that there is one truth, but it is multifaceted.

Since the early Middle Ages, a tradition has developed to divide all the philosophical teachings of Ancient India - darshans - into two large groups:

In the first sacred books of India - Vedas(from Sanskrit - knowledge), along with religious ideas, philosophical ideas about a single world order were presented. The Vedas were created by Aryan tribes who came to India in the 16th century. BC e. from Central Asia, Iran and the Volga region. Only four Vedas have survived to this day: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. They contained scriptures, descriptions of rituals, and philosophical commentaries (Upanishads). Religious and philosophical commentaries on the Vedas - Upanishads - contain ideas that largely determined the entire subsequent development of Indian philosophy. These are ideas about the relationship between the universe and man, about the highest objective reality, inaccessible to description (Brahma), the unity of an integral spiritual substance (Brahman), the individual soul (Atman), the immortality of the soul and its rebirth according to the law of retribution (karma).

Many philosophical problems of the era were touched upon in the poems of Ancient India - the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. The Vedas, Mahabharata and Ramayana have become veritable encyclopedias of Indian folk wisdom. The first saying from the Mahabharata: “Do not do to others what would be unpleasant to you” is then found in the works of Confucius, Aristotle, Kant, and Tolstoy. Vedic literature contains knowledge relating to many areas: agriculture, medicine, astronomy, crafts, military equipment.

TO orthodox schools Vedic Indian philosophy includes the following.

Nyaya and Vaisesika, which arose as independent schools and subsequently merged into one school. Their supporters believed that atoms, while not differing in terms of size and shape, at the same time possess qualities that distinguish them: temperature, taste, color, etc. However, their teaching was noticeably different from the atomistic teachings created in Ancient Greece. The fact is that the Vaisesikas believed that atoms do not form the material world, but dharma, that is, the moral law that governs the world.

The Nyaya school is also known for creating a complex logical system. It was based on the identification of 7 categories: substance, quality, activity, relation of community, relation of particularity, relation of inherence and non-existence. Although the number of categories does not coincide with Aristotle's system, interesting correspondences can be found between them. The main goal of logical teaching was the formulation of recommendations on the rules of inference.

Sankhya and yoga are also two similar currents of Indian thought. The differences between them boiled down mainly to the fact that the supporters of the Samkhya school were mainly concerned with ontological issues and created a special picture of the world, while the supporters of the Yoga school were more concerned with practical life. The only significant difference is that yoga recognized the existence of a supreme personified being, while in the Samkhya school his existence was denied.

Sankhya is a dualistic teaching based on the opposition of spirit ( purusha) and matter ( prakriti). Purusha can be identified with consciousness, and prakriti with the body.

The yoga school, based on the ideas formed in the Samkhya school, sought to develop practical principles of human behavior. Man's salvation lies in realizing the fact that purushi is completely independent of prakriti. And in order to achieve salvation, supporters of the yoga school developed special practices based on asceticism and meditation.

Mimamsa is a doctrine that deals with problems of hermeneutics or interpretation of Vedic texts. This teaching developed a system of understanding aimed at the most accurate and deep understanding of sacred texts. The Vedas are viewed by supporters of this school not as the creation of specific people, but as a divine revelation. For this reason, the possibility of any errors in them is excluded. Mimamsa is a dualistic teaching. Representatives of this school believe that both the soul and the body are real. Proponents of the Mimamsa school developed a special theory of knowledge. In their opinion, any knowledge is based on the following sources: perception, inference, comparison, verbal description and lack of perception. By non-perception, school supporters mean the absence of what is expected.

Vedanta (Sanskrit - completion of the Vedas) is a teaching that has become the philosophical basis of Hinduism. Vedanta cosmology corresponds to the ideas of the Vedas (Atman, Brahman...). An interesting component is the analysis of the individual soul, “I”, in particular the relationship between the real and illusory world in the doctrine of the 4 states of the human psyche (waking; sleep with dreams; sleep without dreams; “transcendent state” - maximum detachment from the material world).

TO heterodox schools Indian philosophies include Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. Unlike the six darshanas described above, carvaka-lokayata rejects the Vedas, does not believe in life after death, refutes the existence of God in every sense and builds his teaching on the recognition of the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness. This is ancient Indian materialism. The origin of the term "charvaka" is not entirely clear. The term "lokayata" or "lokayatika" comes from "lokayatana" - "the point of view of ordinary people." This term speaks of the closeness of the Charvaka teachings to everyday consciousness.

The Charvaka school was very influential at a certain period in the history of ancient Indian thought and opposed Buddhism. According to its representatives, the meaning of life and the world lay not in suffering, as it was in Buddhism, but in happiness and pleasure. This school did not deny that any pleasure is associated with suffering, but this did not mean that a person is not able to minimize suffering and enjoy life. Charvaka philosophy - a system of ancient materialism, in which ontology, epistemology, and ethics are connected.

The most striking point in the teachings of the Carvaka Lokayata is their theory of the origin of consciousness. The Charvaks came close to understanding that consciousness is a property of highly organized matter. By themselves, vayu - air, agni - fire, ap - water and kshiti - earth do not have consciousness. However, properties that were originally absent in the separated parts of the whole can appear as something new when these parts are combined. The combined earth, water, air and fire give rise to a conscious living body. When the body disintegrates into elements, consciousness also disappears.

Lokayatniks opposed the basic provisions of religious philosophical schools, against religious “liberation” and the omnipotence of the gods. Sensory perception was considered the main source of knowledge. In the teachings of this school one can find clear parallels to the doctrines of origin created in ancient Greek philosophy. The school experienced a bright flourishing and was very popular among people, but subsequently philosophical works this direction were destroyed by the Brahmins, and she lost her influence.

The next movement that questioned Vedic values ​​was Jainism (VI century BC) - Indian. a religion akin to Buddhism, named after its 24 holy preachers - the "Jains" (victors), the last of whom - Parshva (750 BC) and Mahavira (500 BC) - are historical personalities. According to the teachings of the Jains (supporters of Jainism), an eternal world process, not controlled by any God, takes place according to the law of karma through the joint action of eternal spiritual monads and eternal atoms. As long as the soul is permeated with subtle matter, it must wander, taking on the appearance of ever new existences, but if it frees itself through correct knowledge and asceticism from all material things, it, saved, rises to higher sphere, where she abides, inactive, in pure spirituality. Jainism is currently practiced in India ca. 3 million people.

Buddhism arose in northwestern India in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. and today it is one of the world religions. But Buddhism is also a religious and philosophical school that preached deliverance from suffering by renouncing desires and achieving “highest enlightenment” - nirvana, founded by the Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha, 560-483 BC).

According to his teaching, everything in the world is transitory, has no self (permanent substance), and is therefore full of suffering (dissatisfaction). Since not a single good or evil deed passes without a trace, then, according to karma, each individual life after death finds its continuation in the other world depending on the actions and deeds committed. Moral actions lead to purification and passage through separate stages. The main idea of ​​Buddhism was liberation from suffering and an attempt to overcome the caste system.

Buddhist philosophy offers every believer a plan for personal improvement, the goal of which is nirvana - great liberation. The main commandments of Buddhist philosophy include: do not kill, do not steal, do not lie, be chaste, do not drink alcohol - that is, those values ​​that are contained in the person himself and do not depend on wealth and nobility. Thus, Buddhism called for activity aimed at one’s life.

The main ideas of the Buddha's philosophy:

- "Four Noble Truths."

Theory of causality.

Impermanence of elements.

- "The Middle Way".

- "Eightfold Path".

How to understand these basic principles of Buddhism?

"Four Noble Truths":

Life is suffering;

The cause of suffering is endless desires and desires for pleasure;

You can get rid of suffering by suppressing desires and aspirations, which are most often vain and end in nothing;

To suppress desires and get rid of suffering, a person must follow the path of moral improvement indicated by the Buddha.

Causality theory. There are no actions and deeds in life that would not have consequences, since everything in the world is interconnected and has its own cause.

Impermanence of the Elements. There is nothing permanent in the world and everything changes. This means that nothing in the world can serve as a guarantee of well-being or deliverance of a person from suffering. Man himself is the cause of this suffering.

"The Middle Way". The Buddha called for moderation and avoidance of extremes.

"The Eightfold Path". This path represents a gradual transformation of a person’s consciousness and psyche, his rebirth or birth in a state of nirvana, since the formation of:

correct views; right aspiration; correct speech; correct behavior; correct lifestyle; right aspirations; right thoughts; correct contemplation and getting rid of desires.

It is this path, according to the Buddha, that leads to the goal. By fulfilling these commandments, according to the teachings of Buddha, a person is able to achieve the state of nirvana. Nirvana is another dimension of existence; it is the extinction of false desires and passions. It is not non-existence; on the contrary, nirvana is the fullness of being, its existence is full of perfection. The Indian poet Kalidasa tried to characterize this path: “When you entered the world, you cried bitterly, and everyone around you laughed joyfully. Make your life such that, when you leave the world, you laugh joyfully, and everyone around you cries.”

It is believed that the Buddha himself, having achieved nirvana, preached his teachings for many years. His teaching was not a preaching of passivity and pessimism. On the contrary, he called for activity, directing it towards his life. This is an activity not for a place in the sun, but a fight against the alien in oneself. The main provisions are reflected in one of the books of Buddhism - "Dhammapada". Buddhism spread gradually in India. In the 3rd century. BC e. Buddhism was adopted as the state religion by King Ashoka. In the 1st century n. e. Buddhism split into Hinayana (lesser vehicle) and Mahayana (greater vehicle). Hinayana was intended for the enlightened minority, Mahayana was a vulgarized teaching of the Buddha, addressed to those for whom the impersonal God was inaccessible. In the Middle Ages, Buddhism became one of the world religions, but mainly outside India (in Tibet, China, Japan, etc.).

Buddhism differs from other world religions in its special understanding of the status of man in relation to the gods. Of all creatures, only man is credited with the ability to “take the path,” in other words, to consistently eradicate passions, unrighteous thoughts, etc., and achieve nirvana. Only among people can the highest spiritual beings appear - Buddhas, people who have achieved enlightenment and nirvana and preach the Dharma, as well as bodhisattvas - those who postpone their final departure to help other creatures. Without denying the existence of gods and other supernatural beings (demons, ancestral spirits, hell creatures, gods in the form of animals, birds, etc.), Buddhism does not assign any important role in religious life. While not prohibiting their worship, he nevertheless considers it a waste of time.

The most influential Buddhist organization is the World Fellowship of Buddhists, created in 1950. According to various estimates, there are up to 500 million Buddhists in the world.

Vedic religion and Brahmanism further development received in Hinduism, which was formed in the 1st millennium AD. e. The central place in the pantheon is occupied by the “trinity”, or the triune image (“trimurti”: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva), symbolizing the creation of the world, its existence and death. Hinduism became a synthesis of modified Brahmanism and local cults of the ethnic groups of India. Hinduism took the form of a religion of everyday life. J. Nehru believed that its meaning can be expressed as follows: live and let others live.

Hinduism does not have a mandatory system of doctrine, church organization, or a single leadership center. There is a certain tolerance for deviations from religious dogmas, but the requirements for social, family and personal life of the numerous castes and sub-castes into which Hinduism divides the population are extremely strong, and these traditions are still considered unshakable. Attempts to reform Hinduism were made by the writer and public figure R. Tagore, leader of the national liberation movement in India, Gandhi, etc. Modern Indian philosophers preach the combination of Western science and technology with the spiritual values ​​of the East.

Characteristic concepts of Indian philosophy:

Samsara is a philosophical doctrine about the reincarnation of the soul into various bodies, which has no end, an endless chain of rebirths;

Karma is the predestination of human life and fate and retribution for human actions, the law of causality;

Moksha is the highest level of moral perfection of the soul, the final salvation of the soul, the only way of liberation from endless rebirths;

Ahimsa is the unity of all forms of life on earth, non-violence and non-infliction of harm to everything around us.

Philosophical schools of ancient China.

Philosophical knowledge in Ancient China, as in all cultures of the world, arose in the depths of mythological ideas and on initial stage actively relied on them. Despite the fact that man in China is identified with nature and the cosmos, its problems occupy a central place in Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese thinkers in the 8th and 20th centuries. BC e. have already identified five elements, or the primary elements of nature: water, fire, metal, wood and earth. Ancient Chinese mythology attempts to explain the world from himself. In explaining the origin of the Universe, the rudiments of natural philosophy are observed. Some of the myths were preserved in later views and organically entered into ancient Chinese cosmological concepts.

This primarily applies to spirits (or deities) Yang (active male power) and Yin (passive feminine power). They were symbols of light and darkness, positive and negative, taking on the character of cosmic forces that are in constant mutual desire for each other and interaction, thanks to which everything in the world is formed, including the universe, human society, ideas, culture, morality. It was believed that there once was neither heaven nor earth and the Universe was a dark, formless chaos - from it two spirits, Yin and Yang, were born, who set about ordering the world. Subsequently, these spirits separated: Yang began to rule the sky, Yin - the earth.

Ancient Chinese thinkers used the concepts of “Yin” and “Yang” to express many opposing and successive phenomena. An important point in the first philosophical constructions Ancient China there was a confession feedback between these concepts and human life, social phenomena. It was believed that if people act in accordance with the natural pattern reflected by these concepts, then calm and order reign in both society and individuals, but if there is no such agreement, then the country and everyone in it falls into confusion. And vice versa - troubles in society create obstacles for the natural manifestations of Yin and Yang, for normal self-realization. These cosmogonic ideas were the basis of the religious and philosophical worldview of the ancient Chinese and were set forth in the ancient Chinese text “I-Ching” (“Book of Changes”).

During the period VI - III centuries. BC e. further development of Chinese philosophy takes place. This is the period of the emergence of “one hundred philosophical schools”, among which special place occupied by: Taoism (Lao Tzu and Zhuang Tzu), Confucianism (Confucius), the Mohist school (Mo Tzu), legalism - the school of legalists (Shang Yang).

The central idea of ​​Taoism was the theory of Tao. Lao Tzu (604 BC) is considered the founder of Taoism. The Chinese word “Tao” has many meanings: the path of the stars and the path of virtues, the law of the universe and human behavior. It is usually translated as "path". The main work of Lao Tzu was the work “Tao Te Ching” (“The Teaching of Tao and Te”), i.e. about the eternal path (Tao) of all things and its objective manifestations (de). Lao Tzu's philosophy draws attention to the unity of man and heaven. According to Lao Tzu, in the world there is a single path (Tao) common to all things, which no one can change. The highest duty and destiny of man, as the founder of Taoism argued, is to follow the Tao. Man is unable to influence the world order; his destiny is peace and humility. The goal of Lao Tzu's teachings was self-deepening, achieving spiritual purification, and mastering the physicality. According to the theory of Taoism, a person should not interfere with the natural course of events. The basic principle of Taoism is the theory of non-action.

Another important topic Chinese philosophical thought was the idea of ​​moral improvement along the path of observing rules and rituals, outlined V Confucianism. The founder of this philosophical concept was Confucius (551-479 BC). The Ana-lectures of Confucius, a posthumous collection of his sayings, gives an idea of ​​the philosopher's teachings.

The main problems of Confucius' philosophy:

1. System of ethical standards.

2. Political issues.

3. Personal behavior.

4. Public management.

The ideas of Confucius had a significant influence on the development of not only the philosophical, but also the ethical and political thought of China, as well as Japan, Korea and other Far Eastern countries. Reflecting on the fate of his society, on the imperfections of human nature, Confucius came to the conclusion that nothing positive can be achieved if one is not guided by correct principles. In comprehending their visions, he saw the meaning of his own activity, of life itself: “If at dawn you know the right way(Tao), then at sunset you can die.” And at the center of his teaching was man - the crown of nature, endowed with consciousness and will, capable of making government management perfect.

The main principles of Confucianism:

The principle of “ren”, i.e. humanity and philanthropy. “What you don’t want for yourself, don’t do to others.”

The principle of "li", i.e. reverence and ritual. “A well-mannered person makes demands on himself, short person makes demands on others.”

The principle of “zheng-ming”, i.e. correction of names. There will be order and mutual understanding between people in society if everyone behaves in accordance with their rank and position. “The sovereign is the sovereign, the father is the father, the son is the son.”

The principle of “jun-tzu”, i.e. the image of a noble husband. All people are capable of being highly moral, but this is primarily the lot of the wise who engage in mental activity. The purpose of commoners is to serve the aristocratic elite led by the emperor.

The principle of “wen”, i.e. education, enlightenment, spirituality, combined with a love of learning and freedom in seeking advice from inferiors.

The "di" principle, i.e. e. obedience to elders in position and age. “If a person is respectful, then he is not despised. If a person is truthful, then they trust him. If a person is sharp-witted, he achieves success. If a person is kind, he can use others.”

The principle of “zhong”, i.e. devotion to the sovereign, the moral authority of the government. Rulers must bring order to life through rules of conduct. “If the authorities are not greedy, then people will not steal.”

The combination of ideas about a harmoniously ordered society and an ideal (noble) person constituted the integral teaching of Confucianism. In its content, the ethical and political side prevailed over the actual philosophical side. The great Chinese thinker was solving the “eternal” issues of his contemporary life, and they were dominated by mental pain for social disorder and the decline of morals. Against this background, general theoretical (cosmological, epistemological) and ideological problems receded into the background.

The Confucius formula “To govern means to do the right thing” has entered the everyday vocabulary of the Chinese, denoting the norm of behavior in the family, among friends and acquaintances, and the relationship between leaders and subordinates. It has become one of the defining principles social life, entered folk culture and mass consciousness until our century.

The teachings of Confucius were expounded by his students, since he himself did not write anything. In one of the books of his students, “Lun-Yu” (“Judgments and Conversations”, or “Analects”), the wise thoughts and instructions of the philosopher are recorded in the form of questions and answers.

Philosophy is a force that significantly influences the progress of mankind. She is always a participant in the formation of certain social ideals and ideas about the integrity of the world. The very concept of philosophy and the first philosophical systems arose approximately five hundred years BC. IN different places philosophical concepts were formed that connected both philosophy of India, and religion.

Philosophy of ancient India

It has three periods. First period from the fifteenth to the fifth century BC. The second period is from the fifth century BC to the tenth century AD and the third period is from the tenth century AD. The first period is called “Vedic”, the second – “classical”, the third – “Hindu”. The continuous development of Indian philosophy began with the ancient texts called the Vedas. They were written fifteen centuries BC. The name itself comes from the word “to know” - to know. The Vedas consist of four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads. The most ancient Samhitas are a collection of four books of old “hymns”. Of these: Rigveda is the most ancient and revered Veda for comprehending the secrets of existence, Samaveda is Vedic chants, Yajurveda is the Veda for sacrifices, Atharvaveda is Vedic spells. The remaining three texts are interpretations of the Samhita. Following Vedic beliefs, God sees and knows everything and placed it in the Vedas. Knowledge is of two types: sacred and profane. Each book of the Samhita has its corresponding Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and Upanishads complement either the Samhitas or the Brahmanas. This philosophy seems difficult. And to understand her, we must remember the time in which she was born. The formation of a class society of that time, the existence of slavery, and increasing inequality in society led to the formation of castes. The caste of brahmans (priests) - of the highest order, lived at the expense of other people. Kshatriyas were warriors and constantly fought with the brahmanas for power. Vaishyas and Shudras were people who worked hard and paid tribute. And finally, slaves who were not part of any caste. All this diverse society had to coexist. And religion, like public philosophy, was supposed to create rules of coexistence in a single state of India.

The oldest of the Vedas, the Rig Veda, helped the ancient Indians comprehend the secrets of existence. The main way of comprehension is a created myth. Cosmic phenomena lie at the basis of understanding the world. Planets play the role of deities in myths. The cyclical nature of nature is reflected in ritual cyclicity. There is no main god in the Veda. A person turns to one of the gods who can help in this particular situation. The Upanishads were composed in different years, and are a secret teaching that is not accessible to everyone. The concept of “brahman” and “atman” in the Veda is the basis of being, the beginning of all things. Another interesting aspect of the Veda is the law of karma. He coordinates the process of reincarnation according to the good and evil deeds of a person. The Vedas claim that future incarnation is not the result of God’s desire, but the result of the person’s life (reward or punishment). Another key concept Ved - moksha. This is the highest goal of a person, which consists in escaping the wheel of reincarnation.

India is a very colorful country, largely due to its rich flora, more details:.

Schools of ancient philosophy of India

The task of Indian philosophical schools is the process of cognition, that is, entry into the world of ritual magic. To understand the divine principle, “turii” was used. These are mystical initiations held in schools. Among the philosophical schools in India, there were those that took the teachings of Vedism as a basis, and those that rejected Vedism. Let's get to know some of them.

Samkhya

Translated as "number". Founded seven centuries BC. At its core is the student of the Vedas. Views the world as Living being. Being represents Purusha, the never-ending cosmic Self, which does not change and bears witness to everything. Purusha is not body, soul, or consciousness. Object of multiple cognition. In addition to the unknown, there is a material principle in the teaching. This is Prakriti - primary matter, it is in eternity and constant activity. This is the cause of earthly phenomena, a consequence of the way of life. Actions of Prakriti of those gunas: appearance, activity and inertia. Is not physical actions, and their consequences. In practice, the Huns are the strength of man.

The main school of India. It is based on the Upanishads. Was the origin of the Hindu religion. Created in the Middle Ages. The main idea of ​​the school is the concept of Brahman as a multiple spiritual component. back side Brahmana is space in conjunction with time. Through them he comes into the world. Brahman is at the beginning of the Universe and at its end. The universe is just an illusion through ignorance of Brahman. Brahman is considered the highest spirit and manifests itself in man through atman. When a person transforms his inner essence into the state of Brahman-atman, he will receive pure consciousness - this is the main idea. Refusal of things, control over sensuality and mind, with strong desire liberation will lead to the state of nirvana. Will the learning process continue until one fully realizes oneself as Brahman? which will lead to the liberation of the soul.

Read more about the beliefs of Indians in the article:.

The teaching was founded by Prince Siddhartha half a century BC. Then they began to call him Buddha, which means enlightenment. This is one of the religions widespread throughout the world; it does not have the concept of “God” or an immortal soul. According to the teachings of Buddha, the world is a stream of oscillating particles from existence. They are called dharmas. They are the energetic life flow of any manifestation of human feelings. The world is just an infinite number of dharmas. Our existence is just moments. But every moment gives rise to the next. The world rests on this law. The Buddha discarded questions about the processes of beginning and end and spoke only of dharma. The teaching indicates the cause of suffering in not seeing the moment called “now”. The doctrine does not recognize the immortal soul. The basis of the teaching is the four truths. The teaching defines eight steps on the path to nirvana. The state of nirvana combines absolute wisdom, virtue and equanimity.

Lokayata

He founded the doctrine of Brihanspati. The name translates as “to go from the world.” Founded five hundred years BC. Does not accept Vedism and Brahmanism. Life on Earth was considered valuable. Supernaturalism was not accepted. The teaching accepts only the material world. Things have their own nature and arise on its basis. The world is based on four elements: fire, air, water and earth, from which everything is composed. They consider the world to be a random collection of elements. They do not recognize consciousness and personality outside the body. The soul is considered material. After death there is no person, therefore there is nothing to suffer. The teaching completely denies immortality. A person should be guided by two feelings - kama (to enjoy) and artha (to benefit). The meaning of life is seen in obtaining pleasure and avoiding suffering.

Vaisesika-nyaya

The school originated five centuries BC. Her teaching combined the concepts of singularity and logic. Recognizes the four earthly elements, the space-time component and ether, as the subtle matter of the soul and mind. The teaching believes that the whole world is a combination of these elements. For the first time the small ones stood out internal elements“annu” (atoms), as material carriers of everything. Since the particles of Annu are not able to control themselves, the highest spirit Brahman exists for this. The teaching recognizes the law of karma. Over the centuries, this teaching was reborn into ancient philosophy.

Philosophy of India, video:

Indian philosophy arises from a rich cultural tradition numerous nationalities of the great Bharata Varsha - Ancient India. According to the most conservative estimates, Indian civilization began several thousand years BC. Some researchers who sympathize with theosophical historiography tend to significantly expand these time boundaries - up to tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. The origins of the spiritual culture of Hindustan, represented by numerous myths, epic poems, religious teachings and ascetic yoga practices, go back to vast historical depths.

The direct basis of many philosophical systems of Ancient India were the sacred texts of Vedic literature and the associated ancient religion of the peoples of Hindustan - Brahmanism(on behalf of supreme god- Brahma, or Brahman). Currently, science knows four Vedas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharva Veda. The period of their formation is estimated by historians very controversially: from a thousand to tens of thousands of years. Nevertheless, it can definitely be said that the Vedas are one of the oldest known written monuments of human thought.

The Vedas in India are considered Holy Scripture or Revelation (giruti), which was written down by ancient spiritual sages (rigia). The texts of the Vedas are a collection of sayings, religious hymns, sacrificial songs and spells. Their problems are very wide. Some hymns already have a philosophical character in terms of the scale of the issues raised and the methods for solving them.

The text of each Veda is adjacent to several other texts - collections of works by different authors written later. Firstly, these are religious books called Brahmins. They are collections of commentaries and ritual texts. Secondly, this Aranyaki(lit., “forest books”), which were formed as instructions for forest hermits and ascetics. Thirdly, this Upaishads(lit., “to sit at the feet of the teacher”) are philosophical works that are regarded as the highest secret explanations of the texts of the Vedas. Thus, the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were formed over a long period of time and had a significant influence on the formation of ancient Indian philosophical thought.

The entire Indian culture was also significantly influenced by puranas(texts of a religious nature), itihasa(historical works) and the epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". Special meaning for the subsequent development of philosophy in India, one of the parts of the Mahabharata had - Bhagavad Gita(lit., “song of god”). It describes how the semi-legendary spiritual teacher Krishna (considered in the Hindu tradition avatar of the god Vishnu) explains to his friend and student - commander Arjuna the most important provisions of spiritual philosophy and the principles of yoga.

Development of philosophical schools or systems of philosophical speculation (darshan) Ancient India was closely connected with the evolution of religious worldview. The original Vedic religion of the Aryans was transformed over time into Brahmanism. Aryan supreme divine trinity (Indra - Surya - Agiya) was gradually supplanted by the gods of the new holy trinity. These are Brahma (God the creator), Vishnu (God the keeper of the world order) and Shiva (God the destroyer). Under the influence of unorthodox philosophical teachings (Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika) by the end of the 1st millennium BC. changes of a philosophical, ethical and ritual nature are growing in the bosom of Brahmanism. Over the course of the first millennium, Brahmanism transformed into a new variety - Hinduism, which in the form of two main religious movements ( Shaivism And Vaishnavism) has survived to this day almost unchanged.

The fundamental ideas about the world and man, characteristic of the Vedic religion and Brahmanism, later became the subject of further development or criticism by Indian philosophical schools. Important aspects This religious worldview looks schematically as follows.

The cause of the universe was considered Brahman, understood at first purely religiously - as divine Absolute Personality, later philosophically - as the highest Absolute Beginning objective order. The universe consists of three worlds ( triloka) - the highest spiritual (heaven), earthly and lower underground. They are home to numerous living beings: gods, humans, animals, demons, spirits, elementals and souls.

Man is the creation of the gods and at the same time represents a part of nature. He was originally endowed Atman - the spiritual principle of a subjective nature, which is the basis of his immortal divine soul. Soul (jiva) is included in the cycle of constant rebirths in the three worlds ( wheel of samsara), which are regulated karma(first - the god of retribution, later - the law of retribution). The existence of the soul in the earthly world is invariably aggravated by negative karma, leading to continuous suffering. The conditions for the new birth of a person or animal also depend on it.

Overcoming dark karma, breaking the vicious circle of samsara and achieving liberation (moksha) were considered the highest goals of religious practice and the meaning of human earthly life.

• Avatar - in the Indian religious tradition, the embodiment of the highest spiritual essence (God) in a human being.
• The Aryans, or Aryans, are highly developed tribes that conquered the native peoples of Hindustan in ancient times. It is assumed that they inhabited the vast expanses of Central Eurasia and migrated south (to the Hindustan Peninsula) and west (to Eastern Europe).