Organizational project management tools. Organizational Project Management Tools

The first part briefly discussed the nature of the project and the activities associated with its implementation. At the same time, the issue of structuring work to achieve the goals of the project was raised. It is obvious that such activities, as noted above, serve to increase efficiency project activities By different parameters(cost, terms, etc.). Among the elements of project activity one can also name organizational tools. The following types of organizational tools are distinguished http://tww48.narod.ru/slides_03/PM_03.files/frame.htm#slide0040.htm:

1. network matrices (a higher level of scientific development of “network graphs”):

· present the entire project implementation process in a visual form,

· identify the composition and structure of the work, and acceptable means and methods for their implementation;

· analyze the relationship between performers and work;

· prepare a scientifically based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire range of work on the project for more efficient use of available resources and reduction of time frames.

2. matrix of division of administrative management tasks (RAZU):

· using this matrix in the project management system, you can divide the duties, rights and responsibilities of all project participants in the project team and build an organizational-dynamic structure and information system on this basis.

3. information technology model (ITM):

· helps to design project management technology, that is, fixing the sequence and relationship of solving management problems.

Project planning

The planning process is at the heart of project implementation. Planning in one form or another is carried out throughout the entire duration of the project. "Planning is a continuous process of determining the best way actions to achieve the goals, taking into account the current situation" http://www.betec.ru/index.php?id=6&sid=18. At the beginning life cycle A project typically develops an informal preliminary plan—a rough idea of ​​what will be required to complete the project. The project selection decision is largely based on preliminary plan estimates. Formal and detailed project planning begins after the decision to open is made. Determined key events- project milestones, tasks, work and their mutual dependence are formulated.

The project plan is a single, consistent and coordinated document that includes the planning results of all project management functions and is the basis for project execution and control.

Network graphs and network matrices

A project consists of many stages and stages carried out by various performers. This complex process must be clearly coordinated and time-bound. The following requirements apply to planning and control systems:

ability to evaluate Current state;

· predict the future progress of work;

· help choose the right direction to influence current problems so that the entire range of work is completed on time according to the budget.

At this stage, the sequence of work that is part of the WBS is determined, resulting in a network diagram. This graph represents an information-dynamic model that reflects the relationships between the activities required to achieve the final goal of the project. A network diagram is also useful in the development of large systems in which many workers are involved, for the operational management of developments.

The network diagram depicts all the relationships and results of all the work necessary to achieve the final development goal in the form of a directed graph, i.e. a graphical diagram consisting of points - the vertices of the graph, connected by directed lines - arrows, which are called the edges of the graph. The duration of work can be determined if labor intensity standards are available - by appropriate calculation; in the absence of labor intensity standards - expertly. Based on the network schedule and an estimate of the duration of the work, the main parameters of the schedule are calculated.

There are two possible approaches to constructing network models. In the first case, arrows on the graph represent work, and vertices represent events. Such models are referred to as the “Work-arrow” type and are called network diagrams. In the second approach, on the contrary, the arrows correspond to events, and the vertices correspond to jobs. Such models are classified as the “Job-top” type and are called precedence networks (each subsequent job is connected to its predecessor). In Fig. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 show examples of these types of models.

Works are any actions leading to the achievement of certain results - events. Events other than the initial one are the results of the work. Between two adjacent events, only one job or sequence of jobs can be performed.

To build network models, it is necessary to determine the logical relationships between activities. The reason for the interconnections is, as a rule, technological limitations (the start of some work depends on the completion of others). The complex of relationships between jobs determines the sequence of work execution over time.

Fig.2.1 Network model of the "Work-arrow" type - Network diagram.

Fig.2.2 Network model of the "Job-top" type - Precedence network

When managing project activities, tools for creating hierarchical network models are often used. “The process of building a network is carried out step by step” http://www.iis.nsk.su/preprints/Monog/MONOGR/node49.html. First of all, the root level of the hierarchical network is created, which consists of structural transitions of the work system representing its modules. Also at this stage, places are created that model interaction points. These places and structural transitions are connected by arcs in accordance with the stage of the project. The next three generation steps are performed sequentially for each module. In the second step, a network implementing the module is generated. This network, in turn, will contain structural transitions. At this stage of construction, arcs are not created, but are completed at the next step, where subnets are created corresponding to structural transitions. After this, individual operators are broadcast. In the process of building such a network, arcs are created for the second-level network. At the fourth step, structural transitions are created that implement procedures and functions, if any. At the final step - network optimization - all empty transitions are removed, that is, transitions that have empty bodies and do not have expressions on the output arcs.

Network matrices, as mentioned above, are a higher level of scientific development of network graphs. They are “a graphical representation of the processes of project implementation, where all work (managerial, production) is shown in a certain technological sequence and the necessary relationships and dependencies” http://tww48.narod.ru/slides_03/PM_03.files/frame.htm#slide0040 .htm.

It is combined with a calendar-scale time grid, which has horizontal and vertical “corridors”: horizontal “corridors” characterize the management level, structural unit or official performing this or that work; vertical - stage and individual operations of the project management process that occur over time (Appendix 1).

The process of constructing a network matrix based on the precedence network (“Job-vertex”) includes the following steps. First of all, this is the identification of participants in the implementation of the project, their distribution hierarchically and their design in the form of a table (for example, as shown in Appendix 1): line by line from top to bottom in accordance with their position in the project. It is determined what everyone can do and what is actually required of them for the needs of the project. Then a list of works is compiled, the implementation of which is necessary to achieve the goals. Using, for example, the critical path method, the order of work is determined. Then, marking the work symbol(circle, square, etc.), they are distributed into cells of a calendar-scale grid, into which the model is placed, the elements of which are subsequently connected by arrows, illustrating - in turn - the sequence of work.

When constructing a network matrix, three basic concepts are used: “work” (including wait and dependency), “event” and “path”.

Work is a labor process that requires time and resources; The concept of “work” includes the process of waiting, that is, a process that requires the expenditure not of labor and resources, but of time, which is depicted by a dotted arrow with the duration of the waiting indicated above it.

An event is the result of the execution of all work included in this event, allowing the start of all work coming out of it; On the network matrix, an event is usually indicated in the form of a circle.

A path is a continuous sequence of works, starting from the initial event and ending with the final one; path having longest duration, is called critical and is indicated in the matrix by a thickened or double arrow.

The following network diagram parameters are distinguished:

· time early start(RN) of this work;

· early finishing time (EC) of this work;

· late start time (LM) of this work;

· late completion time (LA) of this work;

· full reserve of time for this work;

· private time reserve for this work;

· work intensity factor.

That is, it can be seen here that almost all of them are related to the time limitation of work, on the basis of which we can confidently assert that the use of network diagrams in general and network matrices in particular is intended to ensure, first of all, planning the timing of various works. Network planning methods are “methods whose main goal is to reduce the duration of a project to a minimum” http://www.projectmanagement.ru/theory/pm_glos.html. This, in turn, will make it possible to more rationally plan work and resources at the stages of project activities, some or all of which will be identified precisely as a result of constructing a network matrix.

PROJECT

Case No. 1

The figure shows an image of the network model of the “Project to create a new pharmaceutical product”:

Identify the critical path.

Case No. 2

The figure shows an image of the network model of Project Alpha; it is necessary to identify the critical path:

Case No. 3

Case No. 4

The figure shows an image of the network model of the VBB Project; it is necessary to identify the critical path:

Case No. 5

The figure shows an image of the network model of Project “A”; it is necessary to identify the critical path:

PROJECT TEAM MANAGEMENT

Case No. 1

Select the most profitable project for the Aquarium project group (by calculating the rate of return of the projects): Project A requires an investment in the amount of 900, income stream: first year - 350, second year - 425, third year - 650. Project B requires costs in the amount of 325 and will provide income: the first year – 100, the second year – 200, the third year – 300. The discount rate is 10%.

Case No. 2

The credit policy of Investor Bank limits the repayment period of the loan provided to finance investment projects related to the industry building materials, three years. Will a loan be issued? project team"Alpha" for the construction of a brick factory worth 1300 million rubles, if the income flow is 500 million rubles. annually, discount rate – 8%

Case No. 3

The West project team needs to calculate the net present value of the project's income. Project cost - 2450 million rubles, income stream: in the first year - 100 million rubles, in the second - 550 million rubles, in the third 800 million rubles, in the fourth - 1200 million rubles, in the fifth – 1500 million rubles, discount rate – 10%.

Case No. 4

The Voskhod project group needs to calculate the rate of return for a project worth 1,400 million rubles, if in the first year of operation it brings a loss of 200 million rubles, in the next five years the annual income will be 350 million rubles, the discount rate is 6% .

Case No. 5

Which project should the Alphabet project team prefer? Costs for the Omega project - 800 million rubles, income: in the first year - 200 million rubles, in the second - 350 million rubles, in the third - 400 million rubles, in the fourth year - 500 million. rub., discount rate – 11%. Costs for the Alpha project are 2,100 million rubles, income over five years is 600 million rubles annually, the discount rate is 8%.

PROJECT COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT

Case No. 1

Case No. 2

The figure shows the organizational structure of management; determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case No. 3

The figure shows the organizational structure of management; determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case No. 4

The figure shows the organizational structure of management; determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages

Case No. 5

The figure shows the organizational structure of management; determine the type of organizational structure and identify its disadvantages and advantages.

PROJECT BUDGETING

Case No. 1

Determine the payback period investment project"Ural", which requires an investment of 1000, the Projected income stream will be: the first year - 200, the second - 500, the third - 600, the fourth - 800, the fifth - 900. Discount rates - 15%.

Case No. 2

Calculate the net present value of the income of the Ural project, which requires an investment of 1000. The projected income stream will be: the first year - 200, the second - 500, the third - 600, the fourth - 800, the fifth - 900. Discount rates - 15%.

1. Presented project costs – 1000

2. Amount of reduced income – 1851

3. Net present value of income - 851

Case No. 4

Select the most profitable project (by calculating the rate of return of the projects): Project A requires an investment in the amount of 900, income stream: first year - 300, second year - 400, third year - 600. Project B requires costs in the amount of 325 and will provide income: first year – 100, second year – 200, third year – 300. Discount rate – 10%.

Case No. 5

Calculate the payback period for the “Sun” project, which requires costs in the amount of 850 million rubles. and providing income: in the first year - 85 million rubles, in the second - 300 million rubles, in the third - 400 million rubles, in the fourth - 500 million rubles, in the fifth year - 600 million rubles. , discount rate – 12% (business valuation).

ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS
Rubric (thematic category)	Technologies

3.1 Network matrices

Network matrices are the most effective tool in project management. Οʜᴎ represent a higher level of scientific development of network diagrams and are used at all stages of the project life cycle.

In a network matrix, design work is depicted graphically in a certain sequence and taking into account the relationships and dependencies between them. As an example, we give a fragment of the network matrix (Fig. 9).

Rice. 9 Fragment of the network matrix

The network matrix is ​​combined with a calendar-scale time grid. The horizontal “corridors” of the grid correspond to officials, structural divisions or levels of management. Vertical "corridors" correspond to individual time intervals.

When constructing a matrix, three basic concepts are used: work, event and path.

Job- ϶ᴛᴏ a process that requires time and resources. On the graph it is depicted as a solid arrow.

The concept of "work" also implies expectation And addiction.

Expectation- ϶ᴛᴏ process requiring time consuming, but does not require resources. On the graph it is indicated by a dotted arrow indicating the waiting time.

Addiction (dummy job) indicates only the existence of a connection between jobs, when the start of a job depends on the completion of other jobs. There is no need for time or resources. The dependence is indicated by a dotted arrow without indicating time.

Event is indicated, as a rule, in the form of a circle and represents the result of completing all the work included in it. In this case, the event allows you to start all the work that comes from it.

From the given example (Fig. 9) it is clear that four events take place within the framework of the control process, with event 1 being the initial event, events 2 and 3 being intermediate, and event 4 being the final event. These events are related to the execution of work, with work 1-2 and 2-4 performed by the director, work 1-3 and 3-4 by his deputy, and work 1-4 by the chief engineer.

The sequence of work from the initial event to the final one forms path. The path that has the longest duration in the network matrix is ​​usually called critical and is usually indicated by a thickened or double arrow.

When constructing network matrices, it is extremely important to adhere to the following basic rules.

· Rule for designating works.

It is not allowed to designate parallel work with the same code (Fig. 10a). This means that there should only be one arrow between two adjacent events. Otherwise, it is extremely important to introduce an additional event and dependence into the matrix and separate one of the jobs with them (Fig. 10b).

· No deadlock rule.

There should be no events in the network matrix from which no work comes out (except for the final network event). The presence of such events means that unnecessary work has been introduced or there is an error in the technology for performing it.

· Rule prohibiting unsecured events.

There should be no events in the network matrix that do not include any activity (except for the initial network event). In this case, for activities resulting from such unsecured events, their start condition will not be specified. Therefore, the work will not be completed.

· Delivery image rule.

Supply- ϶ᴛᴏ result obtained outside the project management system. The delivery is depicted as a circle with a cross inside. In the example given (Fig. 10c), delivery is required to complete work 2-3. As a rule, next to the supply circle the number of the specification is indicated, revealing its contents.

· The rule of organizational and technological connections between works.

The network matrix takes into account only the directly indicated dependence between jobs (Fig. 10d). To show that activity 4-5 must be preceded not only by activity 3-4, but also by activity 1-2, the matrix additionally indicates the dependence between events 2 and 4.

· Technological rule for constructing network matrices.

To build a network matrix, it is extremely important to establish which activities must be completed before the start of this work, which are started after its completion, which are extremely important to complete simultaneously with this work.

· Event coding rule.

All events in the matrix must have independent numbers. For this purpose, events are encoded as integers without gaps. In this case, the next event is assigned the next number only after numbers have been assigned to all previous events.

· Rules for specifying work, expectations and dependencies:

1) the arrow (work) should always be directed from the event with a lower number to the event with a higher number;

2) whether a work (arrow) belongs to a certain horizontal “corridor” is determined by its horizontal section;

3) the duration of work or waiting is determined by the horizontal projection of the distance between the corresponding events;

4) dependencies between jobs without waiting are indicated by vertical arrows. Moreover, their projection onto the time axis is zero;

5) tilting the arrows along the time axis to the left is not allowed.

Let us consider the procedure for constructing a network matrix using the example of the fragment “Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust” (Table 1).

Table 1

"Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust" (option)

Let's transfer the presented works into the network matrix, taking into account their sequence, duration and performers (Fig. 11).

Figure 11 – Network matrix of a fragment of the project “Preparation of proposals for

improving the organization of project management in a construction trust"

The advantage of the network matrix is ​​the visual display of the time parameters of the project, knowledge of which is extremely important for maneuvering project resources and managing the project as a whole.

The dotted lines on the network diagram show the time reserves when performing work.

Works that do not have time reserves form critical path. For the considered example (Fig. 11), one of the critical paths is the sequence of works: 1 – 3 – 6 – 11 – 13. Their total duration is 6 days.

The duration of the critical path allows you to determine the target duration of the project:

,

where is the duration of the critical path;

Probability of project implementation in given conditions. Normal value this indicator ranges from 0.6 to 1.0;

Duration variance i-th work as part of the critical path.

The actual duration of an individual job is random variable with the normal distribution law. Its parameters can be calculated using approximate formulas:

;

,

where , , , are the most probable, optimistic, expected and pessimistic duration of work, respectively;

Variance of actual work duration.

Basic parameters of the network model

The main parameters of the network model include:

Event number (N);

Early date of occurrence of an event - ϶ᴛᴏ the earliest possible moment of occurrence j th event and is determined by the execution time of all work preceding this event. Obviously, the earliest time for the occurrence of an event can occur when all the work of the maximum duration path has been completed:

T (P) j = max (T (P) i + t ij), for (i,j)ОV + j ,

where V + j is the set of arcs on the network model included in event j;

Late date of occurrence of an event - ϶ᴛᴏ the latest of the permissible moments of occurrence i-th event, in which it is still possible to carry out all subsequent work without exceeding the deadline for the entire project. Determination of the latest dates for the occurrence of events is carried out strictly sequentially in descending order of event numbers, starting with the final event, according to the formula:

T (П) i = min (T (П) j - t ij), for (i,j)ОV - i ,

where V - i, is the set of arcs on the network model emerging from event i;

Reserve - ϶ᴛᴏ the difference between the late and early dates of the occurrence of an event:

R k = T (P) k - T (P) k .

The network model parameters are specified at the vertices as follows:

Let us consider the determination of the basic parameters of the network model using the example of a project, the initial data for which are presented in Table 2.

table 2

Initial data for the project

Work number	Job title	Previous work number	Duration, days
	Coordination of customer requirements	-
	Development of documentation and building design	-
	Completion design work
	Foundation work
	Landscape design
	Construction of a fence	2, 3
	Construction of the first floor
	Completion of fencing construction work
	Installation of entrance gates
	Completion of construction work on the first floor
	Garage door installation	8, 10
	Installation of rafter system
	Landscaping works
	Installation of roof, windows and doors	9, 11, 12
	Interior work and delivery of the project to the customer	13, 14

The network model of this project is shown in Fig. 12.

3.3 Matrix for dividing administrative management tasks

For clear separation job responsibilities and responsibility in the project management process, a matrix for dividing administrative management tasks (RAZU matrix) is being developed.

The RAZU matrix is ​​a table, the row titles of which indicate the management tasks being solved, and the column titles indicate the performers (officials, divisions and services). At the intersection of lines and graphs, a conventional sign indicates the attitude of the corresponding performer to the corresponding task (Table 3).

Table 3

Matrix for dividing administrative management tasks (option)

Let's consider a possible version of the symbols of the RAZU matrix for various aspects of management.

· Conventional signs to determine responsibility for solving a problem:

I am the sole decision (with signature) and personal responsibility;

! – personal responsibility and participation in collective decision-making (with signature);

P – participation in collegial decision-making without the right to sign.

· Conventional signs for defining activities to implement tasks:

P – planning;

O – organization;

K – control;

X – coordination;

A – activation.

· Conventional signs for identifying preparation and maintenance implementation of tasks:

C – approval, approval;

T – direct execution;

M – preparation of proposals;

± – carrying out calculations;

- – non-participation in work.

To determine the attitude of each performer to each management task, an expert survey is used, most often based on a preference matrix.

The preference matrix is ​​a square matrix, the rows and columns of which correspond to the set of conventional signs of the RAZU matrix (Table 4). Each element of the preference matrix is ​​an integer:

0 – if the character corresponding to the row is less preferred than the character corresponding to the column;

1 – if the signs are equivalent;

2 – if the character corresponding to the row is preferable to the character corresponding to the column.

Table 4

Conventional signs	T	I	P	ABOUT	X	A	TO	!	Total
T
I
P
ABOUT
X
A
TO
!

It follows from the table that, for example, the symbol "T" is preferable to the symbols "I", "P", "O", "A" and "K", is equivalent to the symbol "X" and is inferior to the symbol "!".

Obviously, all symbols are equivalent to themselves, and therefore the diagonal of the matrix is ​​unit.

For each row of the matrix, the sum of the values ​​of its elements is calculated and this sum is considered as an assessment of the significance of the corresponding symbol by an individual expert.

Each expert fills out a preference matrix for each performer. Next, for an individual performer, for each symbol, the average value of its significance is calculated based on the assessments of all experts. As a rule, this is the arithmetic mean or median. Based on the average values, symbols are assigned ranks and one of them with the highest rank or several is selected in the case of the same ranks.

Determination of labor intensity coefficients for solving control problems ( TO r) is also made on the basis of filling out a preference matrix by experts. In this case, tasks are compared based on their complexity. As a result, the average conditional value of labor intensity is obtained for each task. When dividing this value by the sum of similar values ​​for all tasks, the value is obtained TO T.

PROJECT PLANNING

4.1 Basic concepts and definitions

The essence of planning consists of:

a) setting goals and ways to achieve them based on the formation of a set of works (events, actions) that must be completed;

b) application of methods and means for implementing these works;

c) linking the resources necessary for their implementation;

d) coordinating the actions of organizations participating in the project.

Plan development activities cover all stages of project creation and execution. It begins with the participation of the project manager (project manager) in the process of developing the project concept, continues with the selection of strategic decisions for the project, as well as in the development of its details, including the preparation of contract proposals, the conclusion of contracts, the execution of works, and ends with the completion of the project.

On planning stage All necessary parameters for project implementation are determined:

Duration for each of the controlled elements of the project;

The need for labor, logistics and financial resources;

Delivery times for raw materials, materials, components and technological equipment;

Timing and volumes of involvement of design, construction and other organizations.

Project planning processes and procedures must ensure the feasibility of the project within a given time frame at a minimum cost, within the limits of standard resource costs and with adequate quality.

In a well-organized project, a specific management body should be responsible for the implementation of each goal: the project manager for all goals (project mission), responsible executors for specific goals, etc. That is, the tree of project goals should coincide with the subsection structure of the organization responsible for the implementation of the project. For this purpose, a so-called responsibility matrix is ​​being developed, which defines the functional responsibilities of project performers and specifies the set of works for the implementation of which they are personally responsible.

The higher the level of the management body, the more generalized, aggregated indicators it makes decisions on the management of subordinate units. As the hierarchy level increases, the time interval between issuing planned tasks, monitoring their execution, etc. increases. At the same time, in the intervals between the moments of intervention (issuing planned tasks, determining control indicators, etc.) the lower level units work independently, regardless of divisions of the same or adjacent level. The independent functioning of divisions must be ensured by certain reserves of resources, which are also extremely important to plan.

Main purpose of planning consists of building a project implementation model. It is necessary to coordinate the activities of project participants, with its help the order in which work should be performed, etc. is determined.

Planning is a set of interconnected procedures.
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The first stage of project planning is the development of initial plans, which are the basis for developing the project budget, determining resource requirements, organizing project support, concluding contracts, etc.
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Project planning precedes project control and is the basis for its application, since a comparison is made between planned and actual indicators.

4.2 Planning processes

Planning is one of the most important processes for a project, since the result of its implementation is usually a unique object, product or service. The scope and detail of planning is determined by the usefulness of the information that can be obtained as a result of the process and depends on the content (intention) of the project.

These processes can be repeated and are part of an iterative procedure carried out until a certain result is achieved. For example, if the project's original completion date is not acceptable, then the required resources, costs, and sometimes the scope of the project must be changed. The result in in this case there will be agreed upon terms, volumes, range of resources, budget and content of the project corresponding to its goals. The planning process itself should not be completely algorithmic and automated, since it contains many uncertain parameters and often depends on random factors. For this reason, the plan options proposed as a result of planning may differ if they are developed by different teams, the specialists of which have different assessments of the impact of external factors on the project.

Basic planning processes can be repeated several times, both throughout the entire project and its individual phases. The main planning processes include:

♦ project scope planning and documentation;

♦ description of the project content, definition of the basic stages of project implementation, decomposition of them into smaller and manageable elements;

♦ drawing up estimates, assessing the cost of resources required to complete the project;

♦ definition of work, formation of a list of specific works that ensure the achievement of project goals;

♦ arrangement (sequence) of work, identification and documentation of technological dependencies and restrictions on work;

♦ assessment of the duration of work, labor costs and other resources required to perform individual works;

♦ calculation of the schedule, analysis of technological dependencies for the execution of work, duration of work and resource requirements;

♦ resource planning, determining what resources (people, equipment, materials) and in what quantities will be required to complete the project. Determining the time frame for work to be completed, taking into account limited resources;

♦ budgeting͵ linking estimated costs to specific types of activities;

♦ creation (development) of a project plan, collecting the results of other planning processes and combining them into a common document.

Helper Processes planning are carried out to the extent of utmost importance. These include:

♦ quality planning, determination of quality standards corresponding this project, and finding ways to achieve them;

♦ organizational planning (design), definition, survey, documentation and distribution of project roles, responsibilities and subordination relationships;

♦ selection of personnel, formation of a project team at all stages of the project life cycle, a set of necessary human resources included in the project and working in it;

♦ communications planning, determining the information and communication needs of project participants: who needs what information, when and how it should be delivered to them;

♦ identification and assessment of risks, determination of which uncertainty factor and to what extent can affect the progress of the project, determination of favorable and unfavorable scenarios for project implementation, documentation of risks;

♦ supply planning, determining what, how, when and with the help of whom to purchase and deliver;

♦ planning proposals, documenting product requirements and identifying potential suppliers.

4.3 Planning levels

Determining planning levels is also the subject of planning and is carried out for each specific project, taking into account its specifics, scale, geography, timing, etc. During this process, the type and number of planning levels corresponding to the allocated work packages for the project, their substantive and time relationships are determined.

Plans (graphs, networks) as an expression of the results of planning processes should form together some pyramidal structure that has the properties of aggregating information, differentiated by levels of awareness management, echeloned by development periods (short-term, medium-term and long-term). Planning levels and the system of plans should be built using the principles of “feedback”, ensuring constant comparison of planned data with actual data and having great flexibility, relevance and efficiency.

Aggregation of calendar- network plans(graphs) is an important and very effective tool for managing complex projects. Using this tool, project participants can receive network plans of varying degrees of aggregation, in volume and content, corresponding to their rights and obligations under the project. Simplified aggregation of network plans for three levels should be presented in the form of some kind of information pyramid (Fig. 13). Here, based on the detailed network plan (at the bottom of the pyramid), the plan is transferred to the next management level only with key stages(milestones).

Network plans are consolidated due to the fact that the general network plan consists of many private network plans. In each of these private plans, the longest path is determined. These paths are then put in place of individual parts of the network. Using this incremental aggregation, multi-level network plans are obtained.

Typically, the following types of plans are distinguished:

♦ conceptual plan;

♦ strategic plan for project implementation;

♦ tactical (detailed, operational) plans.

Conceptual planning, the result of which is a conceptual plan, is the process of developing basic project documentation, technical requirements, assessments, enlarged calendar plans, control and management procedures. Conceptual planning occurs early in the project life cycle.

Strategic planning is the process of developing strategic, integrated, long-term plans.

Detailed (operational, tactical) planning associated with the development of tactical, detailed plans (schedules) for operational management at the level of responsible executives.

Plan levels (aggregation) must correspond to levels of management. The higher the level, the more aggregated, generalized information is used for management. Each level has its own representation of input data, which are usually:

Contractual requirements and obligations;

Description of available resources and restrictions on their use (timing, intensity, placement, etc.);

Valuation and cost models;

Documentation on similar developments.

Level strategic planning associated with two main questions:

What are we going to do?

How do we do this?

As a rule, the private (specific) goals of the project may change as it is implemented, while the strategic goals of the project, its mission, remain unchanged. For this reason, the strategic planning stage is given special importance. Here the utmost clarity must be obtained on the project, on the main stages of its implementation, on the goals that must be achieved.

Strategic planning model may contain several substages (Fig. 14). The substages of strategic planning may not have a specific, predetermined sequence. As a rule, they are performed several times, when the information obtained after the next stage of analysis or execution of the procedure is used at the next stage, and again returns to the previous or previous stages with already clarified or some additional information.

SWOT analysis methods(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats - advantages, weak sides, opportunities, threats) are often used for strategic planning purposes, especially to assess the specific parameters of the organization itself and its environment. To conduct a SWOT analysis, use Table 5. To fill it out, it is extremely important to answer the following questions:

♦ what are our advantages, how can we realize them?

♦ what are our weaknesses, how can we reduce their influence?

♦ what opportunities exist, how can we capitalize on them?

♦ what could prevent the threats?

♦ what could we do to overcome the problem?

Table 5

Table for conducting SWOT analysis

Based on the results of the SWOT analysis, in particular, it is possible to determine which strategy should be classified as a strategy for a particular project.

Twelve possible strategies for projects:

♦ construction-oriented;

♦ finance-based, involving the use of non-trivial financing schemes, possibly using debt or subsidies, and when Special attention financial flows or cost of capital;

♦ state;

♦ design, when design technology provides significant advantages over other technologies;

♦ built on the customer-contractor relationship, which uses various shapes partnerships between the customer and the contractor;

♦ technological, focused on the use of the most modern, but also more at-risk technologies;

♦ focused on commissioning;

♦ ensuring optimization of the ratio of costs, quality and deadlines;

♦ resource-oriented, especially when resources are limited or high cost, their scarcity and uniqueness;

♦ focused on the scale of problems being solved or on a given volume, for example, provision given quantity jobs in the region;

♦ focused on chance or unforeseen emergency circumstances;

♦ passive, when there is no strategy at all and the behavior of the environment is unpredictable.

4.4 Work breakdown structure

Work breakdown structure (WBS)(WBS - Work Breakdown Structure) - a hierarchical structure of the sequential decomposition of the project into subprojects, work packages of various levels, detailed work packages. The project management system is a basic tool for creating a project management system, as it allows you to solve problems of organizing work, distributing responsibilities, estimating costs, creating a reporting system, effectively supporting procedures for collecting information about the execution of work and displaying the results in the information system. management system to summarize work schedules, costs, resources and completion dates.

The CPP allows you to coordinate the project plan with the customer’s needs, presented in the form of specifications or descriptions of work. On the other hand, CPP is a convenient management tool for a project manager, as it allows:

♦ identify work, work packages that ensure the achievement of subgoals (particular goals) of the project;

♦ check whether all goals will be achieved as a result of the project;

♦ create a convenient reporting structure that corresponds to the goals of the project;

♦ determine, at the appropriate level of detail of the plan, milestones (key results) that should become control points for the project;

♦ distribute responsibility for achieving the goals of the project among its executors and thereby ensure that all work on the project has those responsible and will not fall out of sight;

♦ ensure team members understand the overall goals and objectives of the project.

Work packages usually correspond to the lowest level of detail in the WBS and consist of detailed work. Work packages, when extremely important, can be divided into steps. Neither detailed work, nor, especially steps, are elements of construction work.

The development of the WDS is carried out either top-down or bottom-up, or both approaches are used simultaneously. The iterative process used for this purpose may involve various approaches to identifying information. For example, the technique of “brainstorming” is used, carried out both within the project team and with the involvement of representatives of other project participants. As a result of constructing the WDS, all the goals of the project must be taken into account and all the necessary prerequisites for its successful implementation must be created.

Level of detail of the SRR depends on the content of the project, qualifications and experience of the project team, the applied management system, the principles of distribution of responsibilities in the project team, the existing document flow and reporting system, etc. In the process of creating a WBS, detailed technical specifications or only functional specifications with requirements for work in the most general form.

Hierarchical structure of the project created on the basis of the WDS, allows you to apply procedures for collecting and processing information about the progress of work on the project in accordance with management levels, work packages, milestones, etc., and summarize information on work schedules, costs, resources and deadlines.

Project management system should include the ability to present information on planned and actual project data in accordance with the structure of the project management system, except, of course, standard layouts built on the basis of filters based on project indicators (deadlines, resources, responsible persons, etc.).

The basis for the decomposition of the SRR can be:

♦ components of a product (object, service, line of activity) obtained as a result of the project;

♦ process or functional elements of the activities of the organization implementing the project;

♦ stages of the project life cycle͵ main phases;

♦ divisions of the organizational structure;

♦ geographical location for spatially distributed projects.

In practice, combined CPP structures are used, built using several decomposition bases.

The art of project decomposition consists in skillfully coordinating the basic structures of the project, which include, first of all:

Organizational structure (OBS - Organization Breakdown Structure);

Structure

ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS" 2017, 2018.

General understanding of corridor network diagrams

In the so-called corridor network diagrams, part of the entire complex of works or individual performing works can be taken as a corridor (Fig. 4.12).

The belonging of a work to a particular corridor is determined by its horizontal position (or segment) in this corridor, as shown in Fig.

4.13.

So, in the figure we see that works 1-2 and 2-4 are performed on node “a”, since the horizontal segments of these works lie in the plane of the corridor of node “a”. Works 1-3 and 3-4 are performed on node “b”, since the horizontal sections of these works lie in the plane of the corridor of node “b”.

Rice. 4.12.

Rice. 4.13.

Thus, Executor 1 is depicted as a triangle on the graph. Performer 2 is indicated by a square. Performer 3 is indicated by a circle. Thus, any figure standing at the beginning of a work designates a specific performer of this work. So, work 1-2 on node “a” is performed by Contractor 1. Work 3-4 on node “b” is performed by Contractor 2, etc.

Rice. 4.15. As seen, corridor network diagram

carries significantly more information than a regular network one. This quality allows it to be used in cases where a simple network diagram is not enough to perform management functions.

Network Matrix The network matrix is corridor-scale network diagram

, organized by work performers. The network matrix allows you to link the logical-time structure and organizational structure

management of the organization. The use of network matrices in the project management process makes it possible to present this process in a visual form, as well as to identify the features of the situation, the structure and acceptable means and methods for their implementation, analyze the relationship between performers and work, prepare a scientifically based coordinated plan for performing the entire range of work to solve the task. Such a plan allows for more efficient use of available resources, since analysis of the network matrix and identification of critical work and time reserves for non-critical work make it possible to redistribute resources in order to better use and reduce the time required to complete the assigned tasks. It also becomes possible to quickly process using tools computer technology large amounts of reporting data and provide company management with timely and comprehensive information about the actual state of work, facilitating adjustments decisions made; predict the progress of work on the critical path and focus the attention of managers at various levels on them. Using mathematical apparatus, it is possible to determine the degree of probability of plan implementation and correctly distribute responsibility among the hierarchical levels of management.

The network matrix is ​​a graphical representation of project management processes, where all operations that are necessary to achieve the final goal are shown in a certain technological sequence and interdependence. The network matrix is ​​combined with a calendar-scale time grid, which has horizontal and vertical corridors. Horizontal corridors characterize the management level, structural unit or official performing one or another operation in the process of preparing, making and implementing a decision; vertical - the stage and individual operations of the decision-making process that occur over time.

A network matrix is ​​a type of network diagram. Therefore, when constructing a network matrix, the same three basic concepts are used as when constructing network graphs:

• work (including expectation and dependence);
• event;
• path.

All rules for constructing network graphs also apply to network matrices.

Building a network matrix

To correctly construct a network matrix, in addition to the general rules for constructing network graphs, you should adhere to several special rules that directly relate to network matrices as a corridor-scale variety of network models.

The belonging of a work (arrow) to one or another horizontal corridor is determined by its horizontal position or its scale-free horizontal section in this corridor. The belonging of a job (arrow) to a vertical corridor is determined by the vertical boundaries of the corridor, stage or operation, i.e. vertical lines defining the time scale of the matrix.

Rice. 4.17.

After building a network matrix, you can apply everything to it known methods calculation of analytical parameters and optimization of the model.

In order to cope with the inherent difficulties and uncertainty of every project, the manager must break the project into separate stages and identify the risk. Then, at each stage, a list of tasks is formed.

Exercise- This is a mandatory part of the work that must be completed in a predetermined manner and within a predetermined time frame. For ease of verification, it should be small (perhaps no more than 10 man-hours). Many tasks tend to be self-evolving rather than self-regulating, so for each task it is necessary to determine the following:

uniqueness of the task;

deadline(days, hours, etc.), variable and strictly established duration of work;

start and end dates:

planned (in accordance with the original plan);

expected (in accordance with subsequent changes in the plan);

real;

constraints and restrictions;

necessary resources to complete the work(spatial, technical, technological, human, financial, etc.) and their uniqueness, accessibility and alternative use for other works and projects;

connection with other tasks(preceding and subsequent tasks).

There are two main methods for planning and coordinating large-scale projects:

PERT (program evaluation and review technique) – program evaluation and review method) and

CPM (critical path method) – critical path method.

These methods emerged independently of each other. SRM was developed Dupont Corporation in the 1950s 20th century to help draw up a plan to overhaul the corporation's plant. PERT was developed around the same time by the US Department of the Navy to plan a missile development project Polaris. The methods are almost the same; in the literature the term is most often used PERT.

PERT/time - This is a planning and management method that has four features: a network schedule, time estimates, determination of time reserves and the critical path, and the possibility of taking measures to adjust the schedule.

Many projects, be it construction, marketing, development and production of a new product, can be considered as a set of independent operations, the logical sequence of implementation of which can be displayed in the form of a network diagram. It represents chains of works (operations) and events that reflect their sequence and connection in the process of achieving the goal (Fig. 16). The network originates from one node (zero event) and ends with one event when work on the project is completed.

Critical path- the longest chain of interconnected, sequential tasks for which the slack time is zero and which determine the minimum amount of time required to complete the project.

Fig. 16. Project implementation network schedule

Work-event numbers above the arrows show the duration of the work; - work of the critical path;

When analyzing by the critical path method, the following is determined:

earliest start date for surgery– this is the earliest possible start date, provided that all previous operations on the critical path are performed as quickly as possible.

This period for all operations is calculated from left to right by adding the duration of the previous operation to its own earliest start date; most late date start of operation

– the deadline for the start of the operation so that it does not cause a delay in the implementation of the entire project; the latest date for completing an operation – the date by which a network operation must be completed so that the next one can start on time, and the project as a whole can be completed in the shortest possible time. To calculate the latest completion date, you first need to calculate the most

early dates

start of operations. Then, working backwards, based on the earliest possible completion date for the project, determine the latest acceptable time for completing each activity.

Operations on the critical path do not have the slightest slack. Time reserve – the amount of free time by which the execution of an operation as part of the project can be delayed. There are two ways to calculate reserves:, in which, in general, the project timeline will not be affected (for example, if an operation that takes 2 days can begin on the 3rd day, and the next one must begin on the 9th day of work on the project, then there is a total gap of 4 days (4 = 9 – 2 – 3):

Most deterministic projects use a single estimate of how long the work will take, based on resource requirements (for example, 40 hours). work week). In less certain cases, it is recommended to estimate the duration of each job based on three estimates: optimistic, pessimistic and most likely.

In more complex projects where there is a high degree of uncertainty, PERT the assumption is made that the duration of pioneering work is a random variable that obeys the beta distribution.

Method PERT/expenses represents a further development of the method in the direction of optimizing network diagrams by cost and is characterized by:

structural analysis of project work;

determination of types of work (R&D, production, marketing);

construction of network diagrams;

establishing the functional dependence of work on its duration;

finding the duration of work that minimizes the cost of completing the project, given the deadlines for completing the entire project;

monitoring the progress of work;

development of corrective actions if necessary.

After the timing and cost of completing each work have been determined, the necessary material and labor resources and a budget is drawn up for each type of work, as well as a budget for the entire project.

During the course of the project, periodic estimates of “costs to completion” are made and actual costs are compared with planned ones. In the event of schedule delays or cost overruns, the project manager has the opportunity to take corrective action. Network schedules and cost estimates are revised from time to time to keep them consistent with actual and planned project changes.

Thus, this approach allows us to compose detailed plans and schedules, determine the duration of work and their resource support, describe the sequential connections that exist between activities and show which of them are crucial for completing the project on time, calculate the critical path. By identifying critical activities, managers can ensure they are properly monitored and ensure that all the resources needed for those activities are delivered on time.

The critical path can be adjusted using the following methods:

increase resources;

review tasks on the critical path, reduce their duration, and possibly eliminate some;

loosen restrictions, increasing risk;

detail tasks, increasing the number of relationships.

Advantages and disadvantages of the method PERT are given in table 56.

Table 56 - Advantages and limitations of the methodPERT

Advantages	Restrictions
PERT forces you to plan projects carefully. In complex projects, it is almost impossible to plan events and activities without linking them together in a network diagram. The method requires structuring a set of operations and allows you to plan a project; PERT The method is based on modeling and, therefore, makes it possible to conduct experiments and variant calculations;	increases the efficiency of control, because allows you not only to analyze data for the past period, but also to see potential problems in the future. Inaccurate estimates reduce the effectiveness of the method.

For a long time, automated project management systems, due to the high cost of computing resources, were used mainly for the analysis of large-scale projects. Nowadays, this limitation is becoming less significant due to the development of low-cost application software packages aimed at managing small and medium-sized projects

In addition to the critical path method, there is also a step-by-step control method, which follows the same pattern as the critical path method, but recognizes that the execution time of each operation is difficult to foresee in advance, and therefore makes allowances for this. (For a project containing several dozen works, finding the critical path can be done manually. To manage large projects, where the number of works exceeds hundreds and thousands, automatic project management tools have become widely used. Project for Windows ). For example, the technique PRINCE

(Projects in Controlled Environments) is used by the UK Government in the field of information technology.

9.2 Gantt chart and network matrices Another analysis tool is Gantt chart

- a diagram depicting tasks as segments on a timeline. The length of the segment corresponds to the deadline of the task. The entire project is presented in the form of a calendar, which allows you to use it to control and show the percentage of completion of the task. A type of Gantt chart is, network matrices

for the compilation of which the following characteristics are determined (Table 57):

sequence of work, taking into account the maximum possible parallelization of work;

performers of each work.

Table57 - List of works for building a network matrix

The network matrix is ​​a graphical representation of the project implementation processes, where all work (managerial, production, etc.) is shown in a certain technological sequence and relationship. The network matrix is ​​combined with a calendar-scale time grid that has horizontal and vertical “corridors”. Horizontal “corridors” characterize the degree of management, structural unit or official performing this or that work; vertical - stage and individual operations of the project management process that occur over time. When constructing a network matrix, three basic concepts are used: “work” (including wait and dependency), “event” and “path”.

On the graph, work is depicted as a solid arrow. The concept of “work” includes the process of waiting, i.e. a process that requires not labor and resources, but time, which is depicted by a dotted arrow with the duration of the wait indicated above it. Dependency between events indicates that there is a connection between activities and that there is no need to invest time and resources.

The most important advantage of the network matrix is ​​that there is no need to calculate matrix parameters, since they are clearly shown in the figure itself (see Fig. 29).

Divisions

Work code

Duration (days)

Number of staff

in subdivision, people.

Employed at work, people.

Chief Technologist Department

Chief Design Department

Manufacturing workshop rigging

Mechanical workshop

Foundry shop.

Assembly shop

Drawing29 -Example of a network matrix (fragment)

Network matrices should be used at all stages of the project life cycle. This will make it possible to present the entire process of project implementation in a visual form, as well as to identify the composition and structure of work and acceptable means and methods for their implementation, analyze the relationship between performers and work, and prepare a scientifically based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire complex of work on the project for more efficient use of available resources and reducing deadlines. It is also possible to quickly process large amounts of information, predict the progress of work on the critical path and focus the attention of project managers on them. Using mathematical apparatus, it is possible to determine the degree of probability of project implementation and correctly distribute responsibility.