Where did the names “Russia”, “Rus” and “Russians” come from? Why did the salt riot get such a name?

1. What are the main arguments given by scientists who claim that man descended from monkeys?

Evidence of the origin of humans from monkeys can be divided into comparative anatomical, embryological, paleontological, and genetic. Comparative anatomical ones include the fact that a person has all the signs of the class of mammals, the order of primates, the presence of rudiments and atavisms (see answers to the topic: the place of man in the system organic world). Embryonic: repetition of the passed evolutionary stages in embryogenesis, development of gill slits in the embryo, growth of hair and tail. Paleontological: on the timeline you can see that the further into the past, the more “ape-like” the appearance of a person is found. Actually, at a point earlier than 20,000 years ago, the human skeleton has many primitive features, large brow ridges, stooped posture, etc. At around 4,400,000 years ago, this is a common “monkey” - Dravipithecus. Modern types of man are not present in the ancient layers, nor are primitive versions of man present in the new layers. This speaks of a gradual change that brought our species from one form to another. Genetic: the genotypes of some species of primates and humans are up to 99% similar, the presence of common viruses. Individually, these signs have little weight, but taken together, according to some scientists, they prove the origin of man from the ape.

2. What ancient animal that lived on our planet more than 10 million years ago is a possible ancestor of humans?

About 14 million years ago, an animal appeared on earth that can be attributed to human ancestors - Ramipithecus.

3. Name the features external structure Australopithecus.

Short (height 120-130 cm, according to some sources up to 150 cm), weighing 25-45 kg, with a flat face and a brain volume equal to an average of 530 cm3, he had powerful jaws and teeth, a continuous brow ridge.

4. How did Homo habilis differ from Australopithecus? What signs indicate that a skilled man became the ancestor of the human race?

Homo habilis was taller than Australopithecus (150 - 170 cm versus 100-150 cm), the brain volume of Homo habilis was 500 - 800 cm3, in contrast to 450-550 cm3 for Australopithecus. A skilled man walked freely on two legs, his foot had an arch. The brushes are more perfect thumb was opposed to other fingers, which allowed him to use tools made of stone and bone. The presence of skillful tools made of stone at the sites of a skilled man made it possible to consider him the ancestor of the human race.

5. Describe Homo erectus. Why did it get this name?

Homo erectus had average height (1.5-1.8 m), a straight gait and an archaic structure of the skull (thick walls, low frontal bone, protruding supraorbital ridges, sloping chin). The bones of the legs changed, the hip joint moved to the center of the pelvis, the spine received some bending, which balanced the vertical position of the body. They knew how to maintain a fire, they existed simple shapes collective activity, owned tools. They lived in caves and led a social lifestyle (lived in groups).

Homo erectus got its name from vertical position torso when walking, which allowed a person to walk on two legs and free his hands for making and using tools.

6. Which indicates more high level Neanderthal organizations compared to early humans?

The Neanderdal brain volume was 1600 cm3, which was housed in a more domed skull compared to ancient people. Research shows that Neanderthals knew how to make and maintain fire, ate plant and animal food cooked on fire, made a variety of stone, bone and wooden tools, passed on their skills to relatives and descendants through display and speech (more developed than primitive speech ancient man). The beginnings of tribal relations and division of labor appeared: men hunted, made tools, women processed animal carcasses, collected edible plants etc.

7. What tools could Neanderthals make?

Presumably, the Neanderthal first used the most primitive tools that he inherited from his predecessors. Gradually, new, more perfect forms tools that were still made of stone, but became more diverse and complex in processing techniques. Such conclusions are based on various finds found at ancient sites. In total, approximately sixty types of products have been found, which are actually variations of three main types: the chopper, the scraper and the pointed point. During excavations at Neanderthal sites, incisors, piercings, scrapers and denticulated tools were also found. Scrapers helped in cutting and dressing animals and their skins; pointed points had an even wider scope of application. They were used as daggers, carcass knives, and as spear and arrow tips. Ancient Neanderthals also used bone to make tools. These were mainly awls and points, but larger objects were also found - daggers and clubs made of horn. As for weapons, they were still extremely primitive. Its main type, apparently, was a spear. This conclusion was made based on studies of animal bones found at Neanderthal sites.

8. What are the first fossil people called? modern type? When did they appear? What species are they classified as?

The first modern fossil humans are called Cro-Magnons. They appeared about 50-40 thousand years ago. All modern fossil humans belong to one species – Homo sapiens. You and I feel the same way about it.

9. What other views on human origins do you know?

There are a great many theories of the origin of life and man on Earth, each of which has defenders and opponents. The first thoughts about the origin of man were expressed by the ancient philosophers Democritus, Empedocles, Aristotle and others. They expressed the idea of ​​the natural occurrence of living organisms and their changes as a result of the survival of the most good options. Also, before the 19th century and the development of biology as a science, the theory of creationism prevailed, according to which all types of living organisms were created by God and unchanged from the time of their appearance, supporters of this theory were J. Ray, C. Linnaeus, J. Cuvier and others. Then The theory of Charles Darwin became widespread, and, despite the fact that Darwin himself abandoned this theory at the end of his life, the theory found its followers and is still one of the main ones to this day. There are also lesser-known theories: the evolutionary concept of Jean Baptiste Lamarck, according to which the first living organisms originated from bodies of inorganic nature under the influence of light, heat, electricity and special vital “fluids” penetrating into these bodies, giving matter the properties of living organisms; panspermia hypothesis (on Earth life appeared as a result of its introduction from space; hypothesis eternal life: life has always existed, problems of origin do not exist, coacervate hypothesis of Oparin - Haldane et al.

The new coronavirus (nCoV), officially called the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), Lately makes you talk about yourself more and more often. The new coronavirus infection was first recorded in Saudi Arabia in 2012. To date, MERS-CoV has been laboratory confirmed in 64 cases, 38 of which were fatal. The spread of the virus has already affected 8 countries: Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Jordan, France, Germany, Great Britain, UAE, Tunisia and Italy.

According to World Organization Health (WHO), we're talking about about a special strain of the virus that has not previously been detected in either humans or animals.

Dr Margaret Chan, CEO WHO has expressed serious concern that there is very little information about the new coronavirus, and it is spreading faster than our understanding of its nature and treatments. WHO experts hope to fill the gaps in the very near future by providing the world community with more information on this topic. Today, it is impossible to reliably say how exactly a person becomes infected, whether animals are carriers of the virus, whether contaminated surfaces are associated with infection, or how widely the virus spreads.

Coronavirus: why did it get such a name?

Coronaviruses, first discovered in the 1960s, are so named because of the filaments on the virus's shell that are shaped like the sun's corona during an eclipse. Coronaviruses cause respiratory infections in both humans and animals.

Where does the new coronavirus originate?

The first case of infection with a new coronavirus infection was recorded in Saudi Arabia in 2012 - it claimed the life of a 60-year-old man. The second patient, a 49-year-old Qatari man, first developed symptoms in September last year and the infection was confirmed at The Health Protection Agency laboratories in Colindale, North London.

Dr. Siouxsie Wiles, microbiologist and specialist infectious diseases from the University of Auckland, in an interview with the English newspaper The Guardian, noted that “most infections occurred in hospitals, as, for example, happened in France. At the same time, people were in hospitals for other reasons. It can be assumed that certain underlying medical conditions may make people more vulnerable to MERS-CoV infection."

What are the main symptoms of the new coronavirus infection?

So far, experts do not have enough information regarding the symptoms characteristic of a new coronavirus infection. In confirmed cases, patients experienced the following symptoms: fever, cough, shortness of breath, difficulty breathing. It is not known for certain whether these symptoms are typical for this disease.

How is coronavirus infection treated?

Due to the lack of more or less specific information about the new infection, it is not yet possible to talk about any specific treatment. Mainly in the treatment process the emphasis is on restoring the functions of the respiratory tract.

As the chief state officer notes sanitary doctor Russia Gennady Onishchenko, coronavirus is sensitive to drugs that are used to treat others viral infections, including viral hepatitis WITH.

How can you become infected with the new coronavirus infection?

These viruses typically spread in a similar manner to the flu virus. This is why experts suggest that the new coronavirus can be transmitted from person to person if an infected person, for example, coughs or sneezes. According to WHO observations, the new coronavirus is transmitted from person to person after close and prolonged contact.

How contagious is the new infection?

According to the Health Protection Agency (UK), it appears that transmission of the virus is “very limited.” If it were highly contagious, there would be more cases in more countries The incubation period is estimated to be this moment, is 7−14 days.

Where did the new coronavirus come from?

It is not yet known for certain. It may be a mutation of an existing virus. Some new infections originate from viruses circulating among animals and birds. They are known as zoonoses. Such viruses can cause minor infections in some species and more serious infections in others. There is not yet sufficient evidence that this is a zoonosis.

Is there a vaccine for the new coronavirus?

What should I do if I am planning a trip to the Middle East?

There is no clear answer to this question. WHO experts believe that there is no need to abandon your plans, but recommend taking precautions when traveling and monitoring your health. The chief state sanitary doctor of Russia, Gennady Onishchenko, advises, if possible, to refrain from traveling to Saudi Arabia.

What should I do if my trip to the Middle East cannot be cancelled?

In particular, it is necessary:

• wash your hands frequently with soap or wipe them with disinfectant wipes;
• try not to touch your eyes, nose, mouth with your hands;
• avoid close and prolonged contact with sick people;
• avoid large crowds of people.

If you feel you are getting sick:

• consult a doctor immediately;
• use a handkerchief when you cough or sneeze;
• use protective masks;
• Avoid contact with others so as not to infect them.

If after visiting countries in the Middle East you notice signs of a cold or fever, should you worry?

If the symptoms are not pronounced, most likely it is a common respiratory infection. However, if the symptoms increase significantly, breathing becomes very difficult and a cough appears, you should immediately consult a physician. Be sure to provide your doctor with information about where exactly you vacationed or traveled.

Are there any similarities with SARS?

SARS (Special Severe Pneumonia, or Atypical Pneumonia) is also caused by a coronavirus, but these viruses can cause a range of symptoms, ranging from mild to severe. Severe respiratory illness has been observed in confirmed cases, making this virus similar to SARS.

Is prevention important?

International experience gained from the 2003 SARS outbreak has shown that, for viruses transmitted by airborne droplets With pandemic potential, prevention is always much more effective than cure.

When asked, name the immediate causes of the Salt Riot. Why did it get such a name given by the author Dionea the best answer is The Salt Riot was an uprising in Moscow in 1648. The reasons for it are tax policy state, growing tax burden on the population. The treasury was in need of money, both in connection with overcoming the consequences of the Troubles, and in connection with active foreign policy. The government of Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes by raising the price of salt fourfold in 1646. But instead of replenishing the treasury, there is a reduction in income again, because the people were unable to buy salt at new price. In 1647, the government abolished the tax, but it was decided to collect arrears for three years by any means. The uprising in Moscow began on June 1, 1648.
The riot began, it would seem, with little things. Returning from a pilgrimage from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, the young Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich was surrounded by petitioners who asked the Tsar to remove L. S. Pleshcheev from his post as head of the Zemstvo Council, motivating this desire by the injustice of Leonty Stepanovich: by the fact that he took bribes, carried out an unfair trial, but there was no response from the sovereign. Then the complainants decided to turn to the queen, but this also did not yield anything: the guards dispersed the people. Some were arrested. The next day, the king organized a religious procession, but even then complainants appeared demanding the release of those arrested on the first number of petitioners and still resolve the issue of cases of bribery. The tsar asked his “uncle” and relative, boyar Boris Ivanovich Morozov, for clarification on this matter.
On the next day of the riot, forced people joined the royal disobedients. They demanded the extradition of the bribe-taking boyars: B. Morozov, L. Pleshcheev, P. Trakhanionov, N. Chistoy.
These officials, relying on the power of I. D. Miloslavsky, who was especially close to the Tsar, oppressed the Muscovites. They “performed an unfair trial” and took bribes. On the third day of the “salt” riot, the “rabble” destroyed about seventy households of especially hated nobles. One of the boyars (Nazariy Chisty), the initiator of the introduction of a huge tax on salt, was beaten and chopped into pieces by the “rabble”.
After this incident, the tsar was forced to turn to the clergy and the opposition to the Morozov court clique. A new deputation of boyars was sent, headed by Nikita Ivanovich Romanov, a relative of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. As a result, an agreement was reached on the extradition of Pleshcheev and Trakhanionov, whom the tsar appointed as a governor in one of the provincial towns at the very beginning of the rebellion. The situation was different with Pleshcheev: he was executed on Red Square on the same day and his head was given to the crowd. After this, a fire broke out in Moscow, as a result of which half of Moscow burned out. They said that the fire was started by Morozov's people in order to distract the people from the riot. Demands for the extradition of Trakhanionov continued; the authorities decided to sacrifice him just to end the rebellion. Streltsy were sent to the city where Trakhanionov himself was in command. On the fourth of June one thousand six hundred and forty-eight, the boyar was also executed. Now the rebels' gaze was riveted by the boyar Morozov. But the tsar decided not to sacrifice such a “valuable” person and Morozov was exiled to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery in order to return him as soon as the riot subsided, but the boyar would be so frightened by the riot that he would never take an active part in state affairs.
On July 16, the Zemsky Sobor was convened and decided to adopt a number of new laws. In January one thousand six hundred and forty-nine, the Council Code was approved. This is the result of the “salt” riot: the truth has triumphed, the people’s offenders have been punished, and to top it all, the Council Code has been adopted, which was designed to ease the people’s lot and rid the administrative apparatus of corruption.

Answer from Oliya Kuznetsova[newbie]
Reasons for the riot

Answer from Maria[guru]
The uprising was caused by the fact that the people were dissatisfied with the government's tax policy - to replenish the treasury, the government replaced various taxes single tax for salt, which, accordingly, led to its rise in price several times. Read the textbook.

Answer from Elena Muravyova[guru]
The Moscow uprising of 1648 was a reaction of the lower and middle strata of the population to the policy of the government of boyar Boris Morozov, the educator and then brother-in-law of Tsar Alexei Romanov, the de facto leader of the state (together with I. D. Miloslavsky). Under Morozov, during the economic and social policy Corruption and arbitrariness developed, taxes increased significantly. Various sections of society demanded changes in government policy. In order to relieve the tension that arose in the current situation, the government of B.I. Morozov decided to partially replace direct taxes with indirect ones. Some direct taxes were reduced and even abolished, but in 1646 an additional duty was imposed on goods actively used in everyday life. Salt was also taxed, which caused its price to rise from five kopecks to two hryvnias per pood, a sharp reduction in its consumption and discontent among the population. The reason for the dissatisfaction is that at that time it was the main preservative. Therefore, due to the rise in price of salt, the shelf life of many food products was sharply reduced, which caused general indignation, especially among peasants and merchants. Due to newly growing tensions, the salt tax was abolished in 1647, but the resulting arrears continued to be collected through direct taxes, including those that were abolished. Dissatisfaction was expressed primarily by the Black Sloboda residents, who were subjected (unlike the residents of the White Sloboda) to the most severe oppression, but not for everyone.
The reason for the explosion of popular indignation was also the rampant arbitrariness of officials, as reported by Adam Olearius: “In Moscow it is customary that, by order of the Grand Duke, all royal officials and artisans receive their salaries on time every month; some even have it delivered to their home. He forced people to wait for months, and when, after intense requests, they finally received half, or even less, they had to issue a receipt for the entire salary. In addition, various restrictions on trade were created and many monopolies were established; whoever brought the most gifts to Boris Ivanovich Morozov returned home cheerfully with a gracious letter. Another [of the officials] suggested preparing iron arshins with an eagle in the form of a brand. After that, everyone who wanted to use an arshin had to buy a similar arshin for 1 Reichsthaler, which actually cost only 10 “kopecks”, a shilling or 5 groschen. Old arshins, under threat of a large penalty, were prohibited. This measure, carried out in all provinces, brought in revenues of many thousands of thalers" [source not specified 83 days]

Answer from Karina Ilyasova[newbie]
The Moscow uprising of 1648 was a reaction of the lower and middle strata of the population to the policy of the government of boyar Boris Morozov, the educator and then brother-in-law of Tsar Alexei Romanov, the de facto leader of the state (together with I. D. Miloslavsky). Under Morozov, during the implementation of economic and social policies, corruption and arbitrariness developed, and taxes increased significantly. Various sections of society demanded changes in government policy. In order to relieve the tension that arose in the current situation, the government of B.I. Morozov decided to partially replace direct taxes with indirect ones. Some direct taxes were reduced and even abolished, but in 1646 an additional duty was imposed on goods actively used in everyday life. Salt was also taxed, which caused its price to rise from five kopecks to two hryvnias per pood, a sharp reduction in its consumption and discontent among the population. The reason for the dissatisfaction is that at that time it was the main preservative. Therefore, due to the rise in price of salt, the shelf life of many food products was sharply reduced, which caused general indignation, especially among peasants and merchants. Due to newly growing tensions, the salt tax was abolished in 1647, but the resulting arrears continued to be collected through direct taxes, including those that were abolished. Dissatisfaction was expressed primarily by the Black Sloboda residents, who were subjected (unlike the residents of the White Sloboda) to the most severe oppression, but not for everyone.
The reason for the explosion of popular indignation was also the rampant arbitrariness of officials, as reported by Adam Olearius: “In Moscow it is customary that, by order of the Grand Duke, all royal officials and artisans receive their salaries on time every month; some even have it delivered to their home. He forced people to wait for months, and when, after intense requests, they finally received half, or even less, they had to issue a receipt for the entire salary. In addition, various restrictions on trade were created and many monopolies were established; whoever brought the most gifts to Boris Ivanovich Morozov returned home cheerfully with a gracious letter. Another [of the officials] suggested preparing iron arshins with an eagle in the form of a brand. After that, everyone who wanted to use an arshin had to buy a similar arshin for 1 Reichsthaler, which actually cost only 10 “kopecks”, a shilling or 5 groschen. Old arshins, under threat of a large penalty, were prohibited. This measure, carried out in all provinces, brought in revenues of many thousands of thalers."

Answer from Nadezhda Nazarova-Gromova[newbie]
The Salt Riot got its name because it was sparked by dissatisfaction with the salt tax. This event was preceded by a general crisis of the taxation system.
1) Cutting the salaries of Moscow archers, gunners and city archers.
2) The growth of tax oppression: the treasury felt the need for money to maintain the expanded apparatus of power and in connection with an active foreign policy (wars with Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth).
3) Abuses and greed of the Moscow administration.

Answer from Sergey Manyak[newbie]
listen to dubstep people, yes this is a blessing to you

Answer from Lolka Lamka[newbie]
The uprising was caused by the fact that the people were dissatisfied with the government's tax policy - to replenish the treasury, the government replaced various taxes with a single tax on salt, which, accordingly, led to its rise in price several times.

Answer from Kirill Vozdvizhensky[active]
LOL

Answer from Yovetlana Sarapulova[newbie]
The Salt Riot got its name because it was sparked by dissatisfaction with the salt tax.

Salt riot on Wikipedia
Check out the Wikipedia article about the Salt Riot

Russia is a state with rich history, rich in culture and interesting people. But not all of these people know for certain what their country owes its name to. Although what is there to talk about if not all historians and linguists have a unanimous opinion on this issue. We will try to consider the most reliable theories and find out why Russia has such a name.

A brief excursion into the “evolution” of the name “Russia”

Everyone knows that the history of our country begins in Old Russian state, founded by the well-known Rurikovichs. They called him Kievan Rus, because its capital was the glorious city of Kyiv, and the population was the Russian people.

By the end of the 13th century, the Moscow Principality was formed, which was called “Russia”. And within about a century, the word “Russia” came into use. Researchers suggest that this is due to the peculiarities of the pronunciation of our people, which is why in the word “Russia” the letter “u” gradually turned into “o”. But “Russia” was used much less frequently than “Rus”, “Russian land” and “Muscovy”.

The word “Russia” itself (at that time without the double “s”) originated in Byzantium in the 10th century for the Greek designation for Rus'. “Ρωσία” is what “Rosia” looks like in Greek, and it is in this form that it was supposedly first written. And here is the first mention in Cyrillic, dating back to 1387:

The territory of the Russian state gradually grew, and the population was replenished with peoples of other nationalities - along with this, the word “Russia” was increasingly used. It was officially established in 1547. Then the whole country began to be called the Russian (Russian) kingdom.

Ultimately what we have is Russians call an individual people, and a large multinational state is called Russian.

By the way, Latin name "Russia" already found in Western European sources in the 11th century.

Thus, exactly the word "Rus" became a derivative of "Russia". But scientists have different opinions regarding Rus' and the Russian people.

By the way, the name of Ukraine most likely comes from the consonant Old Russian word “ukraine”, meaning border territory or land near the edge. But with Belarus it’s even simpler - its name comes from the phrase “White Rus'”.

Well, now let’s look at the existing theories about the origin of the word “Rus” and “Russians”.

Norman theory

In this case it is said that Rus' is none other than the Vikings or Normans. The fact is that the Tale of Bygone Years seems to indicate that East Slavic tribes turned to the Varangians, and more precisely, to Rus', who were one of the local tribes.

If we adhere to this theory, we should turn to the Old Icelandic word "Róþsmenn", which means oarsmen or sailors. Therefore, the name of the Norman tribe of Rus may well have such an origin.

Actually, Rurik himself is a Varangian from the Rus people. The Slavic tribes called him to become their ruler, because... at that time they were mired in civil strife.

The Norman theory is supported by many Byzantine and European sources, where Rus' was identified with the Vikings. In the same sources, the names of Russian princes are indicated in a northern manner: Prince Oleg - X-l-g, Princess Olga - Helga, Prince Igor - Inger.

Another interesting argument is the essay of a certain Constantine Porphyrogenitus “On the Administration of the Empire,” written in the mid-10th century. The names of the Dnieper rapids are given there. The funny thing is that two languages ​​are used for this: Slavic and Russian. The last version shows a Scandinavian similarity.

Be that as it may, the Scandinavians definitely visited East Slavic territory. This is evidenced by numerous archaeological finds. Moreover, they date back precisely to the time of the “calling of the Varangians.”

By the way, the spelling of the double “s” was finally established only under Peter I.

Slavic theory

The name of Rus' is often associated with the name of one of the tribes Eastern Slavs– Rosov (or Rusov). It is believed that they settled along the current Ros River, which is one of the tributaries of the Dnieper. But many researchers consider this theory far-fetched, and the very existence Slavic tribe with such a name, in their opinion, is doubtful. Firstly, in fact, at that time the river had a name with “ъ” at the root, that is, “Ръь”, and secondly, this assumption arose during the Soviet Union, when they tried in every possible way to challenge the Norman theory. Therefore, many of the claims are dubious. These include the fact that the Rus were so nicknamed because of their light brown hair color.

More plausible is the opinion of Lomonosov, who believed that the people of the Rus (or Rosov) have a connection with the Baltic Prussians (also Slavs). And archaeological finds indicate a connection between the Baltic Slavs and the northern population of Ancient Rus'.

Sarmatian (Iranian) theory

The Sarmatians are nomadic Iranian-speaking tribes who occupied the territory of modern Ukraine, Russia and Kazakhstan in the mid-1st millennium. These guys had such tribes as the Roxolons and Rosomans, whom many eminent scientists consider to be the ancestors of the Rus. This is where the name Rus' came from.

Swedish theory

From the 6th to the 5th centuries, the Swedes visited those lands and said that they saw Finnish tribes there, whom they called Rotsi.

Military theory

There is also a version that says that “Rus” was a name for a special military class back at the time of the birth of the ancient Russian state. Over time, the name passed on to the entire nation.

Conclusion

Why does Russia have such a name? Because the words “Rus” and “Russian” were derivative, the origin of which is associated with the name of one of the rivers in the territory of the Slavs, and with the Varangian tribe, and even with the Sarmatians and their tribe of Roxolans. Today, the Norman theory seems most plausible, supported by historical facts and archaeological finds. So it is possible that Mother Russia is so called thanks to the legendary Vikings who once came to the lands of our ancestors.