Russian artillery in 1812 Battle of Borodino
Artillery
The French artillery consisted of foot and horse: in 1799 there were 8 foot and 8 horse regiments. The foot artillery regiments consisted of 20 companies, and the horse regiments of 6. All companies, both foot and horse, had 6 guns. Before the start of the War of 1812, the artillery fleet numbered 1,248 guns, and there were more than 22 thousand artillerymen.
In service field artillery there were 4 and 8 pound guns. In 1803, 6 and 12 foot guns, 6 and 7 pound howitzers for horse artillery and 24 pound howitzers for foot artillery were adopted. 24 pound mortars did the same. But complete replacement and unification did not happen. The old 4 and 8 pound guns remained in service in significant numbers. In addition, there were captured Austrian and Prussian guns. Therefore, despite attempts at unification, the gun composition of the French army was very diverse, and in general, French artillery was inferior to Russian. The average rate of fire of French artillery was: with shells - one shot per minute, with buckshot - two. The average firing distance for cannonballs was 400 -1000 meters for cannons and 400 - 1600 meters for howitzers. When shooting with buckshot 400 - 800 meters. The guns were provided with 160-219 ammunition directly in the companies and 160-213 ammunition in mobile parks. Approximately the same amount of ammunition was in stationary arsenals. Each gun had a servant of 8-15 people. The gun team had 6 horses. Until 1809, gun servants were armed with guns and sabers. And since 1809, artillerymen were required to have only sabers, and horse artillery had sabers and pistols (it is clear that this was not always observed; as already noted, unification in the French army could not be achieved).
When determining the number of guns, Napoleon took the norm - 4 guns per thousand people. In preparation for the campaign in Russia, the bar was raised to 5.5 guns for every thousand people. In 1812, the French emperor had 1242 guns and 130 siege artillery cannons in the Grand Army. This is not counting the artillery park of troops in Germany, France, Spain and fortress artillery.
Corps of Engineers. In 1799, the French army had 36 sapper and 6 miner companies. They numbered 7.4 thousand people. By 1809 they were reorganized and received a battalion structure. Pontoon battalions were included in the artillery, and sapper and mine battalions formed a special engineering corps.
6-pounder French cannon in stowed position on the gun limber with a small charging box
Recruitment and strength of the army
Napoleon Bonaparte “inherited” the army that was created during the revolutionary wars. It was already a massive army. It was completed on the basis of the conscription system (from the Latin conscriptio - “listing, recruitment”), developed by General Jourdan and introduced in 1798. This was a method of recruiting troops, which was based on the principle of universal conscription. Even during the French Revolution, the Convention in August 1793 issued a Decree on mass compulsory recruitment into the army of all Frenchmen aged 18-40. First of all, they took 18-25 year old bachelors and childless people. In 1798, universal conscription with a 6-year period of service became a law in France under the name of conscription. Initially, the contract concerned everyone and the replacement of those liable for military service with other persons was not allowed. However, already from 1800, various relaxations were introduced in the form of substitution and monetary compensation from service. This was supposed to protect from service persons who could bring great benefit to the state in their peaceful positions (like scientists). And the rich could pay off and appoint a deputy.
Considering France's constant wars, initially defensive and then conquest, the recruitment was quite significant. In 1800, 30 thousand young people were drafted. From 1801 to 1805, an average of 60 thousand were drafted annually. In 1806-1808, up to 80 thousand people were drafted annually. In 1809, 80 thousand people were conscripted and, due to the future of 1810, they took the same number. In 1810 there was no general recruitment, but 40 thousand young men aged 17-18 were taken into the navy. At the same time, there was a “hunt for deserters,” the number of which reached a very significant figure of 50 thousand people. In the spring of 1811, 120 thousand people were drafted and in December another 120 thousand people were drafted in 1812. Already in Moscow, Napoleon ordered the conscription of 140 thousand people through the draft of 1813. In addition, during these same years, 190 thousand people were drafted into the imperial guard.
Napoleon highly valued the contraction system. The French emperor said: “The French army owes its superiority over all troops in the world to the concept.” And this is true, this system made it possible to create a numerical superiority of the active army and a large trained reserve. In the first 12 years of the beginning of the 19th century, more than 1.3 million people (including the guard) were conscripted in France. The large number of conscripts allowed Napoleon to maintain an army of 300-350 thousand people even in peacetime. The size of the army was not constant; it depended on the tasks that Napoleon was solving at that time. So, in 1799, France had 405 thousand in field troops and 44 thousand in garrisons. In 1802 the size of the army was approximately the same. During the campaigns of 1805-1807. the size of the field army was 480 thousand people. In addition, in 1804, the National Guard was created, where all Frenchmen aged 20–60 years subject to conscription could be taken. In 1809, the French army had more than 500 thousand people in peacetime, and 627 thousand people in wartime. But then the number of troops was further increased: 475 thousand people were sent for the war with Austria, and 325 thousand bayonets and sabers with Spain. The missing number was covered by calling on conscripts.
In 1812, the Great Army was deployed against Russia, consisting of 491.9 thousand infantry, 96.6 thousand cavalry, 21 thousand artillery and engineering troops, 37 thousand non-combatant soldiers. In addition to these forces, Napoleon had reserves of 50 thousand people in Germany and Italy, 100 thousand National Guard France, and in Spain an army of 300 thousand people fought. These were field troops, there were also garrisons of fortresses. Napoleon had about 1 million actual French troops, 120 thousand from the Confederation of the Rhine (Bavarians, Saxons, Westphalians, Württembergers, Badenians, Hessians, etc.), more than 20 thousand Italians, more than 20 thousand Prussians, 40 thousand Austrians ( taking into account reinforcements during the war), 12 thousand Swiss, etc. The Duchy of Warsaw put up significant forces - initially 50 thousand, and then up to 100 thousand (including Lithuanians). Representatives of other nations also took part in the campaign against Russia - the Spaniards, Portuguese, Croats, Dutch, etc.
Troop training
The combat training system of the French troops was based on the tactics of columns and loose formation while maintaining the basics of linear tactics. To conduct combat, the battalion (the main tactical infantry unit) deployed in battle formation: a column of 4 companies and one light (voltigeur) company in loose formation 100-150 meters ahead of the column. The regiment's battle formation consisted of two battalion columns. The division's battle formation consists of two lines of battalion columns and a reserve.
Given the fact that the army corps had cavalry, artillery and engineering units, this turned them into small independent armies. The corps could fight independently for several days before the main forces arrived or were ordered to withdraw. True, Napoleon did not go higher than the corps organization. All corps were combined into one army, which was usually commanded by the emperor himself. The Russian army went further in this regard - it already had an army organization.
Combat training of the cavalry was carried out according to the “Temporary Regulations for Cavalry Exercises and Maneuvers of 1808” (this was a revised charter of 1804). The main tactical unit of cavalry was the squadron. The combat formation of the cavalry was a deployed formation and a column. In battle formation, the cavalry corps (had 2-3 cavalry divisions and 1-2 horse artillery divisions) was located in several lines. There was heavy cavalry in the center, light cavalry on the flanks, horse artillery was usually placed in the intervals of the first line. The cavalry used three types of attack: attack by ledges, attack by echelons and attack by columns. The attack began at a walk, 300 steps from the enemy they switched to a trot, and 150 steps to a gallop. A ledge attack (oblique attack, i.e., a roundabout, not frontal) attack was used to strike the enemy’s flanks. The attack in echelons (in columns) was carried out by successive attacks on enemy infantry squares. An offensive in large columns was used to break through the enemy's front with a blow from the horse masses.
The cavalry of the infantry corps (usually light) was supposed to conduct reconnaissance and guard the flanks on the march. In the battle, the cavalry guarded the flanks of the infantry units and carried out various auxiliary tasks. In addition, being in reserve, she could play her role with a decisive attack at a critical moment in the battle. The army cavalry (jaegers and hussars) carried out deep reconnaissance and guarding of the army, and played the role of a reserve during the battle.
It should be noted that the Russian cavalry was in no way inferior to the French, and in a number of moments (for example, in reconnaissance) it was superior to the enemy’s cavalry.
Combat training of artillery was carried out according to the regulations of 1809. The main tactical unit of the French artillery was the company (6-gun battery). Napoleon used artillery in accordance with the principles of column tactics and loose formation. During the practice of the wars of 1805-1809, the French army had already approached the idea of using massive fire by combining batteries into large formations. Thus, in the battle of Austerlitz, batteries of 35 and 42 guns were used, at Friedland they used a battery of 36 guns, in the Battle of Wagram they created a battery of 100 guns.
Artillery usually took up positions in infantry battle formations. Light artillery fire was supposed to force the enemy to deploy his forces. After this, heavier guns began to fire - they prepared an infantry attack in the decisive direction.
Control system
The control of the French troops was carried out through the General Staff and the headquarters of the highest tactical formations. The organization and structure of the headquarters service was regulated from 1796 to 1806. draft charter and individual resolutions. The headquarters organization took its final form in 1806 and remained unchanged until 1814. The General Staff consisted of the Main Apartment and the General Staff. The headquarters of military formations - corps, divisions and brigades - were subordinate to the General Staff. The main apartment was directly subordinate to the emperor and consisted of officers for assignments and a traveling office. The officers for assignments included generals who were attached to the emperor (chief marshal, chief echelon master, etc.) and enjoying his personal trust, adjutant generals, adjutants and orderlies. The field office had two sections: a bureau office and a topographic office (bureau).
The head of the General Staff from 1799 to 1814 was the talented staff officer Louis Alexandre Berthier. The main headquarters consisted of three departments that carried out the main tasks of the headquarters service. The number of members of the General Staff was insignificant - only 20-25 people (generals, commissioned officers, staff adjutants). For correspondence, the General Staff had three bureaus: the Chief of Staff, the General Staff and the Topographical Bureau. In addition, the chief of artillery, the chief of the engineering unit and the quartermaster general of the army had their own departments. The main headquarters was guarded by a convoy regiment.
There were headquarters units in significant military formations. The corps headquarters consisted of one general, seven staff officers, ten chief officers and several orderlies. The division headquarters had three staff officers and six chief officers, and the brigade commander had two adjutants. Staff officers did not have special education and preparation. They gained management experience in numerous wars.
It must be said that despite a fairly large staff of practical staff officers and experienced in military affairs, the French General Staff and the headquarters of higher tactical formations have not reached a new level of troop control. These structures were rather a transmission link between Napoleon and the troops. Napoleon did not fully trust any marshal or general; he took the entire burden of control upon himself. Only during the War of 1812, when he could not sufficiently monitor all the forces, especially on the northern and southern flanks, did he change his system and began to entrust the solution of independent tasks to individual commanders (Dove, MacDonald, Rainier, etc.). It was rather a forced step due to the huge size of the front. In addition, the actions of the commanders did not satisfy the emperor; he said: “Without me, they do nothing but stupid things.” But even with all the genius of his mind and the highest efficiency of Napoleon, he could no longer solve all the problems, so at critical moments he was in a state of extreme overwork.
Special attention Napoleon devoted preparatory, analytical, and intelligence functions to the headquarters. He considered one of the main tasks of the headquarters to be collecting information about the Russian army, and especially about its supply bases. In December 1811, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Hugues Bernard, Duke of Bassano, received instructions to organize an agent network in the Baltic states, Belarus and Ukraine. The emperor's chief adjutant, General Jean Rapp, based on information from the agents, presented reports to Napoleon, where he quite accurately determined the composition, location and number of Russian troops. Napoleon also tried to organize sabotage in the Russian rear. This task was entrusted to the emperor's representative in Warsaw, Dominik Pradt. “It is necessary to establish connections in their rear,” wrote the French emperor, “to establish centers of uprising wherever they do not have sufficient forces, in a word, to put them in a position similar to the one in which the French army found itself in Spain...” One of the regions that Napoleon wanted to rebel with the help of the Poles was Ukraine.
In preparation for war with Russia, Napoleon made changes to the organization of the rear. Before them, troops at their locations were supplied from stores, and their replenishment was carried out by contract. During the war on foreign territory, requisitions played a big role. Experience of the campaign of 1806-1807. showed that in the eastern theater of operations one cannot fully rely on the requisition system. Therefore, considerable attention was paid to organizing and setting up a network of permanent stores and reconnaissance of supply bases for the Russian army. The sanitary service in the French army was based on a system of stationary and mobile hospitals.
Chief of the General Staff Louis Alexandre Berthier.
French fleet
On the eve of the Great French Revolution, the fleet had up to 250 ships. It was based on 76 battleships. The revolution and revolutionary wars had a negative impact on the French fleet. There was simply no time for him. About 30 ships of the line were lost, many of the officers were royalists and emigrated. A significant part of the sailors were transferred to the ground forces. The material part of the fleet was in serious condition, the ships were losing their combat effectiveness and seaworthiness.
Napoleon took a number of measures to restore the power of the fleet. The fleet began to be replenished with new ships, the number of battleships was increased to 60. The French fleet was weakened by the fact that it could not concentrate all its forces. France had two squadrons: in Toulon (Mediterranean Sea) and Brest (Atlantic Ocean). In preparation for the landing of an amphibious army in England, Napoleon ordered the construction of a significant number of rowing transports. However, due to the war with Austria and Russia, and then Prussia and Russia, these plans had to be postponed. On October 21, 1805, at Cape Trafalgar on the Atlantic coast of Spain near the city of Cadiz, the British fleet of Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson defeated the combined Franco-Spanish fleet. French Admiral Pierre Villeneuve lost 22 ships out of 33 battleships. In addition, the French fleet lost a number of ships in the Mediterranean in the fight against Senyavin’s Russian squadron. Thus, in 1812 the French fleet was seriously weakened. With the dominance of the British fleet in the Atlantic and the Russian-Swedish naval forces in the Baltic, the French fleet could not undertake serious actions in the North and Baltic seas. The weakness of the French fleet and the position of Sweden were the main reasons for Napoleon’s abandonment of the plan for the main attack in the Baltic states and the attack on St. Petersburg.
Logistics support
Production of uniforms. As already noted in the first part of the article “French Armed Forces before the Invasion of Russia,” French industry could not cope with the problem of arming a mass army. For example, it was precisely because of its weakness that it was not possible to switch to mass production rifled weapons(carbines). The most important branch of the economy, metallurgy, was weaker than the Russian one. French blast furnaces were smaller and worse equipped than Russian ones. They could not be compared with the Russian giants in the Urals and in the Central Industrial Region. The mechanization of production was no higher than in Russian enterprises. Metallurgical enterprises, as in Russia, operated on charcoal; there was a shortage of coal. The French metallurgical industry was represented mainly by small and medium-sized enterprises. Of the 150 enterprises, there were no more than two dozen large ones. By 1811-1812 French metallurgy was unable to master the Western European market and barely had time to fulfill army orders.
At the beginning of the 19th century, weapons production was concentrated in Paris, Saint-Etienne, Tulle and some other cities. At the beginning of the 19th century, all arms factories in France produced St. 100 thousand guns, then production was able to increase to 120 thousand units per year. The largest weapons center was the Saint-Etienne workshops. In 1805 they produced 45 thousand guns, in subsequent years their productivity increased to 55-60 thousand units per year. Tulle's workshops produced up to 20 thousand guns a year. The production of guns and ammunition was concentrated at the enterprises of Creuzot, Robe and others. In the first years of the 19th century, 400–450 guns were produced annually in France. The greatest work in preparing the invasion army and already during the war with Russia was carried out by the enterprises of Creuzot and Katwitz. French industry was under enormous pressure, as a huge amount of weapons, ammunition, various ammunition was required not only by the French army, but by the Allied troops. The Duchy of Warsaw, the states of the Confederation of the Rhine, and Italy, dependent on the French, did not have a developed military industry. But in general, French industry was able to arm 1.2 million soldiers and officers who were under arms in 1812 with small arms and produce more than 1.5 thousand guns. In addition, it was able to create significant reserves in the arsenals and warehouses of Strasbourg, Warsaw, Danzig, Kovno and other cities. True, we must also take into account the fact that Napoleon was able to take advantage of large stocks of weapons in the arsenals of Austria and Prussia.
The French cotton and cloth industries fully satisfied the needs of the army. In 1811-1812 France produced 4.5 - 5.5 million meters of fabric per year, exporting more than 17 million francs. Leather was produced by 2.3 million small enterprises (workshops), worth 60-70 million francs. Almost all products went to meet the needs of the army.
Finance. France's finances were in good shape. Napoleon used a system of shifting the costs of the war and the maintenance of the occupying forces to the defeated side and to the “allies” (vassals). Thus, Austria, having been defeated in the war of 1805, paid France 50 million francs. According to the Peace of Tilsit of 1807, Prussia undertook to pay 120 million francs. In addition, Berlin pledged to maintain occupation forces - French garrisons. As a result, the country's total expenditure increased to 200 million francs. The Duchy of Warsaw also undertook to pay a significant amount for its establishment - 20 million francs for the years 1806-1811. Austria, Prussia and Poland were also entrusted with the main burden of preparing military infrastructure - building and repairing roads, creating supply bases, strengthening fortifications, etc. Therefore, the military budget of France did not suck all the juice out of the country: in 1810, 389 million were allocated for the armed forces francs, in 1811 - 506 million, 1812 - 556 million. Much greater damage to the country was caused by a huge conscription, which deprived France of workers in agriculture and industry.
Food. Providing the army and navy with food and fodder was carried out by contract. The military department entered into supply contracts with private individuals. The harvest failure of 1811, which swept through Europe, also affected France. Difficulties with bread and discontent among the peasantry forced the government to ban the export of grain abroad in order to stabilize the situation. The difficult food situation was one of the reasons why Napoleon did not start a war with Russia back in 1811. By the beginning of the war of 1812, France was able to concentrate in warehouses in Thorn, Poznan, Warsaw and other cities a supply of food and fodder for three months of war. In addition, the troops of the first echelon of the invasion - 440 thousand people, had reserves for 20 days of war. The size of these reserves shows that Napoleon Bonaparte (like Adolf Hitler in the future) was confident in his army, in his ability to defeat the Russian army in a “blitzkrieg war.” The Grand Army was not ready for a long war, a war of attrition.
The War of 1812 proved the devastating power of artillery and small arms. Edged weapons - sabers, broadswords - began to be used less and less, becoming a decorative element of military uniforms. According to the presenter research fellow State Borodino Military Historical Museum-Reserve Dmitry Tselorungo, in the Battle of Borodino, more than two-thirds of the wounds were bullet wounds, 11.5%, 22% were caused by the use of artillery shells, and only 5% were associated with the use of knives. And this is in a battle where artillery, according to the reviews of many participants, played a big role, but on average at that time this percentage was still half as low. Now soldiers going with bayonets were met with heavy infantry fire, it became easier to shoot than to engage in confrontation with them .
We present to you the types of weapons that Russian and French troops fought with in 1812.
Steel arms
In addition to firearms, infantrymen and officers also had cold weapons. “The saber is the weapon you should trust most; only in rare cases can it fail,” they said then.
The blade length of broadswords and sabers was 80-100 cm, weighing about 2 kg. In battle they were used more often for piercing blows than for slashing blows. Thus, the damage to the enemy was greater. Puncture wounds were more difficult to heal and were more lethal.
Firearms
By the beginning of the Napoleonic wars, the Russian army was armed with a huge number of weapons of a wide variety of designs: from rifles of the Catherine era to ancient fuses from the time of Peter the Great. Therefore, it should not be surprising that the shelves contained guns of 28 different calibers!
To solve this problem and unify weapons, the Tula Arms Factory, since 1808, increased the production of guns from 40 to 100 thousand “barrels” per year, and in addition, from that time on, Russian factories began to produce a newer model, copied from the French gun of 1777, but by the beginning of 1812, there was still a shortage of firearms among the troops, and Russia was forced to make up for the shortage by purchasing guns in England (from 1805 to 1812 - 90 thousand) and in Austria (24 thousand).
The greatest firing efficiency of Russian infantry rifles was achieved at a distance of 70-100 meters.
The main infantry rifle of the French army was the Model 1777 rifle, sighting range The firing range from which was also about 150 meters, but in fact it was very difficult to fire effectively from it further than 110 meters.
In addition, these 1812-era guns sometimes misfired, and in heavy rain they could not be fired at all. The guns were almost identical, therefore, the Russians, if necessary, could well replace their authorized weapons with captured ones, picked up on the battlefield. In the collection of the Borodino panorama there are such captured French guns, converted to Russian ones (with the replacement of white parts with yellow parts regulated in the Russian army)
The French army had a rule according to which officers did not receive weapons from the government, but purchased them at their own expense. This led to a huge variety of models in the troops, since some of the officers bought inexpensive army models, while the majority of commanders preferred to order luxurious and expensive pairs of pistols.
Soldiers and officers were extremely reluctant to use rifled guns, which fired further and more accurately. They were difficult to maintain, required special skills, loaded more slowly than conventional smoothbore ones, quickly became clogged with powder soot, and lost all their qualities. Therefore, in the French and Russian armies they made up a very small percentage of firearms.
In order to fire a shot, the soldier had to perform 12 techniques. But these techniques were performed in order only when training young recruits; in battle, the gun was loaded according to an algorithm that had been memorized to the point of automaticity. Take the gun at an advantage, open the bolt, bite the end of the paper cartridge and pour some gunpowder onto the shelf, bury the shelf, place the gun vertically to your left, shake out the remaining gunpowder into the barrel, hammer the bullet in with a cleaning rod.
A soldier could fire on average 2-3 shots per minute. But after several dozen shots it was necessary to clean the firing mechanism, cool the gun, and change the flint.
Artillery
Artillery guns at that time were smooth-bore and muzzle-loading. The Russian land artillery had 3 types of guns - cannons, unicorns and mortars. The maximum firing range of field guns reached 2800 m, for “unicorns” - 2500 m, but effective fire was carried out at a distance of approximately 700-1200 meters with cannonballs and 300-500 meters with buckshot.
According to the calculations of French engineering officers, a 12-pound cannonball pierced two meters of earthen parapet or a 40 cm brick wall from a distance of 500 meters.
For masses of infantry and cavalry (namely, closed formations were characteristic of troops at the beginning of the battle), the cannonball was a very dangerous projectile, especially if you take into account its possible ricochet.
To service one gun, from 8 to 15 people were needed. After firing, the gun had to be rolled back to its position and turned in the desired direction. After which the barrel was cleaned with a bannik soaked in water and vinegar to extinguish the smoldering remnants of the previous shot. Then the gun was aimed at the target, the projectile was inserted and driven into the bore. After that, a fast-burning tube was stuck into the charge, which was lit from an always smoldering wick.
The gun's rate of fire ranged from one shot per minute for cannonballs and grenades, to 3-5 shots per two minutes for buckshot.
Weapons of the Patriotic War period 1812 .
The exhibition, which presents samples of handguns and bladed weapons from the collections of various museums, gives an idea of the diversity of these types of weapons during the Napoleonic wars of both the Russian army and its opponents.
In Europe in the first quarter of the 19th century. One design of small arms continued to dominate - the muzzle-loading percussion-flintlock system with the French battery lock, which appeared in the first half of the 17th century. Its invention is attributed to the French gunsmith Marin le Bourget. One of the features of this design is the battery - a part in which the cover of the shelf and the flint are combined, when the flint hits the flint, sparks are struck that ignite the seed powder on the shelf. Among the many types of percussion flintlocks, the French battery lock turned out to be the most advanced, and it was used in all European armies for about 150 years until the introduction of capsule systems. It became widespread among Russian troops at the beginning of the 18th century. All army weapons of this period were mainly smooth-bore, however, the troops used a small number of rifled carbines - fittings.
In the Russian army at the beginning of the 19th century. There were different models for each type of army, almost identical in design, but differing in weight, caliber, size and some details. During the Patriotic War of 1812, ordinary infantry and grenadier regiments were armed with infantry soldiers' rifles 1808 . Several such samples are on display at the exhibition. Model shotgun 1808 . has a caliber 17.78 mm , weight without bayonet 4.4 kg and length together with a triangular bayonet 189 cm . The firing range of soldiers' rifles was about 200 m . At this distance the target is tall 1.8 m and width 1.2 m even during the exercises, only one-fourth of all bullets fired hit. In battle, accuracy was even lower - only one out of ten shots was accurate, and only rifle fire in volleys could cause significant damage to the enemy.
The rank and file of the Jaeger regiments were armed with smooth-bore Jaeger rifles, which were somewhat shorter in length than the infantry rifles. Non-commissioned officers and the best shooters of each company were entitled to 12 sample fittings 1805 . At the Jaeger sample fitting 1805 . there was a short faceted barrel 66 cm and caliber 16.5 mm with eight screw threads. Moreover, due to the thick walls of the barrel, the fitting together with the cutlass weighed like a long infantry rifle - 4.8 kg . At that time, a dirk to a fitting was called a cleaver with a device for attaching to the barrel.
The accuracy and range of a shot from a fitting significantly exceeded these characteristics of smooth-bore guns. However, at that time, a bullet had to be literally driven into the barrel of a rifled weapon from the muzzle using a ramrod. This took about three minutes, while a well-trained soldier could fire up to three shots per minute from a smoothbore gun. Due to such a low rate of fire, only a few of the best shooters were armed with the rifles, who were supposed to conduct aimed fire only at important targets: enemy officers or artillery servants. A Jaeger fitting is on display at the exhibition 1797 ., which differs slightly from the sample fitting 1805 .
Dragoon gun in Russia until January 3 1810 . was called "musket". It differs from the infantry one in its shorter length. In addition, on the left side of the stock of the dragoon gun there is a steel bracket - shoulder strap. A pantaler, a shoulder strap, was movably attached to it. This is convenient, first of all, for the rider, which is why the shoulder strap is a characteristic detail of cavalry weapons of this period.
The hussar blunderbusses of the model invariably attract attention with their unusual appearance. 1812 . Their barrels, designed for shooting shot or buckshot, end in a wide oval funnel. The hussar's blunderbuss also has a shoulder strap. Such weapons were used in relatively small quantities: for each hussar squadron, numbering about 150 cavalrymen, only 16 blunderbuss were relied upon. In addition, the hussars used hussar rifles (carbines) and pistols, but by order of November 10 1812 . Only pistols and blunderbuss were left in the hussar regiments.
Cavalry rifles of the type served as auxiliary weapons for dragoons and cuirassiers 1803 . (like blunderbusses, there were 16 of them for each squadron). According to the same order dated November 10 1812 ., only pistols and model fittings were left in service with the dragoon and cuirassier regiments 1803 . Cavalry fitting sample 1803 . has the same caliber as the Jaeger rifle, but the barrel is half as long - only 32 cm , so the weight of the cavalry fitting is only 2.6 kg .
Usually a cavalryman was entitled to a pair of pistols. Officers of all branches of the military, horse artillerymen and pioneers also had these weapons. A soldier's pistol 1809 . There is no attachment for a cleaning rod, which was worn separately. In another model of this weapon, the ramrod is movably connected to a special hinge, in the hussar sample pistol 1798 . – placed in ramrod tubes under the forend. The accuracy of shooting from a pistol was even lower than that of rifles and carbines: it was believed that hitting a target from a horse with this weapon at a distance 20 m only possible by chance.
Officially in service with the Russian army in 1812. there were nine samples of handguns, but this did not exhaust all of its diversity. The service life of a flintlock gun was determined to be 40 years, and the regiments continued to use old-style weapons, and some guns served significantly longer than the established time. Thus, in the Russian troops at the beginning of the 19th century. one could find any of the types of small arms approved throughout the previous century. Only the guard units were armed more uniformly.
In the initial period of the Napoleonic wars, Russian infantrymen used soldier's rifles of the 1798 . From model 1808 . they differed mainly in the way the barrel was attached to the stock. If a soldier's gun has a model 1798 . these parts were connected by steel pins threaded through lugs soldered to the lower generatrix of the barrel, then in the model 1808 . - using brass stock rings, like French guns. All this is clearly visible in the samples presented at the exhibition.
Many of the rifles and pistols on display were manufactured at the Tula Arms Factory. This enterprise, one of the oldest in Russia, became the main supplier of weapons during the Napoleonic wars. So, in 1812–1815. Tula gunsmiths - a state plant together with private factories - produced about half a million rifles and pistols and several hundred thousand bladed weapons. A significant contribution to the armament of the Russian army was made by the Sestoretsky and Izhevsk arms factories, as well as the workshops of the St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kyiv arsenals, where weapons were repaired. For example, in 1812 . The St. Petersburg Arsenal repaired about 83 thousand guns, carbines and fittings.
In addition to various samples manufactured at Russian arms factories, foreign-made weapons were used in the Russian army. Thus, after the annexation of Finland to Russia, captured Swedish weapons appeared in the Russian troops. Prussian, Austrian, and Dutch samples were found in significant numbers. IN 1804 . England donated 60 thousand guns to the allied Russian army, which was part of the anti-Napoleonic coalition.
In addition, parts of captured French guns were used in the manufacture of weapons at Russian enterprises, including the Tul weapons factory. Thus, the exhibition presents two infantry rifles, made by Tula gunsmiths according to models approved by the Russian army, but with percussion flintlocks made in France.
This motley picture was also aggravated by the fact that when repairing weapons at factories they could use parts from a wide variety of samples. So, in 1769 . Pistol locks were installed on 6,000 guns.
The use of a wide variety of samples led to an unimaginable variety of calibers of small arms. It was estimated that in the Russian troops at the beginning of the 19th century. their number reached 28. However, this did not cause much inconvenience. At that time, cartridges were a paper bag or cartridge case with a charge of gunpowder and a round lead bullet, and they were made by the troops themselves. Bullets were cast in molds, which were sent to the army among other weapons accessories, according to the calibers of those guns that were in service in a given regiment.
During the Napoleonic Wars, edged weapons continued to play important role. For hand-to-hand combat, infantry and dragoon rifles had a triangular bayonet with a tube, and a cleaver bayonet was attached to the huntsman's dagger. Poison infantrymen, in addition to a gun with a bayonet, were entitled to a sample cleaver 1807 . Its single-edged blade is shaped like a saber, but shorter - 60 - 70 cm, which is why another name for a cleaver is often found: half saber. The soldier's cleavers 1807 . hilts made of copper alloy are shaped like sword hilts.
Swords in the weapons of infantry officers. In the 19th century the sword was usually a piercing, sometimes piercing-cutting weapon with a long, straight, narrow blade. have mounted blades of officer's swords 1798 ., which were used in the Russian army during the Napoleonic wars, were single-edged, usually with one wide fuller.
Russian cavalry small arms from the Patriotic War 1812 . (except for rifles for dragoons, which were traditionally considered horse-mounted infantry and formally could fight on foot) did not have bayonets, since in close combat the cavalry used pikes, sabers and broadswords.
The main type of bladed weapon of the Russian heavy cavalry (which included cuirassier and dragoon regiments) is the broadsword. The cuirassiers were armed with cuirassier broadswords 1810 ., dragoons - dragoon broadswords of the sample 1806 . In addition to these models, the horse artillery was armed with a horse artillery broadsword of the model 1810 .
The exhibition presents several versions of sabers used by the Russian light cavalry - hussars and lancers. A saber is usually understood as a type of chopping, sometimes cutting-and-piercing weapon with a curved blade. Unlike weapons with a straight blade, a saber is better suited for a chopping blow, which combines both chopping and cutting actions. For Russian light cavalry sabers late XVII I century characterized by wide, up to 4 cm , strongly curved blades. Some samples have an extension at the end of the blade - elman. It serves to shift the center of gravity of the weapon to the tip, which enhances the blow. Also, sabers were in service with officers of the Russian fleet.
The militia's weapons were very diverse, using mostly outdated models.
The Napoleonic army used small arms and bladed weapons, which were largely similar in design to Russian models.
The French army was armed with AN-XI infantry rifles (the so-called 1809 . - according to the revolutionary calendar adopted in France, this corresponds to 1800–1801), which differed slightly from the previous model 1777. Two late model guns are on display. For hand-to-hand combat, the AN-XI gun was equipped with a triangular bayonet, the tube of which was put on the barrel and secured with a clamp.
French infantry rifles differed little from the Russian infantry model 1808. Moreover, in the decree of Emperor Alexander I it was specially noted that the guns of the sample 1808 . were made “according to the French model”.
The French cavalry used carbines, which were shortened versions of rifles. In France they were called blunderbusses, although they did not have bells. French cavalry carbines have a forend that is much shorter than the barrel, like the model hussar blunderbuss shown at the exhibition 1786., which continued to be used at the beginning of the 19th century.
Napoleonic's army included numerous troops of the allied and enslaved states of France. Their firearms on display are represented by an Austrian rifle and two German pistols. It is known that captured Austrian guns were remade by Tula gunsmiths and entered service with the Russian army.
Among Napoleon's German allies were states such as Bavaria, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Westphalia, and Saxony. The models of pistols on display, used in the armies of these states, differed slightly from Russian models.
Among the foreign bladed weapons presented at the exhibition, a random saber of staff officers of the French army is interesting. Its blade appears to have been made in Germany in the early 19th century, while the hilt parts and assembly were made in France. The metal parts of the hilt are gilded. Sabers of this type were among the unregulated weapons of staff officers that appeared around 1798. Despite the similarity in the shape of the hilt and the design of the details, these samples, nevertheless, were distinguished by a certain individuality. They were widely used throughout the First Empire period, despite the introduction of the Model XII statutory saber (1803–1804) for staff officers.
The officer's saber on display may have belonged to Pierre-Louis Valot, Comte de Beauvollier, who at the beginning 1812 . was appointed military commissar of the 5th cuirassier division of the Napoleonic army. October 12 1812 . he was captured by a partisan detachment of Colonel N.D. Kudashev not far from Medyn. On October 16, the count was taken to the Goncharovs' estate, the Linen Factory, where from October 15 to 17 1812 . The main apartment of the Russian troops was located, and they introduced M.I. Kutuzov. IN 1814 . de Beauvolier returned to France.
The French officer's swords were as diverse as the sabers of staff officers. The sword blade on display is engraved with the inscription in French: “Long live the Emperor. 1812".
In addition to rifles with bayonets, the lower ranks of the French army were also armed with cutlasses with short curved blades.
Thus, the small arms and bladed weapons presented at the exhibition clearly demonstrate that the weapons of the warring parties during the Napoleonic wars did not differ significantly, and the models of the Russian army were not inferior to the models of the Napoleonic troops. The weapons of that time, kept today in museum collections, are a silent witness to the perseverance and courage of ordinary Russian soldiers and serve as an eloquent reminder of the victories of Russian troops over the armies of Napoleonic France and the military glory of our Fatherland.
Smoothbore guns constituted the main armament of Russian artillery by the beginning of the 18th century. By 1805, the reorganization of weapons was completed, which consisted of reducing the number of calibers and improving artillery guns. One of the main contributions to this success was made by the Military Commission. Over the course of three years, the number of gun calibers was identified and the best of them were left in the army. Thus, Russian field artillery troops had a 3-, 6- and 12-pounder small-proportion cannon, a 12-pounder medium-proportion cannon and a quarter- and half-pound unicorn.
Foundry
The siege artillery was armed with 18-pounder cannons, 24-pounder cannons, one-pound unicorns and five-pound mortars. They produced guns, ammunition and other artillery from cast iron and copper in the Urals, in the central and northwestern part of the country. By the beginning of the 19th century, Russia did not have time to establish mass production of weapons from iron and steel, despite the fact that it had enormous advantages, such as lightness, strength and wear resistance. The firing range of such weapons is 2 times higher than that of copper or cast iron.
Moscow. Museum of the Patriotic War of 1812. Guns and mortars
Several large metallurgical plants operated in the northwestern part of the country. The largest of them was the Aleksandrovsky plant. It smelted about 170 thousand poods per year. Before the break in relations between the Russian Empire and England in 1808, the Aleksandrovsky plant worked on coal, after which it used wood. In the 12 years before the start of the war with Napoleon, the company transferred 5,701 guns to the artillery department. Thus, the Aleksandrovsky plant worked to supply fortresses and the fleet. The Kronstadt foundry also had a great influence in the metallurgy of the north-west. From 1801 until the start of the war, this plant produced up to 60-61 thousand pounds of shells per year. The St. Petersburg foundry produced 50 thousand pounds annually. Due to a fuel shortage in 1811, these largest enterprises significantly reduced their production volumes, the government decided to transfer part of the load to enterprises in the central and southern regions.
The famous Shuvalovsky Unicorn One of the largest in the center of the country was the Bryansk foundry. In 1806, the Bryansk Foundry was obliged to master the production of guns for mounted troops. It was necessary to produce 120 units of guns. In the year the war began, the plant handed over 180 guns to the army. The Gusevsky plant produced 120 units of 24-pound guns for the Black Sea Fleet and Western fortresses. In 1802, the enterprise began to produce exclusively ammunition, just like the Batashev factories in the center and the Lipetsk plant in the south.
In the south of the country the largest were the Lugansk and Lipetsk plants. From 1799, for 12 years, the Lugansk plant produced 50 thousand pounds of guns and ammunition every year. In 1812 - about 90 thousand pounds of ammunition and 20 thousand pounds of guns. Factories in the central and southern parts of the country produced half of the artillery weapons during the War of 1812. They also received metal from the Urals.
12-pounder small proportion gun of the 1805 model. By the beginning of the 19th century, 158 metallurgical plants operated in the Ural region, 25 of which belonged to the state, the rest worked for private capital. Enterprises of the Urals provided other factories with metal and produced guns and ammunition independently. The largest center for the production of cannons in the Urals in 1811 became the Kamensk Metallurgical Plant, which had previously produced only ammunition. During the period 1811-1813, the company produced 1,415 cannons in blanks. They took their final form at other factories. The Yekaterinburg plant also produced guns. In 1811 alone, he produced 30 thousand pounds of guns and ammunition for the country, and in the year the war began, he increased productivity to 87 thousand pounds. State factories were unable to cope with the required production volumes, so private enterprises were actively involved in government orders. Of the private factories involved in the casting of cannons, the most noticeable in the Urals was the Zlatoust plant. But the Ural factories played the biggest role in the production of ammunition. In 1811, the War Ministry ordered the Ural metallurgical enterprises to produce 400 thousand pounds of guns and almost five hundred thousand pounds of ammunition, and the Naval Department of ammunition ordered 33 thousand pounds.
Model 1801 24-pounder gun in stowed position. The weight of the gun is 5.3 tons, the barrel length is 21 caliber. The factories of the Russian Empire fully provided the army with guns and ammunition. Even during the War of 1812, the Russian army did not need additional artillery weapons. To more efficiently supply the army, artillery parks were organized in 1812. There were 58 parks in total, consisting of 3 lines. The first line parks were intended to supply divisions and had their own transport. The second line parks existed to replenish the supplies of the first line, just as the third line parks replenished the second, the delivery of guns was carried out using local transport. The distance between the first and second line was 200-250 km, and between the second and third 150-200 km. Thus, retreating to the east, the army could be supported by artillery parks. All parks had a stock of guns of 296 thousand units and more than 40 million combat shells.
Weapons of infantry and cavalry
The Russian army also consisted of infantry troops and cavalry, armed with several types of firearms and bladed weapons. Light infantry in those days were called “jaegers”, their weapons were screw guns (16.5 mm with 6 grooves) with bayonets of the 1805 model, the best 12 shooters of the company and non-commissioned officers were armed with rifles (16.5 mm with 8 rifling) of the 1805 model, the firing range of which is 1000 steps. The musketeer and grenadier troops were armed with infantry flintlock smoothbore rifles mod. 1805 (19 mm) and mod. 1808 (17.7 mm). Among other things, the Russian Empire purchased some weapons in Europe. In England they bought Enfield infantry muskets mod. 1802 (19 mm), in Austria - infantry rifles mod. 1807 g (17.6 mm). The melee weapon of privates and non-commissioned officers was a cleaver with a single-edged blade mod. 1807 All officers and generals of the Russian infantry troops were armed with an infantry sword with a single-edged straight blade. 1798
The squadron of hussars was armed with 16 blunderbuss and light carbines, and the dragoons and cuirassiers were armed with smoothbore guns of the 1809 model. In addition, all squadrons of cavalry troops had 16 people with a cavalry rifled fitting of the 1803 model.
The cavalrymen of the Russian army were armed with 2 saddle pistols in holsters attached to both sides of the saddle. Horse artillerymen, infantry pioneers, and officers of all branches of the military had pistols in the troops of the Russian Empire. In the Russian army, just like the French, there were a wide variety of pistols, because officers could buy them at their own expense. One could see how the most common cavalry soldier pistols mod. 1809, as well as expensive examples made by the best European gunsmiths. The Cossacks also armed themselves with pistols at their own expense.
Cavalry pistol model 1809 Straight broadswords with single-edged blades became melee weapons for heavy cavalry; for dragoons - broadswords of the 1806 model, 102 cm long and weighing 1.65 kg. The scabbard for them was wooden, with metal plates and covered with leather. Cuirassier units kept their broadswords mod. 1810 in a steel scabbard. The Russian light cavalry used curved sabers of the 1798 and 1809 models. At the same time, the saber mod. 1798 was popular among the hussars; it was worn in a wooden sheath with metal overlays and a leather-covered scabbard. And the saber arr. 1809 were armed primarily by the lancers, who kept it in steel sheaths of 2 types. The Cossacks' edged weapons were amazing in their variety; they were often captured examples, passed down by inheritance.
Cavalry saber mod. 1809 The main problem of the Russian troops was the different calibers of the weapons, while some samples had already been taken out of production by that time. For example, rifle guns had 13 different calibers, and infantry guns had 28. Some of the weapons were domestically produced, and some were foreign. In 1809, it was decided to leave a single caliber for all guns - 7 lines (17.7 mm). But constant wars, causing significant losses of weapons, did not allow the army to be completely re-equipped and brought to a single caliber.
Cuirassier officer's broadswords of the 1810 model. In Russia, small arms were produced mainly at three factories - Tula, Sestroretsk and Izhevsk. The arsenals of St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kyiv were also involved in the manufacture and repair of guns. The Tula plant became a center for the production of shotguns, with an annual volume of up to 43-45 thousand units. In 1808 he began to produce the latest designs weapons in the amount of 59.6 thousand guns per year, and the production volumes of the Tula plant grew every year. In 1812, a standard of 144 thousand units was established, of which 127 thousand were completed jointly with contractors.
The Sestroretsk plant was second in importance in the production of guns, and the Izhevsk plant, founded in 1807, was third. However, their productivity was tens of times lower than Tula. The arsenals were engaged in the repair of small arms. So in St. Petersburg in 1812, more than 80 thousand were repaired, in Moscow slightly less than 35 thousand, and in Kyiv - 35.1 thousand weapons.
Together, Russian arms factories at the beginning of the 19th century produced up to 150 thousand guns a year, about the same amount repaired arsenals, and do not forget about craft workshops. So Pavlovsk craftsmen in 1812-1813 made approximately a thousand guns for the militia. Russian industry in the 19th century was able to fully provide the army with weapons for current tasks, the creation of new troops and some reserves. Thus, by the beginning of 1812, the arsenals of the Russian Empire included 162.7 thousand infantry, 2.7 thousand cuirassier, 3.5 thousand dragoon rifles, 3.9 thousand pairs of pistols and 6.9 thousand carbines. Most of them went into service with new regiments created during the war.
The armament of the militia was not so good. They required 250-300 thousand guns. Russian military factories were unable to provide this volume in a short time. We purchased 50 thousand guns from England, but they were not complete and arrived late. As a result, these guns were sent to Arzamas only in November 1812 to equip spare parts of the militia.
Edged weapons for the army were manufactured at the same enterprises where small arms were made. The Tula plant, for example, in 1808 produced more than 18 thousand cutlasses and about 600 sapper picks, and in 1812 it produced 8.6 thousand pike tips, 7 thousand sabers and 14.3 thousand cutlasses. Sestroretsk plant from 1805 to 1807 he produced 15.4 thousand cutlasses, and two years before the war about 20 thousand cutlasses. At the Izhevsk plant in 1812, 2.2 thousand cutlasses were produced. In 1812, the arsenals surpassed the production of bladed weapons. largest factories and gave the army more than 100 thousand units of various weapons. By the end of the modernization of the army of 1810-1812, there were 172 thousand units of bladed weapons in the warehouses of factories and arsenals, including cutlasses, cuirassier and dragoon broadswords, hussars and lancers. All of them were used to equip new regiments. But enterprises quickly replenished this stock again; by the beginning of August 1812, a third of the previous volumes were in the arsenal warehouses.
Gunpowder production
Much attention in the Russian Empire was paid to the production of gunpowder. In 1804, the government issued a regulation that state gunpowder factories should produce 47.5 thousand pounds of gunpowder annually, and private ones - 9 thousand pounds. This load was distributed according to production capacity between the largest Russian factories - Okhtensky, Shostensky and Kazansky. The Moscow private enterprises of Behrens and Gubin divided the load of 9 thousand poods among themselves. It was decided that 35 thousand poods each year would be transferred to military needs for combat training, the rest of the volume would be used to replenish combat reserves.
The experience of 1805-1807 showed that such a reserve was not enough to supply the army during hostilities, so from 1807 production volumes were ordered to be doubled. Now the productivity of gunpowder enterprises has reached the level of 116.1 thousand pounds per year; they maintained this rate of production until 1812. Thanks to such production volumes, by the end of 1811 Russia had a sufficient supply of gunpowder to conduct active military operations. In 1812, the country's gunpowder enterprises produced 95.1 thousand pounds of gunpowder, part of these reserves remained for 1813.
The army is the armed organization of the state. Consequently, the main difference between the army and others government organizations in that it is armed, that is, to perform its functions it has a complex of various types of weapons and means to ensure their use. The Russian army in 1812 was armed with bladed weapons and firearms, as well as defensive weapons. Melee weapons, the combat use of which is not associated with the use of explosives (for the period under review - gunpowder), included weapons of various designs, the action of which is based on the application of the muscular efforts of the warrior. According to the nature of the impact, it was divided into impact (available only in irregular troops in the form of a mace, pole, etc.), piercing (bayonet, sword, dirk, pike, etc.), chopping (for example, a militia ax and a partisan’s scythe), as well as piercing-cutting or chopping-piercing, depending on the predominance of one or another quality (dagger, cleaver, broadsword, saber and the like). Metal weapons also belonged to cold weapons, some types of which (bow, sulitsa, dart) were still preserved in some militia formations (Bashkir, Kalmyk, etc.). 
A firearm, in which the pressure force of gases generated during the combustion of gunpowder is used to eject a projectile or bullet from the barrel, consists of means of direct destruction (cannonball, grenade, buckshot, bomb, bullet and other projectiles) and means of throwing them to the target, connected in a single design (cannon, howitzer, unicorn, mortar, shotgun, pistol, etc.). Firearms in 1812 were divided into artillery and small arms. The main design element of this weapon was the barrel, which is why it is called a barrel firearm. Artillery weapons It was intended to hit various targets at considerable distances (up to 2000 m) and was in service with the ground forces (foot, horse, fortress and siege artillery) and the navy (naval artillery). 
All types of troops (infantry, cavalry, artillerymen, sappers and sailors) were armed with small arms for close combat against open targets. It included not only service weapons specially created for regular troops (infantry rifle, Jaeger rifle, blunderbuss, pistol, etc.), but also hunting and even dueling weapons, which were often used by militias and partisans. The production of small arms was carried out by Tula; Sestroretsk and Izhevsk factories, which from 1810 to 1814 produced and restored more than 624 thousand guns, fittings and pistols. At the St. Petersburg, Moscow and Kiev arsenals in 1812, about 152 thousand small arms were repaired. By the beginning of 1812, 375,563 guns were stored in factories and arsenals; by June 1812, 350,576 were sent to the troops. In the very first days of the war, the remaining stock was entirely used for the needs of the army. Artillery guns were manufactured by the workshops of the St. Petersburg and Bryansk arsenals, and restored at the Kiev arsenal. This production base fully met the needs of field artillery during the Patriotic War.
Defensive weapons include all means of protecting a warrior in battle. By 1812, due to the significant development of the combat capabilities of firearms, defensive weapons retained the ability to withstand the effects of only edged weapons (for example, a cuirass as part of a knight's armor). In certain cases, a cuirass, the thickness of which was increased to 3.5 mm, was able to protect against a rifle or pistol bullet. However, such a cuirass weighing up to 10 kg significantly hindered the warrior’s actions, reduced maneuverability and speed of movement, and therefore was preserved only in the cavalry (cuirassiers). 8 had a lesser degree of protective ability helmet made of patent leather with a horsehair crest for cuirassiers, dragoons and horse artillery.
Weapons served not only as a means of armed struggle, but also as a form of reward for military exploits. At the same time, its details were covered with gold and decorated precious stones or golden bay leaves (laurels). However, because of this, it did not lose its combat properties at that time. One of the most common officer awards in 1812 was a gold (that is, with a gilded hilt) saber or sword with an embossed inscription on the protective cup or bow “For bravery.” This award was equivalent to an order, but for junior officers, as a rule, it was primary. For exploits in Patriotic War More than a thousand people were awarded golden weapons “For bravery” and, in addition, 62 generals were awarded golden weapons with diamonds, diamonds and laurels. Often, personal inscriptions were placed on the general's award swords (sabers) indicating for what feat the bladed weapon was awarded.
By 1812, a strictly regulated award system had developed in Russia, which included certain types of awards (weapons, orders, portraits of reigning persons, medals, signs). However, this system had a pronounced class character, since it was forbidden to nominate burghers and “persons of the rural class” for awards. The established seniority of orders determined the sequence of awarding them. Seniority also determined the order of wearing orders on various types of uniforms. Individual awards, in addition to golden weapons and orders, which were awarded only to officers, included medals for participation in the battles of 1812-J814, awarded to soldiers, militias, partisans and priests, as well as nobles, merchants and artisans for donations and selfless work in the name of victory. Every medal worn on a corresponding order ribbon or on a combination of several order ribbons. There is a known case when copper crosses from the headdresses of militias were used as a temporary reward for courageous peasants.
There were many collective awards in the Russian army - these are St. George's banners, standards and trumpets with the inscription "For distinction in the defeat and expulsion of the enemy from the borders of Russia in 1812", these are silver trumpets, and gold officer's buttonholes, and badges "For Distinction" on uniform hats, and the right to march to a special "grenadier" drum the battle, and classifying the army regiments as guards, and the rangers as grenadiers, and assigning honorary names to the regiments - the names of the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812. Some of the listed awards became elements of uniforms and equipment.
A. A. Smirnov
Artist O. Parkhaev
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In 1812, the small arms of the Russian army were not uniform. Despite the fact that since 1809 a single caliber of 17.78 mm was established for smooth-bore flintlock guns, by the beginning of the war the infantry and foot artillery were armed with Russian and foreign guns of 28 different calibers (from 12.7 to 21.91 mm). The 1808 model infantry rifle with a triangular bayonet (2) was the best domestic rifle of this type. It had a smooth barrel with a caliber of 17.78 mm and a length of 114 cm, a percussion flintlock, a wooden stock and a metal device. Its weight (without bayonet) is 4.47 kg, length 145.8 cm (with bayonet 183 cm). The maximum firing range is 300 steps, the average rate of fire is a shot per minute (some virtuoso shooters fired up to six bullets per minute without aiming). The Jaeger regiments still used the 1805 model fitting with a dirk (1), which was canceled in 1808. They were armed with non-commissioned officers and the best shooters (12 people from each company). The Jaeger fitting had a faceted barrel with 8 grooves, a length of 66 cm, a caliber of 16.51 cm. The weight of the fitting (without a cutlass) was 4.09 kg, the total length with a cutlass was 153.7 cm. In terms of range, it was three times superior to a smoothbore gun, but inferior to it in rate of fire (shot in three minutes). In the cuirassier, dragoon and lancer regiments, 16 people of each squadron were armed with a cavalry rifle of the 803 model (3). Its weight is 2.65 kg, caliber 16.51 mm, barrel length 32.26 cm. The hussar regiments have blunderbusses (4) and carbines were also left with only 16 people from the squadron. Cavalrymen, horse artillerymen, pioneers and officers of all branches of the military had pistols of various types (5), most often models of 17.78 mm caliber with a smooth barrel 26-26.5 cm long. The range of these weapons did not exceed 30 steps. |
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The percussion flintlock was used in small arms from the Napoleonic Wars era as a mechanism for igniting the charge in the barrel. It was attached to the gun with two locking screws through the stock. All its parts were mounted on a key board. On its upper edge in the middle there is a shelf (2) for priming powder, located opposite the priming hole of the barrel. Above the shelf, a flint (3) is mounted on a transverse screw, opposite which a trigger (1) is placed, mounted on a transverse axis passing through the key board. A flint is inserted into the trigger, clamped with two jaws. Behind it on the board there is a safety hook in the form of a hook that protects the trigger from accidental decocking. On inside On the board there is a mainspring (4), which serves to move the trigger forward. With one, often long, end it rests on the ankle - a semicircular steel part with two hooks that provide safety and combat cocking of the hammer. The trigger is stopped by a sear, one end of which - the release - is perpendicular to the lock board and comes into contact with the trigger, located outside the lock, below the stock. When the trigger is pulled back, the sear enters the first hook, providing a safety cock, and after loading the gun, the trigger is pulled back a little more, and the sear enters the second hook, keeping the hammer cocked. To fire, you must pull the trigger. In this case, the end of the sear will go down and come out of the firing hook, and the ankle, under the action of the mainspring, will turn sharply and push the trigger forward. He will forcefully hit the flint with flint, which will recoil from the impact, and the sparks generated when the flint hits the steel plate will ignite the gunpowder on the seed shelf. The fire through the seed will ignite the main charge of gunpowder in the barrel. |
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The combat bladed weapon of officers and generals of the Russian infantry, foot artillery and engineering troops was the infantry sword of the 1798 model (1) with a single-edged straight blade 86 cm long and 3.2 cm wide. The total length of the sword is 97 cm, weight (in sheath) 1, 3 kg. The hilt consisted of a wooden handle with a head and a metal guard wrapped in twisted wire. Privates and non-commissioned officers of the foot forces had a cleaver model 1807 (2 and 3) in a leather sheath, worn on an elk sling over the right shoulder, as a cutting and piercing bladed weapon. It consisted of a single-edged blade 61 cm long, 3.2 cm wide and a copper hilt. Its total length is 78 cm, weight up to 1.2 kg. A lanyard formed from braid and a brush consisting of a nut, a wooden trynchik (colored ring), a neck and a fringe was tied to the handle of the hilt under the head. The braid and fringe in the infantry were white, and the remaining details of the lanyard were colored to indicate company and battalion distinctions. The Russian foot soldier kept ammunition for his gun in a cartridge bag (4-6), worn on a 6.7 cm wide elk sling over his left shoulder. The black leather bag contained 60 paper cartridges, each of them had a lead bullet weighing 23.8 g (for a gun of the 1808 model) and a powder charge (9.9 g) inside. On the rectangular lid of the cartridge pouch was attached a plaque made of yellow copper (for the pioneers - from tinplate), which differed in shape in different branches and types of troops. Thus, the Guards heavy infantry had a badge with St. Andrew's Star (4), the grenadiers had a badge in the form of a grenade with three flaming lights (6), and the army rangers had copper numbers corresponding to the regiment number. |
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The Russian heavy cavalry in 1812 had several types of broadswords with single-edged blades as combat melee weapons. Among the dragoons, the most common broadsword was the 1806 model (1), carried in a wooden sheath covered with leather, with a metal device. Blade length 89 cm, width up to 38 mm, total length (with hilt, in sheath) 102 cm, weight 1.65 kg. In addition to this sample, older models from the end of the 15th century were also used, as well as “Tsar’s” (Austrian) broadswords issued in 1811 to some dragoon regiments from the Kyiv and Moscow arsenals. |
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The pikes used by the Russian light cavalry in 1812-1814 were very diverse. This was especially true for the Cossack peaks, which did not have regulated models. The dimensions of the steel combat tip, the length and diameter of the shaft of the Cossack pikes were arbitrary; they had only one characteristic feature- there was no inflow or veins at the combat tip (2-4). In 1812, cavalry regiments of the provincial militia were also armed with similar weapons (1); in other cases, they received pikes preserved from the zemstvo militia of 1807 (7). |
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In 1802-1811, Russian cuirassiers did not wear cuirass, and only on January 1, 1812, a decree was issued on the production of this safety equipment for them. By July 1812, all cuirassier regiments received a new type of cuirass, made of iron and covered with black paint (1). The cuirass consisted of two halves - the chest and the back, fastened with two belts with copper tips, riveted to the back half at the shoulders and fastened on the chest with two copper buttons. The rank and file have these helpers belts had iron scales, while the officers had copper scales. The edges of the cuirass were lined with red cord, and the inside was lined with white canvas lined with cotton wool. Cuirass height 47 cm, chest width 44 cm, back 40 cm, weight 8-9 kg. The cuirass protected the rider's body from blows and thrusts from bladed weapons, as well as from bullets fired from a distance of more than 50 steps. |
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The 1808 model helmet, worn by Russian dragoons and cuirassiers during World War II, was made of black patent leather. It has two leather visors, the front one is edged with a copper rim. Crown height helmets was 22-26 cm, a leather crest was attached to it on top, rising 10 cm in front. On the front of the crown there was a copper forehead with a stamped coat of arms: in the army dragoon regiments it was a double-headed eagle (1), in the Life Guards Dragoon Regiment - a star Order of St. Andrew the First-Called (3). On the ridge helmets a plume of black horsehair was attached. The trumpeters had it red(2). On the sides helmets- fasteners in the form of belts with sewn copper scales. |
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Russian hussars were girded with a sash (1), which was a mesh of colored cords with interceptions of a different color. In addition to the sash, the hussars wore a belt made of red yuft on their belts, from which a saber was suspended from two belts, and a hussar tashka from the other three. The tashka was a leather pocket, covered on the outside with cloth of a certain color, with the monogram of Alexander I sewn on it, a stripe and piping of a different color. Thus, in the Belorussian, Izyum and Sumy hussar regiments, the tashka was covered with red cloth and had a white lining (3); the Life Hussars had a special type of lining (2). |
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The Cossacks' combat headdress in 1812 was a cap made of black lamb fur, 22.25 cm high, with a colored cloth top (an overlap on the right side in the form of a tongue) and a white (yellow for the Life Cossacks) etiquette of the infantry type (1 and 2). On the left, the cap was decorated with a tall plume of white horsehair. During the campaign, however, most Cossacks wore cloth caps or hats unshaped samples. |
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In 1812, Cossack troops (with the exception of the Guards Cossacks) were, as a rule, armed with unregulated sabers (1). Along with the light cavalry saber of the 1809 model, various domestic models of the 18th century were used, as well as all kinds of Asian, Hungarian, Polish and other foreign types of sabers. They were worn in a wooden sheath, covered with leather, with a copper or iron device. Charges and bullets for firearms Cossack kept in a leather little bottle (3), worn on a black sash, to which the metal monogram of Alexander I in a wreath and a chain were attached to the front. The officers of the Life Guards Cossack Regiment had a baldric made of red yuft, sewn with silver thread on the outside, and on the lid of the canopy there was a silver eight-pointed star (2). |
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Soldiers of the engineering troops in 1812 were armed with a sapper cleaver model 1797 (1), consisting of a steel, slightly curved blade (length 50 cm, width up to 8.5 cm) with a butt in the form saws(the number of teeth reached 49) and the hilt, which consisted of a wooden handle and an iron cross with upward-curved ends. The total length of the cleaver is about 70 cm, weight up to 1.9 kg. The scabbard is wooden, covered with leather, with a metal device. Such a cleaver could be used simultaneously as military weapon and trench tool. For various excavation, construction and procurement work in the Russian army they used: an iron entrenching shovel with a shaft 71 cm long and a blade 23x29 cm (3), an ax on an ax handle 73 cm long (7) and a pickaxe (5). Each infantry company was provided with ten shovels, twenty axes and five picks. The pioneer regiments used Sapper shovel(6), crowbar (4) and ax with hook (2). With the help of entrenching tools, Russian troops in 1812 erected earthen fortifications of the Drissa camp, redoubts, flashes and lunettes of the Borodino position and many other defensive structures. |
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By order of the War Ministry of January 26, 1808, special sewing in the form of golden oak branches was introduced on collars and cuffs of generals' uniforms. The same sewing was placed on the cuff flaps and on the horizontal pocket flaps at the back waist seam. It was stipulated that collars, cuffs, tails and lining of general's uniforms are made of scarlet cloth, and the uniforms themselves, cuff flaps and pocket flaps are sewn from dark green cloth, like most Russian military uniforms. The distinction of the rank of general was also epaulets, introduced by order of September 17, 1807. They were made from gold thread and yarn on a red cloth base. The round fields of the epaulettes were woven with a double row of twisted gold rope: the row running along the inner contour of the epaulette field was about 6.5 mm thick, and the outer row was made of a rope about 13 mm thick. Along the edges of the epaulette fields hung a fringe made of a thick cord, and the edges of the epaulette flaps were trimmed with gold braid. The same epaulets generals wore it on their everyday uniforms, as well as on regimental uniforms, if they were assigned to one or another, most often guards, regiments. |
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In 1812, headquarters and chief officers of the Russian army and navy wore epaulets, introduced in 1807. The flaps of the epaulettes were trimmed with narrow braid the color of a metal device, and the fields were braided with a double row of twisted cord (1). The epaulette fields of officers who served in the artillery and pioneer companies had at the edges one strand about 19 mm thick, wrapped in metal foil and thin mesh (2). Staff officers (majors, lieutenant colonels, colonels) had a 6-6.5 mm thick fringe hanging down the edges of their epaulettes (3). The epaulettes of officers serving in the Guard, army cavalry regiments, quartermaster service and field engineering teams were gold or silver. Epaulettes officers of army infantry regiments, foot and horse artillery, and pioneer companies had cloth tops for flaps and brims. Epaulettes field artillery officers were made of red cloth, braids and plaits were made of gold, and on the epaulette field the number and letter of the company were sewn from golden cord. Pioneer officers' braids, plaits and cords from which the regimental number was sewn were silver. For officers of the grenadier regiments, the top of the epaulette was made of red cloth with gold braid and cords, and on the brim of the epaulette the capital letter of the name of the regiment was sewn from thin cord. In the first regiments of the infantry divisions, the top of the epaulette was made of red cloth, in the second - from white, in the third - from yellow, in the fourth - from dark green with red piping, and on the epaulette fields the number of the division to which it belonged was sewn from golden cord. the regiment entered. |
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By 1812, there was a clear regulation of the signs worn on the front of the shakos in the guards and army regiments. In the regiments of the Guards infantry - Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky, Izmailovsky, Yegersky and Finlyandsky - they wore a sign on their shakos in the form of a double-headed eagle with a laurel wreath in the right paw and with a torch and lightning bolts in the left. On the eagle's chest - shield with the image of St. George (1). These signs were introduced on April 16, 1808. The same signs were given to the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. In the Life Guards Lithuanian Regiment, the signs were of the same type, but on. Instead of St. George's shield, a Lithuanian horseman was depicted. |
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For the ranks of the imperial retinue - adjutant generals and adjutant wings - at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I on collars and for the cuffs of uniforms, sewing of a special design was introduced, established under Paul 1; for adjutant generals, gold (1), for wing adjutants (staff and chief officers appointed to be in the tsar’s retinue) of the same design, but silver. If the adjutant general and the adjutant wing served in the cavalry, they wore white cavalry-cut uniforms with red collars and split cuffs; they had sewing on the collars in one row, on the cuffs in two rows. Adjutant generals and adjutants in the infantry, artillery and engineering troops wore dark green uniforms with red collars and cuffs, which had dark green flaps. Sewing on the collar was also in one row, and on the cuff flaps - in three rows against each buttons . |
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In the oldest regiments of the heavy guards infantry - Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky, Izmailovsky - even at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I, it was introduced collars and the valves of the cuffs of officer uniforms, sewing a special pattern in each regiment, established in 1800 by Paul I. |
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In the Lithuanian Life Guards Regiment, formed on November 7, 1811, with red cloth collars, cuffs and lapels, headquarters and chief officers were given gold-embroidered straight lines buttonholes, commonly called coils (1). Two each buttonholes sewn on each side of the collar and three on each cuff flap. Buttonholes By 1812, such uniforms were also worn in the Life Guards Jaeger and Finnish regiments, in the Life Guards Grenadier Regiment and in the Life Guards Garrison Battalion, as well as in the Guards cavalry regiments: Life Guards Horse, Dragoon, Uhlan. The same buttonholes, but embroidered in silver, were worn by military engineers and officers of the Cavalry Regiment. Exactly the same buttonholes were given to officers transferred to the guard for distinguished service in the Patriotic War of 1812 to the Life Guards of the Pavlovsk, Grenadier and Cuirassier regiments. In the Guards naval crew formed on February 16, 1810, officers were given collars and cuff flaps of uniforms, naval officer embroidery that existed since 1803 in the form of anchors entwined with rope and shkerts (thin cables), but along the edges of the collars and cuff flaps a gold braid about 13 mm wide was also sewn (2). In addition to the uniforms that were worn in the ranks and on parades, the officers of the Guards crew had uniforms for everyday wear; there were cuffs on the collars and flaps buttonholes in the form of coils. On March 27, 1809, generals, staff and chief officers serving in the Guards artillery were given gold embroidery in the form of patterned buttonholes of a special design. Two each buttonholes sewn on each side of the collar and three on the cuff flaps (3). The same buttonholes, but embroidered in silver, were given to the officers of the Life Guards Sapper Battalion formed on December 27, 1812. |
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By 1812, the main headdress of generals, members of the imperial retinue and quartermaster service, military engineers, military doctors and officials were black triangular hats of the 1802 model made of thin dense felt or felt. The front brim of the hat was about 25 cm high, the back brim was about 28 cm, and the side corners of the hat were 13.5 cm from the crown on each side. The brim was sewn to the crown and stitched together at the top. For rigidity, strips of whalebone or metal wire were sewn into the edges of the fields from the inside. On the front field was sewn a round cockade made of black silk with an orange trim and a button on which a braided buttonhole was fastened for headquarters and chief officers (3) or a twisted plait of braided cord for generals (2). Buttonholes on the officers' hats and the harnesses on the general's were the color of the metal device. From above, a plume of rooster feathers was inserted into a special nest: black with an admixture of white and orange for artillerymen, infantrymen, engineers and white with an admixture of orange and black for cavalrymen. Small silver or gold tassels were inserted into the side corners of the hats. The same hats were worn outside of duty by headquarters and chief officers of infantry and cavalry regiments, as well as artillery and pioneer companies. Scarves (1), tied around the waist on the uniforms of generals, staff and chief officers of the army and navy, were introduced under Paul 1. They had the form of nets woven from silver thread, with a mesh of 2-3 mm, with a weave of three rows of black and orange silk threads. The scarf ended in tassels on both sides. The length of the scarf is about 1.4 m, the length of the brush is about 27 cm. |
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In 1812, to distinguish the ranks of headquarters and chief officers serving in the infantry, artillery and pioneer regiments, insignia of the 1808 model were used: sickle-shaped, with a double convex rim and a double-headed eagle crowned with a crown. Signs were made from thin sheet brass with silver and gilding of the rim, eagle and field of the sign, depending on the rank. So, ensigns had their badges completely silvered, and second lieutenants had gilded rims on their badges. For lieutenants, along with a silver field and rim, the eagle was gilded, and for headquarters captains, only the field of the badge was silver, and the eagle and rim were covered with gold. For captains, on the contrary, the field of the sign was gilded, and the rim and eagle were silver. On major badges the field and rim were gilded, but the eagle remained silver (2). On the insignia of lieutenant colonels, the field and eagle were covered with gold, and only the rim remained silver. The colonels' badges were entirely gilded. The signs were worn on black ribbons with orange borders, threaded into metal ears soldered on the back of the signs. |
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By the beginning of World War II, there were two types in the Russian army award weapons: golden swords and sabers (1) and Annensky swords and sabers with the insignia of the Order of St. Anna 3rd class (2). The awarding of gold swords and sabers with the inscription “For Bravery” was introduced in 1788: for headquarters and chief officers of the army and navy, swords and sabers with a gilded hilt and an engraved inscription “For Bravery” were intended; for generals, the hilts of swords and sabers were decorated with diamonds and they were also engraved with the inscription “For bravery,” the commanders of armies or individual corps were awarded swords and sabers, the hilts of which were decorated with diamonds, gold laurel wreaths, and the inscription contained the date and place of the battle. Under Paul I, the awarding of golden weapons was abolished. By decree of November 18, 1796, it was stipulated that when the Order of St. Anna for three classes, the 3rd class should be worn on the hilts of infantry swords and cavalry sabers and intended to reward officers for distinction in combat operations. Badge of the Order of St. Anna 3rd class received the form of a round gilded medallion topped with a crown. On front side sign - red enamel cross enclosed in red enamel ring, on the reverse side there is a screw with a nut for attaching the sign to the hilt. The sign measures approximately 25.4 mm in diameter. Alexander I resumed awarding golden weapons in all types, and by decree of September 28, 1807, officers awarded golden weapons were equated with holders of Russian orders. In 1812, 274 people were awarded gold swords and sabers, and 16 people were awarded gold weapons with diamonds for distinguished service in battles with the French. The Annensky weapon became the most widespread award for junior officers. In 1812 alone, 968 people received it. |
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Even before 1812, among officers awarded with gold and Annen weapons, there was a fashion in which holders of gold swords and sabers with the inscription “For Bravery” wore frames or strips with miniature skewers or sabers on the left side of their uniform, placing folded St. George ribbons under them ( 3). The officers who had Annensky weapons placed an Annensky ribbon under the same frames, sometimes placing a miniature sign of the Order of St. Anna 3rd class (2). |
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The first insignia, awarded by order of April 13, 1813 to the 1st, 5th, 14th and 20th Jaeger Regiments, took the form of small shields made of sheet copper rounded at the bottom with the inscription “For Distinction” (5). The exception was the badges in the form of a metal ribbon, granted to the Akhtyrsky, Mariupol, Belorussian and Alexandrian Hussar regiments by order of September 15, 1813. These signs bore the inscription: “For distinction on August 14, 1813.” (1). As you know, these regiments distinguished themselves that day in the battle on the Katzbach River. By decree of December 22, 1813, a silver medal was established to reward all combat ranks of the army and navy who took part in hostilities with the French from the beginning of their invasion of Russia. medal on St. Andrew's ribbon (3). By decree of August 30, 1814, exactly the same medal, but made of bronze for rewarding officers who took part in the foreign campaign of 1813-1814, as well as for nobles and officials who participated in the formation of militia units and made donations to the army and militia. She was worn on a Vladimir ribbon (4). The same medal, but on the Annensky ribbon it was given to the townspeople and merchants for donations to the militia and the army. Medal“For the Capture of Paris” was also designed by decree of August 30, 1814, but due to the difficulties of the international situation, its coinage followed only after the decree of March 19, 1826. Medal was silver and was worn on a St. Andrew's ribbon (2). In addition to all participants in the capture of the French capital, it was awarded to all participants in the battles of the winter-spring campaign of 1814. |
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On February 13, 1807, the insignia of the Military Order (soldier's St. George's Cross) was established to reward non-commissioned officers and soldiers of the army and navy for military exploits. It repeated the shape of the sign of the Order of St. George, but was made of silver and worn on a black and orange ribbon (1). For exploits in battles in 1812, 6,783 people were awarded this cross. Before the establishment of the insignia of the Military Order, non-commissioned officers and soldiers who distinguished themselves in battles with the enemy were awarded the insignia of St. Anna. The badge was established on November 12, 1796 and was a round gilded medal(3) with a diameter of about 25 mm, worn on the ribbon of the Order of St. Anna. At the top medals- an image of a crown, and in the center there is an enamel brownish-red cross, enclosed in an enamel ring of the same color. There was also a ring on the reverse side of the badge, where the serial number of the award was engraved. With the establishment of the insignia of the Military Order, the insignia of St. Anna began to reward non-commissioned officers and soldiers for 20 years of “unblemished” service. By decree of August 30, 1814, a silver medal “For Love of the Fatherland” was established to reward the most distinguished militia and partisans (2). They wore it on a Vladimir ribbon. About 80 such medals were distributed. To distinguish officers and lower ranks of the militia, a “militia” cross was established to be worn on hats (4). On August 18, 1813, after the defeat of the French corps of General Vandamme at Kulmomprussky, the king ordered that all Russian officers and soldiers who were in the battle be awarded the so-called Kulm Cross (5). The badges were made directly on the battlefield from captured cuirasses, metal casings of charging boxes and had a look and shape close to the Order of the Iron Cross. About 10,000 of these signs were distributed. |
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The gun with a conical charging chamber received the name “unicorn” from the mythical animal depicted on the coat of arms of Feldzeichmeister General Shuvalov, which was stamped on the breech of the gun. Since 1805, they stopped using all kinds of decorations, except for friezes, but the name was preserved. Combining the qualities of cannons and howitzers, unicorns successfully fired cannonballs, grenades, and buckshot. This effect was achieved by using a conical-shaped charging chamber and a shorter barrel length compared to guns (1). Reducing the weight of the barrel made it possible to reduce the weight of the carriage, thereby achieving greater maneuverability. The only drawback to both the unicorns and the cannons was the lack of iron axles (introduced in 1845). Wooden axles often broke and needed constant lubrication. For this purpose, each weapon had a cradle bucket with lubricant (3). There was also a second bucket with the gun, containing water (mixed with vinegar) for wetting the banner (2). Horizontal aiming was carried out using rules (4) - right and left, which were inserted into special sockets on the rear pillows carriage. Vertical aiming was carried out using the wedge handle. We aimed using a Kabanov sight, which had to be removed before each shot. |
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In 1802, a commission was organized to transform the artillery under the chairmanship of Arakcheev, which included the famous Russian artillerymen I. G. Gogel, A. I. Kutaisov and X. L. Euler. The commission developed a weapon system called the Arakcheevsky, or system of 1805: a 12-pound gun (1) has a caliber of 120 mm, a barrel weight of 800 kg, a carriage weight of 640 kg; 6-pound gun caliber 95 mm, barrel weight 350 kg, carriage 395 kg; caliber 1/2-pound unicorn (2) 152 mm, barrel weight 490 kg, carriage weight 670 kg; caliber 1/4-powder unicorn 120 mm, barrel weight 335 kg, carriage 395 kg. Since 1802, the sight of A. I. Markevich (3) was introduced into artillery. On a vertical brass plate there was a range scale with divisions from 5 to '30 lines (the distance between the divisions is 2.54 mm). They aimed through a hole in a rectangular plate, which, depending on the target range, was installed on one of the divisions. Then, changing the elevation angle of the barrel, the gunner sighted the target through the hole in the bar, that is, he ensured that the hole in the bar, the front sight and the target were located on the same imaginary line, called the aiming line. Before the shot, the sight plate was lowered towards the barrel. Aiming was carried out by number 4 of the crew. |
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To load the guns, special devices were used: a bannik with a hammer (a bristle brush for extinguishing the remains of a smoldering cap, moistened with water and vinegar) - for cylindrical guns (5), for unicorns - conical (4). The cap was sent in with a hammer and compacted. To clean the bore, a scraper with a feather duster (1) was used. Rapid-fire tubes (reeds stuffed with gunpowder pulp) were stored in a tube jar (3). The crew of each gun had two pins (2). A smoldering wick was inserted into the pin's clamp. Since the tip of the fuse was torn off after the shot, the next shot was fired with another finger. In rainy weather, scorching candles were used (a flammable composition was placed in a rolled paper sleeve up to 40 cm long). This candle burned for 5 minutes, which was enough to fire five shots. The candles were stored in a brass “candlestick” (6). A “night light” (7) with a door and three holes in the bottom (for air access) served as a constant source of fire; a wick smoldering in oil was placed inside. The charges were carried in charging bags (9). To clean the ignition hole, we used etching agents - copper and steel, which were worn on the belt of the pouch. In the crew, each artilleryman was assigned a number that determined his duties: No. 1 acted as a bannik, No. 2 carried a charging bag, No. 3 had a pistol and candles, and No. 4 had a pipe bottle and pickles. These artillerymen were called gunners and were required to know all the rules of loading and shooting. The remaining numbers, who served as assistants, were called gandlangers (from German - long-armed). They carried additional charging bags and hooks with a rope cable (8), which were used when rolling and moving guns. |
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Since 1805, the siege artillery was armed with: 24-, 18- and 12-pound cannons (large proportions), 5-, 2-pound and 6-pound mortars. Siege artillery was organized into battalions of five companies each. Maximum firing range at |
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The guns of the light artillery companies (1/4-pound unicorn, 6-pound cannon) had limbers with boxes for shells. Often the combat situation required opening fire, as they say, on the move. For this purpose, charging boxes with a supply of first shots were used, located on the limbers. Each box contained 20 shots for a 6-pound cannon and 12 shots for a 1/4-pound unicorn. The limbers, charging boxes and all artillery pieces were painted grass green, metal parts - black. To move cannons and unicorns, the rear cushion of the carriage was put on a king pin ( vertical axis) front end and secured with a chain. The harness used was a clamp one. - Eight horses were harnessed for a l/2-pound unicorn, six horses for a 12-pound cannon, four horses each for a 6-pound cannon and a 1/4-pound unicorn. The 1/4 pound horse artillery unicorn had a team of six horses. The total weight of the artillery systems in the stowed position was: 12-pound gun - 1700 kg, 6-pounder - 1090 kg, 1/2-pound unicorn - 1600 kg, 1/4-pound - 1060 kg. To transport gun ammunition - at least 120 rounds - three charging boxes were required for each battery gun (1/2-pound unicorn and 12-pound gun), and for each light and horse-drawn gun (1/4-pound unicorn and 6-pound gun) - two charging boxes. |
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The ammunition carried with the guns in charging boxes could accommodate 162 rounds for a 12-pounder gun, 174 rounds for a 6-pounder gun (including 20 rounds carried in the limber), 120 rounds for a 1/2-pound unicorn, and 120 rounds for a 1/4-pound unicorn. pood - 120 shots (including 12 shots in the front end). In battles, charging boxes were located at a distance of 30-40 m from the guns. According to the regulations, in battle, more than two artillerymen could not be near the charging box. Three horses were harnessed to the cart with the charging box, one horse between two drawbars, the other two on the sides of it. The gun crew on the charging box was not transferred; the rider was sitting astride the left horse. |
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All-army wagon - a covered wagon of an army convoy, used for transporting food, ammunition, tents, infantry and cavalry ammunition, as well as tools. Depending on their purpose, the trucks had special markings (white paint); ammunition, food, military equipment, etc. |
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The camp forge was used for minor repairs and the manufacture of simple devices in camp conditions. It was served by a blacksmith and two craftsmen. They repaired wheels, axles, carriages, charging boxes, trucks, and made nails, wedges, and horseshoes. The forge, bellows, and lever were mounted on a machine with two wheels. Wood (birch) charcoal was blown into the furnace using bellows driven by a lever. To facilitate the work, a counterweight was attached to the end of the lever - an empty mortar bomb. The anvil and blacksmith tools were transported in a special wagon, and supplies of charcoal were transported in another wagon. One forge was attached to 36-48 guns. |
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Each infantry and cavalry regiment had a wagon drawn by two horses with apothecary boxes (1). In addition to medicines and dressings, surgical instruments were placed in removable boxes. One of the drawers contained a leather bag for ten surgical instruments. In addition, each doctor had a pocket set of surgical instruments. |
Based on materials from the site: //adjudant.ru/table/Rus_Army_1812_4.asp
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Almost all European countries were drawn into the wars of conquest that the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte continuously waged at the beginning of the last century. In a historically short period of 1801-1812, he managed to subjugate almost all of Western Europe to his influence, but this was not enough for him. The Emperor of France laid claim to world domination, and the main obstacle on his path to the pinnacle of world glory was Russia. In five years I will be the master of the world,” he declared in an ambitious outburst,
107 Cossack regiments and 2.5 Cossack horse artillery companies took part in the Patriotic War of 1812. They constituted irregular forces, that is, part of the armed forces that did not have a permanent organization and differed from regular military formations in recruitment, service, training, and uniforms. The Cossacks were a special military class, which included the population of certain territories of Russia, which made up the corresponding Cossack army of the Don, Ural, Orenburg,
The Russian army, which holds the honor of victory over the Napoleonic hordes in the Patriotic War of 1812, consisted of several types of armed forces and branches of the military. The types of armed forces included the ground forces and the navy. The ground forces included several branches of the army: infantry, cavalry, artillery and pioneers, or engineers now sappers. The invading troops of Napoleon on the western borders of Russia were opposed by 3 Russian armies, the 1st Western under the command of
During the reign of Alexander III there were no wars or major battles. All decisions on foreign policy were made personally by the Sovereign. The position of state chancellor was even abolished. In foreign policy, Alexander III set a course for rapprochement with France, and in building the army, much attention was paid to restoring Russia's naval power. The Emperor understood that the lack of a strong fleet had deprived Russia of a significant part of its great power weight. During his reign, the beginning was made
The science of ancient Russian weapons has a long tradition; it arose from the discovery in 1808 of a helmet and chain mail, possibly belonging to Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, at the site of the famous Battle of Lipitsa in 1216. Historians and specialists in the study ancient weapons last century, A.V. Viskovatov, E.E. Lenz, P.I. Savvaitov, N.E. Brandenburg attached considerable importance to the collection and classification of military equipment. They also began deciphering his terminology, including -. neck
1. PRIVATE GRENADIER REGIMENT. 1809 Selected soldiers, designed to throw hand grenades during the siege of fortresses, first appeared during the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648. People were selected for grenadier units tall distinguished by their courage and knowledge of military affairs. In Russia, from the end of the 17th century, grenadiers were placed at the head of assault columns, to strengthen the flanks and to act against cavalry. By the beginning of the 19th century, grenadiers had become a branch of elite troops that were not distinguished by their weapons.
A military uniform is not only clothing that should be comfortable, durable, practical and light enough so that a person bearing the rigors of military service is reliably protected from the vicissitudes of weather and climate, but also a kind of calling card of any army. Since the uniform appeared in Europe in the 17th century, the representative role of the uniform has been very high. In the old days, the uniform spoke about the rank of its wearer and what branch of the army he belonged to, or even
