Purpose of the powder charge. The device of cartridges, types of bullets, their purpose, characteristics and distinctive color

We have already said that a primer is most often used to ignite a charge. The explosion of the capsule produces a flash, a short beam of fire. The charges of modern weapons are made up of fairly large grains of smokeless powder - dense powder with a smooth surface. If we try to ignite a charge of such gunpowder with only one primer, then the shot is unlikely to follow.

That is why it is impossible to light large firewood in the stove with a match, especially if their surface is smooth.

It is not for nothing that we usually light wood with splinters. And if instead of firewood you take polished boards and bars, it will be difficult to light them even with splinters.

The primer flame is too weak to ignite large, smooth charge grains; it only glides on the smooth surface of the grains, but does not ignite them.

And to make the capsule stronger, you cannot put more explosive into it. After all, the capsule is equipped with a percussion composition, which includes explosive mercury. Explosion of more volatile mercury can damage the liner and cause other damage.

Rice. 71. Capsule sleeve screwed into the bottom of the sleeve

How do you ignite the charge?

Let's use "splinters", that is, take a small amount of fine-grained gunpowder. Such gunpowder will easily ignite from the primer. It is better to take black powder, as the surface of its grains is rougher than that of the grains of smokeless powder, and such a grain will catch fire sooner. In addition, smoky fine-grained powder, even at normal pressure, burns very quickly, much faster than smokeless powder.

The pellets made of compressed fine-grained powder are placed behind the primer, in the primer sleeve (Fig. 71).

The smoke powder is placed, as we have already seen, both around the igniter in the electrical sleeve (see Fig. 56) and in the exhaust tube (see Fig. 54).

And sometimes fine-grained gunpowder, in addition, is placed at the bottom of the sleeve, in a special bag, as shown in Fig. 72.

A portion of this fine-grained black powder is called an igniter.

The gases formed during the combustion of the igniter rapidly increase the pressure in the charging chamber. At increased pressure, the ignition rate of the main charge increases. The flame almost instantly covers the surface of all the grains of the main charge, and it quickly burns out.

Rice. 72. How is a shot from a gun

This is the main purpose of the igniter.

So, a shot is a series of phenomena (see Fig. 72),

The striker hits the primer.

From the impact of the striker, the percussion composition explodes, and the flame of the capsule ignites the igniter (fine-grained black powder).

The igniter ignites and turns into gases.

Hot gases penetrate into the gaps between the grains of the main powder charge and ignite it.

The ignited grains of the powder charge begin to burn and, in turn, turn into highly heated gases, which push the projectile with tremendous force. The projectile moves along the bore and flies out of it.

That's how many things happen in less than a hundredth of a second!

General arrangement and operation of parts and mechanisms. The pistol is simple in design and handling, small in size, easy to carry and always ready for action. The pistol is a self-loading weapon, since it is automatically reloaded during firing. The operation of the automatic pistol is based on the principle of using the recoil of the free breechblock. ... The bolt has no clutch with the barrel. The reliability of locking the barrel bore when fired is achieved by the large mass of the bolt and the force of the return spring. Due to the presence of a self-cocking trigger mechanism in the pistol, you can quickly open fire by directly pressing the tail of the trigger without first cocking the hammer.

Safe handling of the gun is ensured by a reliably operating safety device. The pistol has a safety catch located on the left side of the bolt. In addition, the hammer automatically becomes on the safety cocking under the action of the mainspring after the trigger is released ("rebound" of the trigger) and when the trigger is released.

After the trigger is released, the trigger rod under the action of the narrow feather of the mainspring will move to the rear extreme position. The cocking lever and the sear will go down, the sear, under the action of its spring, will press against the trigger and the trigger will automatically engage the safety cocking.

To fire a shot, you must press the trigger with your index finger. At the same time, the trigger strikes the striker, which breaks the cartridge primer. As a result, the propellant charge ignites and a large amount of propellant gases are formed. The bullet is ejected from the bore by the pressure of powder gases. The shutter, under the pressure of gases transmitted through the bottom of the sleeve, moves back, holding the sleeve with the ejector and compressing the return spring. The sleeve, when it meets the reflector, is thrown out through the shutter window, and the trigger is on the combat platoon.

Having moved back to failure, the shutter returns forward under the action of the return spring. When moving forward, the bolt sends the cartridge from the store to the chamber. The bore is locked with a free breechblock; the gun is ready to fire again.

To fire the next shot, you must release the trigger, and then press it again. So the shooting will be carried out until the full use of cartridges in the store.

When all the cartridges from the magazine are used up, the bolt becomes on the slide delay and remains in the rear position.

The main parts of the PM and their purpose

PM consists of the following main parts and mechanisms:

1. frame with barrel and trigger guard;
2. bolt with striker, ejector and fuse;
3. return spring;
4. firing mechanism (trigger, sear with a spring, trigger, trigger rod with a cocking lever, mainspring and mainspring slide);
5. handle with screw;
6. shutter delay;
7. shop.

Frame serves to connect all parts of the gun.

Trunk serves to direct the flight of the bullet.

Trigger guard serves to protect the tail of the trigger from inadvertent pressing.

Drummer serves to break the primer.

Fuse serves to ensure safe handling of the pistol.

The store serves to accommodate eight rounds.

The store consists of:

1. Store buildings (connects all parts of the store).
2. Feeder (serves to feed cartridges).
3. Feeder springs (serves to feed up the feeder with cartridges).
4. Shop covers (closes the store case).

Trigger rod with cocking lever serves to release the trigger from the combat platoon and cocking the trigger when pressing the tail of the trigger.

Action spring serves to actuate the trigger, cocking lever and trigger.

Disassembly and assembly of small arms and grenade launchers.

Disassembly may be incomplete and complete. Incomplete disassembly for cleaning, lubricating and inspecting weapons, complete - for cleaning when the weapon is heavily soiled, after being in the rain or snow, when switching to a new lubricant, as well as during repairs.

Frequent complete disassembly of the weapon is not allowed, as it accelerates the wear of parts and mechanisms.

When disassembling and assembling weapons, the following rules must be observed:

1. disassemble and assemble on a table or bench, and in the field - on a clean bedding;
2. put parts and mechanisms in the order of disassembly, handle them carefully, do not allow unnecessary efforts and sharp blows;
3. when assembling, pay attention to the numbering of parts so as not to confuse them with parts of other weapons.

The order of incomplete disassembly of PM:

1. Remove the magazine from the base of the handle.
2. Put the bolt on the slide stop and check for the presence of a cartridge in the chamber.
3. Detach the shutter from the frame.
4. Remove the return spring from the barrel.

Reassemble the pistol after incomplete disassembly in the reverse order.

Check the correct assembly of the gun after incomplete disassembly.

Turn off the fuse (put the flag down). Move the bolt to the rear position and release it. The shutter, having moved slightly forward, becomes on the shutter delay and remains in the rear position. Pressing the slide with the thumb of your right hand on the slide release, release the slide. The bolt, under the action of the return spring, should vigorously return to the forward position, and the trigger should be on a combat platoon. Switch on the fuse (raise the flag up). The trigger should be released from the combat platoon and blocked.

Complete disassembly procedure:

1. Partial disassembly.
2. Disassemble the frame:
   • separate the sear and the slide stop from the frame.
   • separate the handle from the base of the handle and the mainspring from the frame.
   • separate the trigger from the frame.
   • separate the trigger rod with the cocking lever from the frame.
   • separate the trigger from the frame.
3. Disassemble the shutter:
   • separate the fuse from the shutter;
   • separate the drummer from the bolt;
   • separate the ejector from the shutter.
4. Disassemble the store:

• remove the cover of the store;
• remove the feeder spring;
• remove the feeder.

The assembly is carried out upside-down.

Check the correct operation of parts and mechanisms after assembly.

Delays when firing from PM

Delays	Reasons for delays	Ways to eliminate delays
1. MISSING. The bolt is in the extreme forward position, the trigger is released, but the shot did not occur	The cartridge capsule is defective. Thickening of the lubricant or contamination of the channel under the striker. Small striker exit or nicks on the striker	Reload the pistol and continue shooting. Disassemble and clean the pistol. Return the pistol to the workshop
2. OPENING OF THE CARTRIDGE BY THE VALVE. The shutter stopped before reaching the extreme forward position, the trigger cannot be triggered	Dirty chamber, frame grooves and bolt cup. Difficult movement of the ejector due to contamination of the ejector spring or oppression	Push the bolt forward with a push of the hand and continue firing. Inspect and clean the pistol
3. FAILURE OR NON-PROPOSING OF CARTRIDGE FROM STORE TO CARTRIDGE. The bolt is in the extreme forward position, but there is no cartridge in the chamber, the bolt stopped in the middle position together with the cartridge, without sending it to the chamber	Contamination of the magazine and moving parts of the pistol. Curvature of the upper edges of the magazine body	Reload the pistol and continue shooting, clean the pistol and magazine. Replace defective magazine
4. CUTTING (PINKING) OF THE CASING BY THE SHUTTER. The sleeve is not thrown out through the window in the bolt and is wedged between the bolt and the breech	Contamination of the moving parts of the gun. Malfunction of the ejector, its spring or reflector	Throw away the captured cartridge case and continue shooting.
5. AUTOMATIC SHOOTING.	Thickening of lubricant or contamination of parts of the firing mechanism. Wear of the cocking trigger or whispering spout. Looseness or wear of the sear spring. Touching the ledge ledge of the tooth guard whispered	Inspect and clean the pistol. Send the gun to the workshop

The inventions relate to the field of propellant charges. According to the first option, the powder charge contains two types of powder and a cartridge case. The liner is made in the form of a solid cylinder with a notch on the front end or has an explosive or shaped charge on the front end from the inside or outside, capable of piercing the liner. According to the second option, the powder charge contains two types of powder and does not contain a sleeve. Behind, relative to the direction of the shot, there is a conventional pyroxylin powder, and in front there is another gunpowder, with one or both of the gunpowders in a cap bag. According to the third version, the powder charge contains two types of powder and a sleeve or does not contain a sleeve, while it contains two types of powder: in the back, relative to the direction of the shot, there is a conventional pyroxylinic powder, and in front - another powder, and they are separated by a piston with holes sealed with pyroxylin film, or with check valves directed forward. The speed of the projectile increases. 3 n. and 3 c.p. f-ly.

The invention relates to military powder charges. The invention is applicable in artillery and small arms.

Known powder charges in casings, caps, in combustible casings, in the form of solid square checkers (like a German machine gun), see, for example, "Infantry Weapons", Harvest, 1999, p. 479. The invention is aimed at increasing the initial velocity of bullets and projectiles (projectiles).

The speed of the propelling bodies depends on the speed of sound in the compressed gas, which is formed in the volume occupied by the propellant explosive, in particular - gunpowder (hereinafter MBV). In the mixture of gases that is formed after the combustion of most of the MWB, and at that temperature and pressure, the speed of sound usually does not exceed 2400 m / s. And it quickly falls as the adiabatic expansion of the powder gases. The speed of shells and bullets, of course, is even lower.

Meanwhile, the speed of sound in hydrogen even at normal temperature and pressure is 1330 m / sec. And if the temperature of hydrogen is also slightly increased, then the speed of sound in it will increase sharply. For example, hydrogen with a temperature of only 650 degrees C (which is below its ignition temperature) will have a speed of sound of 2360 m / s, and will be able to accelerate projectiles to a speed of 2100 m / s. That is, a "cold shot" will be obtained, as a result of which, due to adiabatic expansion, the gas after the shot may have approximately the ambient temperature.

This is the basis of the idea of ​​the present invention. The purpose of the invention is to increase the speed of projectiles, as well as to reduce (if hydrogen has a muzzle temperature less than the ignition temperature) of unmasking infrared radiation by using Staroverov's powder (a series of simultaneously filed applications for inventions).

OPTION 1. This version is intended for gaseous (or supercritical), or liquid, or combined (solid plus liquid or gaseous) Staroverov powder.

The powder charge differs in that the sleeve is made in the form of a continuous cylinder with circular and / or radial notches at the front end, or has an explosive or shaped charge capable of piercing the sleeve from the inside or outside at the front end. The directions of linear shaped charges can also be located along the ring and / or along the radii of the end. In this case, the sleeve may or may not have a capsule in the rear (if there is an explosive charge, then the gunpowder is ignited from it).

The sleeve can be made of metal or composite material.

Since such a sleeve is quite expensive, it can be reusable. For this, the front end of the sleeve is removable and attached with a detachable fastener (soldering, thread, bayonet, bolts), and the sleeve also has a sealed charging nipple (its diameter may be less than a millimeter). In order for the fitting to withstand the pressure of the shot, it can be in the form of a bolt with a tapered thread. Such a fitting can be located anywhere in the sleeve. The nipple should be wrapped with glue, and when opened for recharging, the nipple heats up and the glue softens or decomposes.

If the powder is two-phase, for example, powder and compressed gas, then in order to evenly distribute the powder in the volume of the sleeve, it must be applied to some kind of reinforcement. For example, the powder can be adhered to a thread or fabric made of pyroxylin, or BB, or a heat-resistant material such as quartz glass fiber. And the thread itself can be evenly stuffed into a sleeve (like felt). The fabric, on the other hand, can be corrugated and located in a longitudinal roll, or it can be located in transverse discs.

Example 1. Sleeve in the form of a steel cylinder with a replaceable membrane made of composite material, attached with glue and a threaded union nut. From the inside, on the membrane, linear cumulative charges are located in the form of 6 rays (the charges located from the inside of the membrane can be of the lowest power. Since the internal pressure itself tends to break the membrane, a slight violation of the integrity of the membrane is enough, and then it breaks itself).

The charge works like this: the shaped charge ignites (by a capsule, electricity, laser), breaks through the membrane and ignites the gunpowder. A shot occurs.

OPTION 2. At the initial stage of the projectile acceleration (up to about 800 m / s) it is not necessary to use Staroverov's powder. Therefore, this version of the charge contains two types of gunpowder: at the back (relative to the direction of the shot) - ordinary pyroxylin powder, and in front - Staroverov's powder, with one or both of the gunpowders being in a cap bag. In this case, the charge can have a sleeve (preferably a caliber) or can be placed directly into the barrel of the gun.

The charge works like this: first, the rear pyroxylin powder is ignited and begins to accelerate the projectile. Then, from the heat of this gunpowder, Staroverov's gunpowder ignites and accelerates the projectile to a high initial velocity.

OPTION 3. In the previous version, a slight mixing of powder gases from two types of powder may occur, especially if the charging chamber and, accordingly, the sleeve are over-caliber (longitudinal gas flows in the barrel bore occur).

This version of the charge contains Staroverov's powder and a caliber sleeve, or does not contain a sleeve and differs in that it contains two types of powder: in the back (relative to the direction of the shot) - ordinary pyroxylin powder, and in front - Staroverov powder, and they are separated by a piston with holes sealed with pyroxylin film, or with check valves directed forward.

When the rear charge is ignited, part of the pyroxylin gases will penetrate through the piston into the front cavity and are displaced with gases from Staroverov's powder. To reduce this phenomenon, there can also be the two mentioned types of propellants in the back cavity, with one or both propellants in the cap bag and the pyroxylin powder in the back.

The charge works as follows: first, the pyroxylinic powder is ignited, then a small amount of Staroverov powder located in the rear of the charge is ignited from it, then the powder gases through the holes or check valves in the piston penetrate into the front of the charge and ignite the Staroverov powder.

Options 2 and 3 do not provide infrared concealment of the shot, but they are simpler and cheaper. They have a strong unmasking flame due to the burning out of hydrogen in air.

1. A powder charge containing two types of gunpowder and a sleeve, characterized in that the sleeve is made in the form of a continuous cylinder with a notch on the front end or has an explosive or shaped charge capable of piercing the sleeve from the inside or outside on the front end.

2. The charge according to claim 1, characterized in that, for the purpose of reusable use, the front end of the sleeve is removable and attached with a detachable fastener (soldering, thread, bayonet, bolts), and also the sleeve has a sealed fitting, for example, in the form of a bolt with a tapered thread ...

3. A charge according to claim 1, characterized in that if the charge contains a powdery component, the powder is glued to a thread or fabric made of pyroxylin, or an explosive, or a heat-resistant material, for example, quartz glass fiber.

4. A propellant charge containing two types of propellant and not containing a cartridge case, characterized in that there is a conventional pyroxylin powder in the back (relative to the direction of the shot), and another propellant in front, with one or both propellants in a cap bag.

5. A propellant charge containing two types of propellant and a sleeve or not containing a sleeve, characterized in that it contains two types of propellant: behind (relative to the direction of the shot) there is a conventional pyroxylin powder, and in front - another propellant, and they are separated by a piston with holes sealed pyroxylin film, or with check valves facing forward.

6. A charge according to claim 5, characterized in that the rear cavity also contains the two mentioned types of propellants, one or both propellants being in a cap bag, and the pyroxylin powder is located at the rear.

Similar patents:

The invention relates to defense technology, more specifically to tank ammunition. ...

Charge - a certain amount of explosive (gunpowder, solid propellant, nuclear fuel), usually equipped with an explosion initiator or ignition means. There are knockout, propelling, explosive, explosive, solid-propellant and nuclear charges.

Charge- a certain weight amount of gunpowder used for firing guns and guns, and the gunpowder is placed either in a metal sleeve or in a bag (cap). For charging caps, either silk (preferable) or woolen fabrics are used, as they do not smolder when fired; smoldering pieces could cause a premature shot when the next charge is inserted. The weight of the charge, depending on the type of gunpowder and the caliber of the guns, currently ranges from 12 poods to several fractions per shot; the first limit corresponds to guns with a caliber of 16 inches, and the second to revolvers. - With a significant weight of the powder charge, it is divided into several parts in terms of ease of handling and loading, each of which is placed in a special cap. The charge of smokeless powder is from ½ to ⅓ by weight of the charge of nitro-gray powder. If a charge of smokeless powder is ignited by an ordinary exhaust pipe, then several spools of ordinary black powder (igniter) are placed at the bottom of it to increase the strength of the flame; otherwise, prolonged shots may be produced. The largest amount of charge at a given weight of the projectile is determined by the condition that the pressures developed by the gases during firing do not exceed ⅔ of the strong (elastic) resistance of the gun. Depending on the above conditions, a full or combat charge is established. In peacetime, for practice shooting, a reduced charge, called a practical charge, is used for saving large-caliber guns. Finally, for salutes and for some exercises, shooting is carried out without a projectile, so-called blank charges, and the amount of gunpowder in them is not large and is considered only with the proper sound effect. - Ready charges are stored in special sealed boxes to avoid powder deterioration (mainly dampness); in field artillery, each charge is placed in a tin case with a lid, and the connection between the lid and the case is smeared with oil grease.

Explosive charge:

1) an explosive substance calculated in advance by the mass and form of placement, placed in the charge cavity and equipped with an explosion initiator.

2) propellant propelling charge - a certain amount of gunpowder required to communicate to the projectile (mine, bullet) movement in the bore of the firearm and throw it at a given speed.
Powder charges are placed in casings or in separate pouches (caps) and can be constant or variable. A variable charge consists of several pre-weighed separate parts, which allows, by separating a certain part of it, to change the mass of the charge, etc. change the initial velocity of the projectile, the nature of the trajectory and the firing range. Powder charges are divided into combat, special, designed for experimental firing during testing of military equipment and weapons, for special types of practice shooting and other tasks, and blank, designed to reproduce the sound of firing.

3) A knockout charge - a certain amount of gunpowder placed in a projectile, mine or cartridge case and designed to eject striking, incendiary and lighting elements from the ammunition body.

Gunpowder

Gunpowder- explosive compounds or mixtures, the main form of explosive transformation of which is layer-by-layer explosive combustion. A distinction is made between propellants based on individual explosive compounds, such as cellulose nitrates, and mixed propellants consisting of an oxidizer and a fuel. The latter include black powder and solid propellants.

Gunpowder, solid (condensed) compacted mixtures of explosives capable of proceeding in a narrow zone of self-propagating exothermic reactions with the formation of mainly gaseous products.

Propellant combustion occurs in parallel layers in a direction perpendicular to the combustion surface, and is due to the transfer of heat from layer to layer. Unlike other explosives, the combustion of gunpowder (due to the exclusion of the possibility of penetration of combustion products into the substance) is stable in a wide range of external pressures (0.1 - 1000 MN / m2). Combustion in parallel layers makes it possible to control the total rate of gas formation over time by the size and shape of the powder elements (as a rule, tubes of various lengths or diameters with one or more channels). The combustion rate of the powder depends on the composition, initial temperature and pressure.

There are two types of gunpowder:

plasticized systems based on nitrocellulose (smokeless propellants), which are divided into pyroxylin propellants, cordites and ballistites;

heterogeneous systems consisting of a fuel and an oxidizer (mixed propellants), including black powder.
Gunpowder is used in firearms to impart the required speed to the projectile.

Previously, black powder was used, the place and time of its invention have not been precisely established. It is most likely that it appeared in China and then became known to the Arabs. Black powder began to be used in Europe (including Russia) in the 13th century; until the middle of the 19th century. it remained the only explosive for mining and until the end of the 19th century. - a propellant. At the end of the 19th century. In connection with the invention of the so-called smokeless powders, black powder lost its significance. Pyroxylin powder was first obtained in France by P. Viel in 1884, and in Russia in 1890 by D.I. obtained in Great Britain at the end of the 19th century, ballistic powder was proposed in 1888 in Sweden by A. Nobel. Ballistic powder charges for rocket projectiles were first developed in the USSR in the 1930s. and were successfully used by Soviet troops during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 ("Katyusha" guards mortars). Mixed propellants of a new composition and charges from them for jet engines were created in the second half of the 1940s. first in the United States, and then in other countries.

Black powder (black powder), a grained mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal. The heat of combustion is 32.3 MJ / kg. Sensitive to shock, friction and fire.

Smokeless propellants are made on the basis of cellulose nitrates with various plasticizers. The first smokeless powder was invented in 1884 by the French engineer P. Viel. There are nitroglycerin (ballistites) and pyroxylin smokeless powders. Calorific value 2.9-5.0 MJ / kg. They are used in firearms and as rocket fuel.

The charge of the cartridge consists of smokeless powder. Modern smokeless propellants are colloidal mixtures of pyroxylin (cellulose nitrate) with various types of solvents - volatile (ethereal alcohol with sulfuric ether, acetone) and non-volatile (nitroglycerin).

Pyroxylin smokeless powder contains a stabilizer in addition to pyroxylin and a volatile solvent. The flash point of smokeless powder is 185-200 degrees, the gaseous products of its combustion contain carbon dioxide, water vapor, carbon monoxide, methane, free hydrogen, nitrogen and ammonia. Powder is made in the form of grains, the size, shape and chemical composition of which depends on the intended purpose - rifle, rifle, revolving.

Nitroglycerin powders also have different purposes - rifle, pistol, etc. In terms of gas-releasing capacity, they slightly surpass pyroxylin ones (820-970 initial volumes during combustion versus 720-920), and in terms of the release of calories and heating of combustion products - 1.5 times. This leads to faster wear of the barrel, but at equal pressures, nitroglycerin propellants provide a higher muzzle velocity.

With short-barreled weapons, small-grain powder is selected to ensure complete combustion of the charge while the bullet is moving along the bore. The loading density (the ratio of the weight of the charge to the volume of the charging chamber) is determined by the size of the sleeve, the permissible pressure in the barrel bore and is usually small for pistol cartridges.

The ratio of the mass of a bullet to the mass of a powder charge in pistol and revolver cartridges is large - from 10 to 45. For comparison, in intermediate and rifle cartridges, the mass of a bullet exceeds the mass of a charge only 2-4 times.

To ensure long-term storage, stabilizers can be introduced into the powder composition, and the entire cartridge is sealed and varnished. Nevertheless, after long-term storage, some types of gunpowder, such as domestic VP and P / 45, show a tendency to detonation (instead of even burning), which makes the recoil sharper, and sometimes even dangerous for the pistol mechanism.

The assortment of pistol powders is very diverse: for example, in the United States, about 50 brands of gunpowders from various manufacturers are offered only for home equipment of pistol cartridges.
Smoky (black) gunpowder, which is a mechanical mixture of saltpeter, charcoal and sulfur, is used only in hunting cartridges.

The advantages of smokeless gunpowder, or nitro powder, compared to smoky ones for military weapons are indisputable.

Smokelessness is an invaluable quality of nitro powder in war: the shooter does not reveal himself to the enemy from a distance, and after firing the smoke does not block the visibility of the target, which is especially noticeable with black powder in damp calm weather.

Significant contamination of the bore with powder carbon deposits after several shots with black powder noticeably worsens the accuracy of the battle. This is not the case with nitro powder, because the latter leave barely noticeable traces of carbon deposits in the barrel after a shot, such a slight contamination does not soon have an effect on the battle of the weapon.

Smokeless propellants give less recoil when firing and a weaker sound of a shot; they are not afraid of dampness, damp (even in water) and dried, they almost completely restore their qualities. Black powder, although slightly damp, irreparably loses its original qualities. Smokeless propellants are not crushed by prolonged shaking during transportation.

The charge of nitro powder is of the same energy as that of smoky powder, almost half lighter than the latter, this somewhat lightens the weight of the cartridge. At the same initial velocity of the projectile, nitro powder develops less pressure than black powder.

All these advantages of nitro powders (of various grades) were the main reasons contributing to the widespread use of these powders for military weapons.

When burned, smokeless propellants give a large amount of gases and at the same time a small amount of transparent, quickly disappearing smoke. Smoke propellants, when burned, give 35% of gases and 65% of solid residues, which are thrown out of the barrel in the form of the smallest dust, which gives smoke mixed with water vapor. Good smokeless propellants, strictly speaking, should not produce solid residues. Smokeless propellants are ignited at a heating temperature of 162-178 ° C (smoky - about 300 ° C). Ignition of these powders by means of a primer is more difficult than smoky ones, which is explained by the nature of the surface of the powder grain.

Of the disadvantages of smokeless propellants, we note that they require a special strong primer and uniform but strong action; soot of smokeless powder is unable to neutralize the harmful soot of the primer, which oxidizes the barrel bore much more strongly after firing than the soot of smokeless powder, requiring careful and repeated cleaning; smokeless propellants are sensitive to compression; the compressed charge is capable of increasing the pressure significantly.

Modern pyroxylin powder consists of gelatinized pyroxylin. Pyroxylin is obtained by processing wood or cotton fiber with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids.

Russian black powder, hunting and fighting, were famous for their good qualities and in Western Europe they were considered better than English gunpowders. In Russia, black powder was manufactured at three state-owned gunpowder factories: Okhtinsky (founded in 1715), Shostensky (founded in 1765) and Kazan (founded in 1788). Smokeless gunpowder for military weapons began to be produced in 1890, and later - for hunting.

Black powder currently continues to serve to equip gun shrapnel (visibility of a gap is necessary), to strengthen the igniter with large charges of smokeless powder, partly for hunting rifles, revolving cartridges, fireworks, etc.

With the advent of smokeless powders, it became possible to significantly reduce the caliber of military rifles and at the same time obtain weapons with better ballistic properties than was the case with black powders. Energetic experiments in this direction (finding the best caliber and rifle system) were hastily carried out in almost all states.

By the end of the 19th century, magazine rifles of new systems and reduced calibers (8-6.5 mm), shooting smokeless powder, having much better ballistic properties and allowing faster and more accurate shooting than rifles of previous systems, were almost universally adopted by the troops. Smokeless powder made it possible to quickly improve automatic weapons - machine guns, pistols, hunting rifles and combat rifles. The invention of smokeless powder opened a new period in the history of the development of firearms.

The size of the powder charge is determined by its density.

The charge density is the ratio of the weight of the charge to the volume of the charging chamber

where mco is the weight of the charge, g; w is the volume of the charging chamber, dm3.

It should be borne in mind that with an increase in the charge density, the initial velocity decreases.
The weight is selected so as to obtain the required muzzle velocity at minimum pressure. So for pistol cartridges, the charge size is 0.5 g, for rifle cartridges - 3.25 g, for large-caliber cartridges - 18 g.

For the propellant charge, pyroxylinic propellant with a lamellar, tubular single-channel or seven-channel grain shape is used.

For personal weapons, small grains are taken so that they have time to burn before the bullet leaves the barrel.

A warhead is a shot element designed to impart a given initial velocity to a projectile at an admissible maximum pressure of powder gases.

The combat charge consists of a shell, a powder charge, a means of ignition and additional elements.

The shell is designed to accommodate the rest of the elements of the warhead. It is made in the form of a sleeve or a cloth cap.

The powder charge is the main part of the warhead and serves as a source of chemical energy, which, when fired, is converted into mechanical energy - the kinetic energy of the projectile.

The ignition means activates the explosive charge.

Additional elements include an igniter, a phlegmatizer, a mediator, a flame arrester, an obturating device, and a fixing device.

The following basic requirements are imposed on warheads: uniformity of action when firing, a small negative effect on the surface of the barrel bore, durability during long-term storage, ease of preparing the charge for firing.

§ 8.1. Powder charges

The powder charge consists of one or more brands of smokeless powder. In the second case, the charge is called combined.

The powder charge can be made in the form of one or several parts (weighed portions) and, depending on this, will be called a constant or variable charge. The variable charge consists of a main package and additional beams. Before firing, additional beams can be removed by changing the mass of the charge and the initial velocity of the projectile. The powder charge of rounds of cartridge loading (Fig. 8.1) is, as a rule, constant, simple or combined. Depending on the mass of the powder charge, it can be full, reduced or special. Usually, granulated pyroxylin powder is used for small and medium-caliber guns, which are placed in a bulk case or in a cap.

To ensure reliable ignition in long charges, bundles of tubular pyroxylin powder or rod ignitors are used. Powder charge made of tubular powder is placed in a sleeve in the form of a bag tied with threads and separate tubes. Powder charges of separate case loading shots (Fig. 8.2) are, as a rule, variable and usually consist of two grades of gunpowder. In this case, granular or tubular pyroxylin powder, as well as ballistic nitroglycerin powder, can be used. Granular gunpowder is placed in caps, tubular - in the form of bundles.

The main package is usually made from a finer gunpowder,<

to provide at the smallest charge the set speed and pressure required for reliable cocking of the fuse. Powder charges of shots of separate caps loading (Fig. 4.3) are always variable and consist of one or two grades of gunpowder. “In this case, both pyroxylin granular or tubular and ballistic tubular propellants can be used.

Mortar warheads provide relatively low values ​​of initial mine velocities and maximum pressure in the channel

mortar barrel. A full variable mortar combat charge (Fig. 8.3) consists of an igniting (main) charge, which is located in a paper sleeve with a metal base, and several equilibrium additional ring-shaped beams in caps. The igniting charge contains a relatively small amount of nitroglycerin powder. usually does not exceed 10% of the weight of a full variable charge. For mortar charges, fast-burning high-calorie nitroglycerin powder is usually used. This is due to the need to ensure their complete combustion in a relatively short mortar barrel at low loading densities. Caps of additional beams are made of calico, cambric or silk. marking is applied.

The igniter enhances the thermal impulse of the ignition means and ensures fast and simultaneous ignition of the powder charge elements. It is a sample of black powder placed in a cap or in a tube with holes (Fig. 8.4). The igniter mass is 0.5-5% of the powder charge mass.

The igniter is located at the bottom of the powder charge, and if the charge is long and consists of two semi-charges, then at the bottom of each half-charge. The smoke powder of the igniter quickly burns out, creating a cannon in the chamber

The mediator_ prevents copper from the bore of the gun (fig. 8.5). For the manufacture of mediators, lead wire is used, which is located on top of the powder charge in the form of a coil with a mass equal to about 1% of the mass of the charge.

The action of the mediator when fired is that at a high temperature of gases in the bore, lead with copper forms a low-melting alloy. The bulk of this alloy is removed when fired with a flow of powder gases.

The flame arrester (Fig. 8.6) is designed to eliminate the muzzle flame that forms when firing and unmasks the firing gun in the dark. Potassium sulfate K2SO4 or potassium chloride KC1, placed on top of the propellant charge in a flat ring-shaped cap (1-40% of the charge mass), is used as a flame-extinguishing agent. When fired, it lowers the temperature of the powder gases, reduces their activity and forms a dusty shell that prevents the rapid mixing of the powder gases with air.

To eliminate backfire, flame-extinguishing propellants are used, containing up to 50% of a flame-extinguishing agent and located in the cap at the bottom of the propellant charge.

The phlegmatizer is used in warheads for cannons with an initial projectile velocity of 800 m / s or more, in order to protect the barrels from fire and increase their survivability (two to five times). In some cases, the phlegmatizer serves to extinguish the back flame.

The phlegmatizer is an alloy of high molecular weight hydrocarbons (paraffin, ceresin, petrolatum) applied to thin paper, located around the warhead in its upper part. In charges made of cold propellants, the mass of the phlegmatizer is 2-3%, and in charges made of pyroxylin powders, 3-5% of the mass of the charge.

The action of the phlegmatizer is that "when fired, it sublimes, enters into endothermic reactions with gases, as a result of which a thin layer of gases with a low temperature is formed at the surface of the bore at the beginning of the rifled part. This reduces the flow of heat from gases to the walls of the barrel and hence its height.

For cannons of old models, in shots of separate cartridge case loading, they were used for the same purpose as the phlegmatizers. The seal is a cardboard case with special grease.

The obturating device in the separate case loading warheads consists of normal and reinforced cardboard covers, the first of which serves to reduce the breakthrough of powder gases when cutting the leading belts into the grooves, and the second to seal the charge during storage (covered with a sealing grease).

The fixing device in the cartridge case loading warheads consists of cardboard circles, cylinders and other elements designed to fix the powder charge or part of it in the case.