Grammatical meanings of words. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word

MORPHOLOGY AS A SECTION OF GRAMMAR

Subject of morphology

Morphology and syntax are two sections of grammar, the subject of study of which is grammatical meaning and forms of expression of this meaning. If at the syntax level the forms of expression grammatical meaning are a phrase and a sentence, then at the level of morphology - word forms, i.e. individual forms of a specific word (table, table, table etc.).

Morphology studies words in their grammatical forms and functions, the rules for changing words, and determines the range of correlative grammatical meanings that make up one or another grammatical category.

Morphology also includes the study of parts of speech - the largest grammatical classes of words.

Thus, the subject of morphology is the grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), their grammatical categories, systems of word forms and the rules of their inflection.

Grammatical meaning and grammatical form of a word

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word. If the lexical meaning correlates the sound shell of a word with reality (object, phenomenon, sign, action, etc.), then the grammatical meaning forms a specific form of the word (word form), necessary mainly to connect the given word with other words in the text.

Lexical meaning words are specific and individual, and grammatical meaning is abstract and generalized. Yes, words mountain, wall, hole denote different objects and have different lexical meanings; but from the point of view of grammar, they are included in the same category of words that have the same set of grammatical meanings: objectivity, nominative case, singular, female, inanimateness.

The indicator of the lexical meaning in a word is the stem of the word, and the grammatical meaning has special indicators: ending (window- O, beautiful- th, growth ut), formative suffix, prefix (a game- l, white- her, With-do), emphasis (neg e shut up- cut A t), phoneme alternation (sl. ah at- sl cool it), function word (will play, O coat) and etc.

Usually a particular word form has several grammatical meanings. Yes, word form strong has the meaning of the nominative case, singular, feminine, and I'm reading- the meaning of the first person, singular, imperfective, indicative, present tense, etc.

Grammatical meanings are divided into general and specific. General grammatical (categorical) meaning characterizes the largest grammatical classes of words - parts of speech (objectivity - in a noun, a feature of an object - in an adjective, action as a process - in a verb, etc.). Particular grammatical meaning is characteristic of individual forms of words (meanings of number, case, person, mood, tense, etc.).

The general grammatical meaning of a word consists of a set of particular grammatical meanings. For example, the meaning of the objectivity of a noun is made up of the particular grammatical meanings of gender, number and case. In other words, if a word has meanings of gender, number and case independent of the words combined with it, then it has the meaning of objectivity and, therefore, it belongs to the class of nouns.

The bearer of grammatical meaning at the word level is a single form of the word - word form. The set of all word forms of the same word is called paradigm. The paradigm of a word, depending on its grammatical characteristics, can consist of either one word form (adverb rashly), and from several word forms (noun paradigm house consists of 12 word forms).

The word is one of the basic units of grammar. A word combines its sound matter and its meaning – lexical and grammatical.

Grammatical meaning -generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms and syntactic constructions, finding its regular (standard) expression in the language, for example, the meaning of the case of nouns, verb tense, etc.

The grammatical meaning is contrasted with the lexical meaning, which is devoid of regular (standard) expression and does not necessarily have an abstract character.

Criteria for distinguishing lexical and grammatical meanings:

2. LZ is individual for each word (is this always true?), and GZ is typical for a whole group of words with different LZ, for example, nouns.

3. LZ remains the same in all forms of the word, GZ changes in various forms words.

4. When the LZ changes, new words are formed, and when the GZ changes, new forms of words are formed.

A characteristic feature grammatical meaning is also recognized standardity, regularity of way of expression. In most cases, meanings traditionally classified as grammatical are actually directly expressed using fairly regular and standard means of expression.

Grammatical forms and grammatical categories. Grammatical form– this is a form of a word in which the grammatical meaning finds its regular (standard) expression. Within the grammatical form, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are special grammatical indicators (formal indicators).

Grammatical category– a system of opposed series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A necessary sign The grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as two-way linguistic units.

The concept of a grammatical category is closely related to the concept of grammatical meaning. In this regard, any grammatical category is a union of two or more grammatical meanings. On the other hand, it is known that each grammatical meaning has its own way of expression or grammatical form (or a series of forms).

a) inflectional – manifest themselves in the process of forming the forms of a given word (for example, case and number of Russian nouns, gender and number of French adjectives, mood and tense of the verb);

b) classification categories are inherent in a given word in all its forms and relate it to a class of similar words.

Members of classification categories are presented in different words, for example, the category of gender of nouns in the Russian language ‘table’ – masculine gender, ‘desk’ feminine gender, ‘window’ - neuter. genus.

33. Means of expressing grammatical meanings.

I. Synthetic products

1. Affixation consists of using affixes to express grammatical meaning: books; read-l-i; mәktәp-lәr. Affixes are service morphemes.

2. Suppletivism. By suppletivism we mean the expression of grammatical meaning by a word with a different stem: I go - walked (GZ past tense), person - people (GZ plural), we - us (GZ R. or V.p), I - me, good - best.

Words with different roots are combined into one grammatical pair. Their LZ is one and the same, and the difference serves to express the GZ.

3. Reduplication(repetition) consists of complete or partial repetition of parts of a word to express grammatical meaning. Yes, in Malay orang – ‘ Human' , orang-orang –'People' .

4. Alternation(internal inflection) is a use. changes in sounds. root composition to express grammatical meaning: ‘avoid – avoid’; ‘collect – collect’; ‘sing – sang’.

II. Analytical tools –

GZs receive their expression outside the main word, often in other words.

1. Function words can be used for express.GZ: I will read (weekend time), I would read (conventional mood).

We went to the cafe (V.p.). – We were leaving the cafe (R.p.).

2. Word order.The house (I.p.) obscured the forest (V.p.). – The forest (I.p.) obscured the house (V.p.).

Particularly important, for example, for isolating languages.

The material means of expressing grammatical meaning is not always segmental, i.e. consisting of a chain (linear sequence) of phonemes. It can be supersegmental, i.e. can be superimposed on the segment chain.

3. Accent: hands (I. and V. p. plural) – hands (R. p. singular).

4. Intonation:You will go! - You will go?

Thus, in Russian adjectives we distinguish three forms: ‘ big-big-big’. They express masculine, feminine and neuter meanings. This gives us grounds to assert that the adjectives of the Russian language are characterized by the grammatical category of gender.

The grammatical meaning (plan of content) and the formal indicator of this meaning (plan of expression) form a grammatical sign - a grammatical form, a gramme. Grammema– component of a grammatical category, representing in its meaning species concept in relation to the grammatical category as a generic concept.

A grammeme can have multiple meanings.

The plural gramme of nouns in Russian has the meaning: set ‘ tables’, ‘trees’; varieties ‘ oils’, ‘wine’; a large number of ' snow', 'sand'.

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. Each language is characterized by its own set of grammatical categories, grammes and grammatical ways expressions of grammatical meaning. When comparing the grammatical structure of languages, one should take into account

the following criteria:

Presence/absence of a corresponding grammatical category;

Number of grammes of a grammatical category;

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings of a given grammatical category;

Word categories with which this grammatical category is associated

34. Methods of linguistics

General scientific methods.

Humanity is accumulating research techniques that help identify the hidden specifics of an object. Methods of scientific research are being formed.

Method– the path and method of cognition of an object, depending on the properties of the object, aspect and purpose of the study.

In linguistics there are:

general methods– generalized sets of theoretical principles, language research methods associated with a specific linguistic theory and methodology,

private– individual techniques, techniques, operations – technical means research into a specific aspect of language.

Each method is based on the knowledge of objects and phenomena of objective reality, based on the properties of realities, but nevertheless it is a mental formation, one of the most important categories of subjective dialectics.

General scientific methods include observation, experiment, induction, analysis, synthesis.

Observation carried out in natural conditions based on sensory perception of objects of study. Observation concerns only the external side of phenomena; its results may be random and not reliable enough.

Experiment makes it possible to repeatedly reproduce observations in the process of deliberate and strictly controlled influences of the researcher on the object being studied.

Induction and deduction refer to intellectual ways of knowing. Induction is a generalization of the results of individual private observations. The data obtained as a result of experience is systematized, and a certain empirical law is derived.

Under analysis refers to the mental or experimental division of an object into its component parts or the isolation of the properties of an object for studying them separately. This is the basis for understanding the general through the individual. Synthesis– mental or experimental connection components an object and its properties and studying it as a whole. Analysis and synthesis are connected and mutually determined.

Particular methods of linguistics.

Comparative historical method– a scientific method, with the help of which, through comparison, the general and special in historical phenomena are revealed, knowledge of the various historical stages of development of the same phenomenon or two different coexisting phenomena is achieved;

The comparative historical method is a set of techniques that allow you to prove kinship certain languages and restore the most ancient facts of their history. The method was created in the 19th century, its founders were F. Bopp, J. Grimm, R. Rask, A. Kh. Vostokov.

Descriptive method– a system of research techniques used to characterize language phenomena at a given stage of its development; This is a synchronous analysis method.

Comparative method– research and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The method is aimed primarily at identifying differences between the two languages ​​being compared and is therefore also called contrastive. Underlies contrastive linguistics.

In modern linguistics, considerable attention is given to the study of linguistic phenomena statistical methods of mathematics.

Grammatical meaning

The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of words such as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.

2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun wolf in the sentence I would gnaw out bureaucracy with a wolf (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, male, singular, instrumental case(meaning of comparison: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.

The categorical meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (particularly categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animation ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.

The grammatical meaning always accompanies the lexical meaning, but the lexical meaning does not always accompany the grammatical meaning.

For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, ip) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].

Ways of expressing grammatical meanings

In Russian morphology there are different ways expressions of grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.

In the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, stola; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (person - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with an alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).

With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).

With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by a preposition and an ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person is expressed by a pronoun and an ending (I will come).

Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: a verb has an ending - ut expresses person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].

A grammatical category is a set of opposed to each other morphological forms with general grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - writes indicate a person and are therefore combined into the verbal grammatical category of person; the forms wrote - I am writing - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of ​​the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammatical categories in general have three features.

1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in a grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and in general (in a synchronous section) does not vary. Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, feathers). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three persons, two types, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which in fact is not related to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. So, in nouns there are 6, 9, 10 and large quantity cases. However, this only reflects different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated existing types declination.

2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: writing means the first person, writing means the second, writing means the third; table, book, feather indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate plural, big is masculine, big is feminine, and big is neuter, the shape big does not indicate gender.

3) The forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This required condition to highlight a grammatical category. Without this commonality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the contrast between transitional and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on general content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories identified in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].

Significant and functional parts of speech

Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.

Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:

1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called subverbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity);

2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.

In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.

Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.

Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full-nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs without naming them.

Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .

Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.

Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor service units speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker’s feelings [Lekant 2007: 243-245].

Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles and grounds for identifying parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. Firstly, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical structure of a sentence, others are not. Some of those included in the grammatical composition of a sentence are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their changeability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.

Based on what has been said, all words of the Russian language are divided into those included in the grammatical composition of the sentence and those not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them, significant and auxiliary words stand out.

Significant words are independent parts of a sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, state category.

Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words morphological feature Changeability-immutability is distinguished, on the one hand, by names and a verb, on the other - by an adverb and a category of state.

The last two categories - adverbs and state category - are different syntactic function(adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of state serves as a predicate impersonal offer: “I’m sad because you’re having fun” (L.), as well as the fact that, unlike adverbs, words of the category of state are able to control (“I’m sad”, “you’re having fun”; “How fun it is, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, to slide along the mirror of standing, smooth rivers!" - P.).

Function words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (being part of the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not members of the proposal. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.

These include prepositions, conjunctions and particles. In this case, prepositions serve to express the relationship of the noun to other words, conjunctions establish a connection between the members of the sentence and the parts complex sentence. Particles participate in the formation of some verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative). Words that are not part of the grammatical structure of a sentence include modals, interjections and onomatopoeia.

Modal words (perhaps, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the utterance. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (ah, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeias are words that convey sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like function words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].

The lexical meaning of a word is accompanied by its grammatical meaning. The differences between these two types of values ​​are:

• 1. Grammatical meanings are abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, so it characterizes only a specific word. So, the lexical meaning of the word table“a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal plate on supports or legs” is a semantic property of this particular word.
• 2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the stem of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal).

So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, noun teacher in a sentence And that one, who do I consider to be a teacher?, like a shadow passed...(Akhm.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine gender, singular number, instrumental case. The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called partial (or general categorical); These are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, processivity in a verb, etc. The partial meaning of a word is supplemented and specified by private (or partial categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by private categorical grammatical meanings of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case.

Formal grammar

Let us characterize two types of formal grammatical means - paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The morphological (inflectional) paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called word inflection. Some words do not have inflection: they always appear in the same form (such as, for example, the function words r/, By, only). Such words have a zero paradigm. But most words in the Russian language do not have a zero paradigm. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school formed by word forms: school, schools, school, school, school, (O) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, (O) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of a word stem and inflectional affixes - endings,

inflectional suffixes and postfixes. For example: house-o(zero ending), school; fast(inflectional suffix superlatives and ending), read(verb inflectional suffix and ending), running(inflectional suffix of participle and ending). One synthetic word form can have from one to three inflectional affixes; for example, in the verb form checking-l"-i-s (Essays were checked by two examiners) grammatical meanings are expressed by the inflectional suffix of the past tense ending -And and an inflectional postfix of the passive voice -s.

Auxiliary words participate in the formation of analytical word forms, playing the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense form of the auxiliary verb be to the infinitive of an imperfective verb ( read, run etc.) an analytical form of the future tense is formed (I will read, we'll run); adding an auxiliary word to the past tense form of the verb would a form is formed subjunctive mood (I would read, would run).

Sometimes the paradigm of a word contains both synthetic and analytical word forms (cf.: strongest And strongest; warmer And warmer). In the paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; Adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

Inflection has always been the main object morphological analysis, because endings and inflectional suffixes as part of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words as part of analytical word forms are effective means expressions of grammatical meanings. Thus, thanks to the opposition of endings in word forms student - students, magazine - magazines the meanings of a number are expressed; in contrast to word forms decided - I decide - I will decide temporary values ​​are expressed.

Inflectional affixes of all the above types and auxiliary words belong to the paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of the word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, some words also contain additional ones, often accompanying the main means of expressing grammatical meaning:

• 1) alternation (or alternation) of phonemes in the base [run - run; dream - sleep("fluent" vowel)];
• 2) extension, truncation or alternation of stem-forming suffixes in the stem [brother - brothers ("brother); peasant - peasants?; give - I let you dance - I dance (dance-u")-u)]
• 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots (I’m walking - walking; man - people);
• 4) changing the place of stress (tree - trees; was - were).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also syntagmatically, i.e. in a phrase. For example, in phrases A new book , new books the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the ending of the noun, but also by the ending of the adjective that agrees with it. Here, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting given value becomes the grammatical syntagmatics (combinability) of the word. For example, if a noun does not have externally distinct endings, i.e. is "inflexible" (like coat, CHP), the grammatical meaning of a number can only be expressed “beyond” the noun itself, in consistent forms of the adjective (new/new coats, powerful/powerful thermal power plants). These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical study of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

Grammatical meaning

(formal) meaning. A meaning that acts as an addition to the lexical meaning of a word and expresses different relationships(relationship to other words in a phrase or sentence, relationship to the person performing the action or other persons, the relationship of the reported fact to reality and time, the speaker’s relationship to what is being reported, etc.). Usually a word has several grammatical meanings. Thus, the word country has the meaning of feminine, nominative case, singular; the word wrote contains the grammatical meanings of the past tense, singular, masculine, perfective. Grammatical meanings find their morphological or syntactic expression in the language. They are expressed mainly by the form of the word, which is formed:

a) affixation. Book, books, book, etc. (case meanings);

b) internal inflection. Collect - collect (imperfect and perfect meanings);

c) accent. At home. (gen. fallen. singular) - at home (named. fallen. plural);

d) suppletivism. Take - take (meanings of the form). Good - better (values ​​of the degree of comparison);

f) mixed (synthetic and analytical methods). To the house (the meaning of the dative case is expressed by a preposition and a case form).

Dictionary-reference book linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what “grammatical meaning” is in other dictionaries:

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