Artistic speech, its specificity. poetic syntax and poetic figures of language

The study of poetic syntax consists of analyzing the functions of each of the artistic techniques of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax - sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as facts of transfer of word meanings (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e., a trope, manifests itself only in context, only in semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of syntactic unities and grammatical connections of words in a sentence, but also to identify facts of adjustment or even change in the meaning of an entire phrase in the semantic relationship of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the writer’s use of so-called figures).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author’s selection of types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the theme and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples, which will serve as fragments of two translations of “The Ballad of the Hanged” by F. Villon.

There are five of us hanged, or maybe six.

And the flesh, which has known many pleasures,

It has been eaten for a long time and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy.

Pray to God that everything will be forgiven us.

(A. Parin, “Ballad of the Hanged”)

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And we were hanged. We turned black.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Don’t even try to judge - people are crazy.

We won't say anything in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, “Epitaph written by Villon for him and his comrades while awaiting the gallows”)

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully demonstrated his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: the verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word “delights” collides within the same phrase with the low word “glutton”) . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems impoverished. In addition, we can notice that Ehrenburg filled the translation text with short, “chopped” phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of translator Parin’s phrases is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg’s phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is this a coincidence?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve maximum expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he agreed on the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon gave the right of narrating voice not to living people, but to soulless dead turning to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg had to deprive the speech of the hanged men of emotion, and that is why his text contains so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences: bare phrases communicate bare facts (“And we were hanged. We turned black...”). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary and epithets in general is a kind of “minus technique”.

An example of Ehrenburg's poetic translation is a logically justified deviation from the rule. Many writers formulated this rule in their own way when they touched upon the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prose speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

“But what can we say about our writers who, considering it base to simply explain the most ordinary things, think of enlivening children’s prose with additions and flaccid metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, whose noble flame, etc. They should say: early in the morning - but they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is , is it better only because it is longer? Precision and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions serve no purpose. Poetry is a different matter...” (“On Russian Prose”)

Consequently, the “brilliant expressions” that the poet wrote about - namely, lexical “beauties” and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not a necessary phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proven by examples from the works of Pushkin himself. Pushkin the prose writer is syntactically brief:

“Finally, something began to turn black to the side. Vladimir turned there. As he approached, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, it’s close now.” ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, constructing long phrases with a series of periphrastic turns:

The philosopher is frisky and drinking,

Parnassian happy sloth

The pampered darling harits,

Confidant of the dear Aonides,

Mail on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, singer of joy?

Is it possible that you too, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?

(“To Batyushkov”)

E.G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic series: “Piit” is an old word meaning “poet”. “Parnassus happy sloth” - this also means “poet”. “Harith the pampered darling” - “poet”. “Confidant of the dear aonids” - “poet”. “The singer of joy” is also a “poet.” Essentially speaking, a “young dreamer” and a “frisky philosopher” are also a “poet.” “It’s almost as if the golden-stringed harp fell silent...” This means: “Why did you stop writing poetry?” But further: “Have you really... broken up with Phoebus...” - this is the same thing,” and concludes that Pushkin’s lines “modify the same thought in every way: “Why don’t you, poet, write more?” poems?“.

It should be clarified that lexical “beauties” and syntactic “lengths” are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is equally unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

» Donkey put on lion skin, and everyone thought - a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a Lion's Skin")

Sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. Choice of elliptical-type designs (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), savings meaningful words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and the cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of function words (“the people came running: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parable, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many methods of distribution. For example:

“It was good for a year, two, three, but when it happened: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that showed off the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged suitors, all the same, all as if they knew something, as if they had the right to enjoy everything and to laugh at everything, when the summer months at the dacha with the same nature, which also only gives the heights of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this lasted for seven , eight years, not only not promising any change, but, on the contrary, losing more and more of her charms, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to come over her” (“What I Saw in a Dream”)

In the field of Russian language research, there is no established idea of ​​what maximum length a Russian phrase can reach. However, readers should feel the extreme length of this sentence. For example, part of the phrase “but when all this” is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part “but when this”. Because when we reach the first indicated part in the process of reading, we cannot retain in our memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, and the writer has complicated our reading with too many details mentioned within one phrase. The author’s desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of parts of the sentence (“she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her”).

The study of poetic syntax also involves assessing the facts of compliance of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author’s phrases with the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with the different style passive vocabulary How significant part poetic dictionary. In the field of syntax, as in the field of vocabulary, it is possible barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms etc., because these two areas are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns.”

In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernaculars. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is constructed according to the rules foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off” in A.P. Chekhov’s story “The Book of Complaints” - this gallicism is so obvious that it gives the reader a feeling of comedy . In Russian poetry, syntactical barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin’s ballad “Once upon a time there lived a poor knight...” the line “He had one vision...” is an example of such barbarism: the connective “he had a vision” appears instead of “he had a vision.” Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of increasing the stylistic height: “There was no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / Never happened to a paladin...” (it should be: “neither the Father nor the Son”). Syntactic vernaculars, as a rule, are present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the self-characterization of the heroes. For this purpose, Chekhov resorted to using vernacular language: “Your dad told me that he was a court councilor, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the Wedding”), “Which Turkins are you talking about? Is this about the ones where the daughter plays the piano?” (“Ionych”).

Figures of speech

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to private scientific discipline, within which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, the characteristics of which require their description).

The doctrine of figures was already developing at the time when the doctrine of style was developing - in the era of Antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative “poetics” (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. The first attempts to describe and systematize figures are presented in ancient Latin treatises on poetics and rhetoric (more fully in Quintilian’s Education of the Orator). The ancient theory, according to M.L. Gasparov, “assumed that there is some simplest, “natural” verbal expression of any thought (as if distilled language without stylistic color and taste), and when real speech somehow deviates from this difficult-to-imagine standard , then each individual deviation can be separately and taken into account as a “figure”.

Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “trope” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” order of words in a syntactic structure (rearranging words, omitting necessary ones or using “extra” ones - from the point of view of “ natural" speech - lexical elements). Let us also note that within the framework of everyday speech, which does not have an emphasis on artistry, figurativeness, the detected “figures” are often considered as speech errors, but within the framework of artistically oriented speech the same figures are usually identified as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of a phrase, the logical or psychological relationship of its parts, etc. Below we list particularly significant figures, taking into account three factors:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection between elements of syntactic structures.
2. An unusual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but have grammatical similarity.
3. Unusual ways of intonation marking of text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a particular factor, we will highlight the corresponding groups of figures. But let us emphasize that in some cases in the same phrase one can find a non-trivial grammatical connection, an original arrangement of words, and techniques indicating a specific intonation “score” in the text: within the same segment of speech not only different paths, but also different figures.

Groups of techniques for non-standard connection of words

The group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic unities includes:

• ellipse, anacoluthus, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly(figures characterized by an unusual grammatical connection),
• catachresis, oxymoron, hendiadis, enallag(figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse(Greek elleipsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of breaking a grammatical connection, which consists in omitting a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give lifelike scenes of communication between their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity, because in life situation In conversation, the ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Consequently, in colloquial speech, ellipses have an exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, using a minimum vocabulary.

Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author’s focus on the psychologism of the narrative. A writer, wanting to portray various emotions and psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. Thus, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment,” Raskolnikov often expresses himself in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya (Part I, Chapter 3), ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

- ...Before, you say, you went to teach children, but now why don’t you do anything?

“I’m doing [something]…” Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

- What are you doing?

- [I do] Work...

— What kind of work [do you do]?

“[I] think,” he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Often ellipses also indicate rapid changes in states or actions. This is, for example, their function in the fifth chapter of “Eugene Onegin”, in the narrative about Tatyana Larina’s dream: “Tatyana ah! and he roars...", "Tatyana into the forest, the bear is behind her...".

Both in everyday life and in literature speech error recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and control: “The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable” (A.F. Pisemsky, “Senile Sin”). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character’s speech: “Stop, brothers, stop!” You’re not sitting like that!” (in Krylov’s fable “Quartet”).

On the contrary, it turns out in the literature that it was a deliberately applied technique rather than an accidental mistake. sylleps(Greek syllepsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a number of homogeneous members of the sentence: “This sex carried a napkin under his arm and a lot of acne on his cheeks” (Turgenev, “A Strange Story”).

European writers of the twentieth century, especially representatives of the “literature of the absurd,” regularly turned to alogism (Greek a - negative particle, logismos - reason). This figure represents a syntactic correlation of semantically unrelated parts of a phrase with the help of its auxiliary elements expressing a certain type of logical connection (cause-and-effect, gender-species relationships, etc.): “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco, “The Bald Singer”), “How wonderful the Dnieper is in calm weather, so why are you here, Nentsov?” (A. Vvedensky, “Minin and Pozharsky”).

If anacoluthus is more often seen as a mistake than as an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism are more often seen as a device than a mistake, then amphiboly (Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphiboly is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. “The sensitive sail of hearing strains...” in Mandelstam’s poem of the same name—a mistake or a technique? It can be understood this way: “A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, causing it to tense up,” or like this: “A wind-blown (i.e., tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing.” . Amphiboly is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. Thus, in D. Kharms’ miniature “The Chest,” the hero tests the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The ending for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and was resurrected, since the hero ambiguously summarizes: “This means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me.”

An unusual semantic connection between parts of a phrase or sentence is created by catachresis (see section “Trails”) and oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catachresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and, within the framework of “natural” speech, is assessed as an error: “sea voyage” is the contradiction between “sail on the sea” and “walk on land”, “oral prescription” - between “orally” and “ in writing”, “Soviet champagne” - between “Soviet Union” and “Champagne”. An oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and even in everyday speech is perceived as an elegant figurative device. "Mother! Your son is beautifully sick!” (V. Mayakovsky, “Cloud in Pants”) - here “sick” is a metaphorical replacement for “in love.”

Among the rare figures in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is Gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one after two), in which complex adjectives are divided into their original component parts: “road melancholy, iron” (A. Blok, “On the Railway”). Here the word “railroad” was split, as a result of which three words came into interaction - and the verse acquired additional meaning. E.G. Etkind, touching on the question of the semantics of the epithets “iron”, “iron” in Blok’s poetic dictionary, noted: “Iron melancholy” - this phrase casts a light on another, the combination “railway”, especially since they are placed next to each other two definitions directed towards each other, as if forming one word “railroad”, and at the same time starting from this word - it has a completely different meaning. “Iron melancholy” is the despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern “iron” civilization.”

Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallag (Greek enallage - movement) - transferring the definition to a word adjacent to the defined one. Thus, in the line “Through the fat trenches of meat...” from N. Zabolotsky’s poem “Wedding,” the definition of “fat” became a vivid epithet after being transferred from “meat” to “trenches.” Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a disastrous result: the verse “A familiar corpse lay in that valley...” in Lermontov’s ballad “The Dream” is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination “familiar corpse” was supposed to mean “the corpse of a familiar [person],” but for the reader it actually means: “This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse.”

Figures with an unusual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions

Figures with unusual relative positions of parts of syntactic constructions include various types of parallelism and inversion.

Parallelism(from the Greek parallelos - walking next to) assumes the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic segments of text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some characteristic possessed by the first of the related constructions, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second.

Thus, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, they distinguish between direct parallelism (“The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is dozing” in Zabolotsky’s verse “The signs of the Zodiac are fading...”) and inverted parallelism (“The waves are playing, the wind is whistling” in “ Sail" by Lermontov). We can write the columns of Lermontov's string vertically:

the waves are playing

the wind whistles

And we will see that in the second column the subject and predicate are given in reverse order relative to the arrangement of words in the first. If you now graphically combine nouns and - separately - verbs, you can get the image of the Greek letter "". Therefore, inverted parallelism is also called chiasmus (Greek chiasmos - -shape, cruciformity).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, they also distinguish parallelism complete and incomplete. Complete parallelism (its common name is isocolon; Greek isokolon - equivalence) - in Tyutchev’s two-word lines “The amphoras are emptied, / The baskets are overturned” (verse: “The feast is over, the choirs have fallen silent...”), incomplete - in his unequal lines “ Pause, pause, evening day,/Last, last, charm” (verse: “ last love"). There are other types of parallelism.

The same group of figures includes such a popular poetic device as inversion(Latin inversio - rearrangement). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + qualifier” or “preposition + noun in case form” is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural.

“The Erota of lofty and dreary wings on...” - this is how the parody of the famous satirist of the early twentieth century begins. A. Izmailov to poems by Vyacheslav Ivanov. The parodist suspected the symbolist poet of abusing inversions, so he oversaturated the lines of his text with them. “Erota on wings” - the order is incorrect. But if a separate inversion “Erota wings” is quite acceptable, moreover, it is felt as traditional for Russian poetry, then “wings on” is perceived as a sign not of artistic speech, but of tongue-tiedness.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the provinces plays Shakespeare’s drama...” in Pasternak), with distance inversion, other words are wedged between them (“An old man obedient to Perun alone...” in Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation emphasis. As Tomashevsky noted, “in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty.”

Figures marking the unusual intonation composition of the text

The group of figures that mark an unusual intonational composition of a text or its individual parts includes various types of syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.

Distinguish two subgroups of repetition techniques. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is an intonation highlight. Like inversion, repetition can be contact (“It’s time, it’s time, the horns are blowing...” in Pushkin’s poem “Count Nulin”) or distant (“It’s time, my friend, it’s time! The heart asks for peace...” in Pushkin’s poem of the same name. ).

Simple repeat applied to different units of text - both to a word (as in the above examples) and to a phrase (“Evening bells, evening bells!” in the translation by I. Kozlov from T. Moore) - without changing the grammatical forms and lexical meaning. The repetition of one word in different case forms while maintaining its meaning has been identified since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - multi-case): “But the man / Sent the man to the Anchar with an imperious look...” (Pushkin, “Anchar”). According to R. Jacobson’s observation, Mayakovsky’s “The Tale of Little Red Riding Hood” is based on polyptoton, which presents the complete paradigm of case forms of the word “cadet”. An equally ancient figure is antanaklasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) - a repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. “The last eagle owl is broken and sawn apart. / And, pinned with a stationery pin / To an autumn branch, head down, // Hangs and thinks with his head...” (A. Eremenko, “In dense metallurgical forests...”) - here the word “head” is used directly, and then in a metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes repeat figures, extending not to the offer, but to a larger part of the text(stanza, syntactic period), sometimes for the entire work. Such figures mark the intonation equalization of those parts of the text to which they were extended. These types of repetition are distinguished by position in the text. Thus, anaphora (Greek anaphora - carrying out; Russian term - unity of beginning) is the joining of speech segments (columns, verses) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: “This is a steeply poured whistle, / This is the clicking of squeezed pieces of ice, / This is a night that chills a leaf, / This is a duel between two nightingales” (Pasternak, “The Definition of Poetry”). Epiphora (Greek epiphora - addition; Russian term - single-ended), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Festoons, all festoons: || scalloped cape, | there are scallops on the sleeves, | scalloped epaulettes, | scallops below, | scallops everywhere” (Gogol, “Dead Souls”). Having projected the principle of epiphora onto an integral poetic text, we will see its development in the phenomenon of refrain (for example, in a classical ballad).

Anadiplosis(Greek anadiplosis - doubling; Russian term - joint) is a contact repetition connecting the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next one. This is how the columns are connected in the lines of S. Nadson “Only the morning of love is good: | Only the first, timid speeches are good,” this is how Blok’s poems “Oh, spring without end and without end - / Without end and without end, a dream” are connected. Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built. For example, the best examples of early Irish poetry are composed of long chains of anadiplosis. Among them, perhaps the oldest is the anonymous “Spell of Amergin,” presumably dating back to the 5th-6th centuries. AD (below is a fragment of it in a syntactically accurate translation by V. Tikhomirov):

I call Erin loudly

The loud sea is fat

Fat on the hill of grass

The grasses in the oak groves are lush

The moisture in the lakes is juicy

The source is rich in moisture

The source of the tribes is one

The only ruler of Temra...

Opposite of Anadiplosis prosapodosis(Greek prosapodosis - addition; Russian term - ring, coverage), distant repetition, in which the initial element of a syntactic structure is reproduced at the end of the next one: “The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy...” in Pushkin’s “Demons”. Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (Yesenin’s poem “You are my Shagane, Shagane...” is built on circular repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy...” by A. Blok).

This subgroup also includes complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of text, - simploc(Greek symploce - plexus): “I don’t want Thalalei, | I hate Falalei, | I spit on Falalei, | I will crush Falalei, | I will sooner love Asmodeus, | than Falaleya!” (Dostoevsky, “The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants”) - this example from Foma Opiskin’s monologue serves as clear evidence that not only repeating elements are emphasized intonationally: with symphony, words framed by anaphora and epiphora are highlighted in each column.

When repeated, it is possible to reproduce not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning separated from the sign. Tautology(Greek tauto - the same, logos - word), or pleonasm(Greek pleonasmos - surplus), is a figure, when used, a word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of a lexical element is necessarily duplicated. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. The writer’s deliberate use of tautology creates in the reader a feeling of verbal excess, irrational verbosity, forces him to pay attention to the corresponding segment of speech, and the reciter to intonationally isolate this entire segment. Yes, in verse. A. Eremenko’s “Pokryshkin” double tautology intonationally highlights the “evil bullet of gangster evil” against the background of the general flow of speech.

For the purpose of intonation highlighting of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination(lat. annominatio - sub-theory) - contact repetition of words with the same root: “I think my thoughts...” in “The Railway” by N. Nekrasov. This figure is widespread in song folklore and in the works of poets, whose work was influenced by their passion for stylizing speech.

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Close to repetition figures gradation(Latin gradatio - change in degree), in which words grouped into a number of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a sign or action), but their arrangement expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually strengthen or weaken: “I swear to heaven, it is certain that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful, it is true that you are attractive” (“Love’s Labour’s Lost” by Shakespeare, translated by Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to “undoubtedly-indisputably-true” the strengthening of one attribute is presented, and next to “beautiful-beautiful-attractive” - the weakening of another. Regardless of whether the sign intensifies or weakens, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonation expressiveness): “It sounded over a clear river, / Rang in a darkened meadow, / Rolled over a silent grove...” (Fet, “Evening”).

In addition, the group of means of intonation marking includes polysyndeton(Greek polysyndeton - multi-union) and asyndeton(Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they imply an emphatic emphasis on the corresponding part of the text in spoken speech. Polysyndeton is essentially not only a multi-conjunction (“life, tears, and love” in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence (“about valor, about exploits, about glory” in Blok). Its function is either to mark a logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: “And the thoughts in the head are agitated in courage, And light rhymes run towards them, / And the fingers ask for the pen...”) or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a series details as a whole image (“I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” by Pushkin: the specific “And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now the wild / Tungus, and the friend of the steppes Kalmyk” develops when perceived into the generic “peoples of the Russian Empire”). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized (“The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts...” in Pushkin’s “Poltava”), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world (“Whisper. Timid breathing. / The trill of a nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy Stream" by Fet).

The writer's use of syntactic figures leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the twentieth century, by the time the concept of “creative individuality” had significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his “Dictionary of Poetic Terms,” 1940 edition: “At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) rhetorical question, 2) rhetorical exclamation, 3) rhetorical appeal...” Today there is a revival of interest in the study of syntactic devices as means of artistic stylistics. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science increasingly analyzes phenomena that are at the intersection of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, verse meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

Syntax of artistic speech

If vocabulary reflects people’s knowledge about objects and forms concepts (any word is always, in some sense, an understanding of the object), then syntax reflects the relationship between objects and concepts. Let's say the sentence “the bird is flying” reflects the relationship between “bird” (this is the scope of vocabulary, we must know what a bird is) and “fly” (this is also vocabulary, we understand what “fly” means). The task of syntax is to establish connections between these concepts. Syntax models the world in the same way as vocabulary. The systems of relationships established by language in different cultures can differ significantly from each other. There are, for example, languages ​​that practically (in our sense) do not reflect time relations. The phrase “he went fishing yesterday” is fundamentally untranslatable into these languages, since the vocabulary does not record the concept of “yesterday and today”, and grammar and syntax do not allow expressing the relationship of time. Any encounter with a different syntactic model causes difficulties. That is why, for example, Russian schoolchildren and students studying English language, are experiencing difficulties with the tense system, especially with the Perfect group. It can be difficult for a Russian student to understand why, say, Present Perfect for an Englishman it seems hereby time, because in the Russian model it seems to be past.

In fiction, the syntactic model has the same fate as vocabulary: literary speech is based on the established norm, but at the same time it shakes and deforms this norm, establishing some new connections. For example, tautological constructions that are erroneous from the point of view of “normal syntax” may turn out to be more understandable and correct in a poem than logically flawless ones. Let us recall the famous poem by M. Kuzmin:

We were four sisters, we were four sisters,

we all loved four, but we all had different

"because":

one loved, because that's how her father and mother

They told me

the other loved because her lover was rich,

the third loved him because he was famous

Artist,

and I loved because I loved.

From the point of view of the “norm,” almost everything is violated here: we see repetitions, violation of word order (inversion), tautology. But from the point of view of poetry, everything here is absolutely correct, and the tautological connection “I loved because I fell in love” is clearer and more natural than all the previous “logical” ones.

Each writer has his own syntactic pattern, his own system of preferences, the most organic to his artistic world. Some prefer transparent syntactic constructions, others (for example, L.N. Tolstoy) - complex, weighted ones. The syntactic pattern of verse and prose is noticeably different. It is no coincidence that A. S. Pushkin, sensitive to language, writes in “Count Nulin”:

In the last days of September

(Speaking in despicable prose).

The phrase “in the last days of September” seemed to the poet too “normal” for poetry; it is more appropriate in prose. Hence the disclaimer.

In short, the syntactic pattern of a text depends on many factors. At the same time, world culture has described and mastered many characteristic “violations of the norm”, without which today artistic speech is hardly possible at all. These techniques are called “syntactic figures”. Some of these techniques simultaneously concern vocabulary and syntax; they are usually called lexico-syntactic, others mainly relate to the sphere of syntax, and are accordingly called syntactic proper.

Lexico-syntactic means

Oxymoron – a technique when one concept is defined through its impossibility. As a result, both concepts partially lose their meaning, and a new meaning is formed. The peculiarity of an oxymoron is that it always provokes the generation of meaning: the reader, faced with a blatantly impossible phrase, will begin to “complete” meanings. Writers and poets often use this technique to say something briefly and succinctly. In some cases, the oxymoron is striking (“Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev), in others it may be less noticeable, revealing itself upon a more thoughtful reading (“Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol - after all, the soul has no death, the “dead green branches” of Pushkin’s anchar - after all, the green foliage of a tree is a sign of life, not death). We will find a huge number of oxymorons in the poetry of A. Blok, A. Akhmatova and other luminaries of Russian poetry.

Catachresis - a deliberately illogical statement that has an expressive meaning. “Yes, she’s a fish! And her hands are kind of white, like fish.” It is clear that a fish cannot have arms; the metaphor is based on catachresis.

Antithesis - a sharp opposition to something, emphasized syntactically. A classic example of antithesis is Pushkin’s characterization of the relationship between Lensky and Onegin:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other.

Let us note that in Pushkin the emphasized antithesis is partially removed by the next line, which makes the situation ambiguous.

Syntactic features associated with repetitions

Repeat. The simplest way is actual repetition (doubling). The rhetorical significance of such repetition is enormous. A person is designed in such a way that he believes an action repeated several times more than an action that is said to be strong. For example, saying “I hate him, I hate him, I hate him” will have a greater effect than “I hate him so much.” The artistic role of repetition is enormous. Since ancient times, both prosaic and especially poetic artistic speech has been replete with repetitions; people appreciated the aesthetic impact of repetitions at the very dawn of art. Both folklore texts and modern poetry are full of repetitions. A repeated word or repeated construction not only “swings” the emotion, but leads to some slowdown in speech, allowing you to focus on the supporting and important word. In this sense, repetition is connected with another important poetic device - retardation(artificial slowing of speech). Retardation can be achieved in different ways, repetition is the simplest and most well-known. As an example, here is one of the most famous and poignant poems by Nikolai Rubtsov:

Sail, swim, swim

Past the gravestones

Past the church frames

Past family dramas...

Boring thoughts - away!

Think and think- laziness!

Stars in the sky - night!

The sun is in the sky - day!

Sail, swim, swim

Past the native willow tree,

Past those calling us

Dear orphan eyes...

Anaphora, or unity of command– repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of a sentence, a completed paragraph (in poetic speech – stanzas or lines):

“My duty is clear to me. My duty is to do my job. My duty is to be honest. I will do my duty."

In prose speech spoken out loud, anaphora allows you to enhance the effect of the evidence and examples given. The repetition at the beginning of each sentence “multiplies” the significance of the arguments: “It was in these places that he spent his childhood. It was here that he read his first books. It was here that he wrote the first lines."

The role of anaphora especially grows in poetic texts, where it has become one of the almost obligatory features of verse:

Wait me and I'll be back.

Just wait a lot

Waitwhen you feel sad

Yellow rains,

Waitwhen the snow is swept away,

Wait when it's hot,

Waitwhen others are not expected,

Forgetting yesterday.

Waitwhen from distant places

No letters will arrive

Waitwhen you get bored

To everyone who is waiting together.

The famous poem by K. Simonov cannot be imagined without the anaphoric spell “wait for me.”

In the poem by Nikolai Rubtsov just quoted, the doubling “swim, swim, swim” resonates with the anaphora “past..., past..., past...”, which creates a subtle psychological picture of the verse.

Epiphora – repetition of the same words at the end of adjacent segments of speech, a technique opposite to anaphora: “Find the right solution and do what is needed,” that's the main thing in their work. React quickly to the situation and not get confused - that's the main thing in their work. Do your job and return alive to your wives - that's the main thing in their work…»

In poetic speech, epiphora sometimes (rather rarely) appears in the form of a word or expression that ends any line, as, for example, in the poem “Smiles” by E. Yevtushenko:

You once had many smiles:

Surprised, delighted, sly smiles,

Sometimes a little sad, but still smiles.

You don't have any of your smiles left.

I will find a field where hundreds of smiles grow.

I will bring you an armful of the most beautiful smiles...

But much more often, epiphora in poetry is the repetition of a key word or expression through some fragment of text, a kind of “small refrain”. It is very characteristic of oriental poetry and its stylizations. Here, for example, is a fragment of M. Kuzmin’s oriental stylization:

Pistachios are blooming in the garden, sing, nightingale!

Sing the green ravines, nightingale!

There is a carpet of spring poppies along the mountainsides;

Lambs are wandering in a crowd. Sing, nightingale!

In the meadows the flowers are colorful, in the bright meadows!

And porridge and chamomile. Sing, nightingale!

Spring gives us all a spring holiday,

From the Shah to the Bug. Sing, nightingale!

Epanaphora (anadiplosis) , or joint- a technique in which the end of a sentence is repeated at the beginning of the next one. “We all expect each other to understand our deepest desires. Our deepest desires, the fulfillment of which we are all secretly waiting for.”

The technique of joining is well known to everyone from Russian folk poetry or its stylizations:

Let's get going, guys. write a petition,

Write a petition , send to Moscow.

Send to Moscow, hand over to the Tsar.

In poetry, epanaphora is one of the most common and favorite techniques:

I was catching with a dream fading shadows,

Fading shadows fading day

I climbed the tower and the steps shook,

And the steps shook under my feet.

The textbook poem by K. Balmont, known to many from school, is built, among other things, on constant epanaphors.

Multi-Union, or polysyndeton– deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence. When using this rhetorical figure, speech is slowed down with forced pauses, and the role of each of the words is emphasized, as well as the unity of what is listed. Polyunion is, in fact, a special case of anaphora: “ A house, A relatives, A friends, A Have you forgotten your neighbors?

Asyndeton, or asyndeton- such a construction of speech in which conjunctions and connecting words are omitted, which gives the utterance dynamism and swiftness, as, for example, in Pushkin’s “Poltava”:

Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts,

Drumming, clicks, grinding.

Syntactic parallelism - a technique in which neighboring sentences are constructed according to the same pattern. The similarity of such elements of speech is often ensured by anaphora or epiphora: “I see how the city has changed and children have appeared on its streets; I see how the roads have changed, and new foreign cars have appeared on them; I see how people have changed and smiles have appeared on their faces.”

Gradation - such an arrangement of parts of a statement relating to one subject, in which each subsequent part turns out to be more expressive than the previous one: “I don’t know the country, the city, the street, or the house where she lives”; “We are ready to object, argue, conflict, fight!” Sometimes a gradation is distinguished from a similar figure " accumulation"(repetition with semantic reinforcement, say, accumulation of synonyms with increasing expression). More often today they only talk about gradation, combining all similar techniques with this term:

To the village, to my aunt, to the wilderness, to Saratov ,

There you will grieve.

(A. S. Griboyedov)

Amplification – repetition of speech structures or individual words. Amplification can be expressed, for example, in the accumulation of synonyms or comparisons. “We try to build good, friendly relationships, we try to make our relationships fraternal and reliable.” Amplification often also means a return to the same thought, its deepening. A particular type of amplification is increment (buildup) – a technique when the text is repeated every time with each new fragment. This technique is very popular in English children's poetry. Let's remember “The House That Jack Built” (translation by S. Ya. Marshak):

Here's the house

Which Jack built.

And this is wheat

In the house,

Which Jack built.

And this is a cheerful tit bird,

Who often steals wheat,

Which is stored in a dark closet

In the house,

Which Jack built...

Chiasmus – reverse parallelism. “We have learned to treat animals like people, but that doesn’t mean we should treat people like animals.” The mirror expressiveness of chiasmus has long been adopted by poets and writers. A successful chiasmus, as a rule, leads to a memorable formula: “You must eat to live, and not live to eat.”

Syntactic features not related to repetitions

Paraphrase - a deliberate distortion of a well-known phrase used for rhetorical purposes. For example, the phrase “Man sounds bitter” paraphrases Gorky’s famous phrase “Man sounds proud.” The power of paraphrase is that contexts familiar to the listener begin to “play”, and the phenomenon of resonance arises. Therefore, a paraphrase will always be more convincing than the same thought expressed without using a well-known aphorism.

Rhetorical question - a question that does not require an answer, but has emotional significance. Often this is a statement expressed in question form. For example, the rhetorical question “Who should we ask now what to do?” implies “Now we have no one to ask what to do.”

Rhetorical exclamation. Usually this term refers to the exclamation itself. Using an exclamation, you can directly convey emotions: “What a time that was!” The exclamation is expressed intonationally, as well as with the help of interjections and a special sentence structure: “Oh, what changes await us!” "My God! And all this is happening in my city!”

Rhetorical appeal- a conditional address to someone within the framework of a monologue. This request does not open a dialogue and does not require a response. In reality, this is a statement in the form of an address. So, instead of saying, “My city is mutilated,” a writer might say, “My city! How they mutilated you!” This makes the statement more emotional and personal.

Parcellation –deliberate “fragmentation” of a syntactic structure into simple elements, most often in violation of the syntactic norm. Parcellation is very popular among writers and poets, as it allows you to highlight each word and put emphasis on it. For example, A. Solzhenitsyn’s famous story “Matrenin’s Dvor”, from the point of view of the syntactic norm, should have ended like this: “We all lived next to her and did not understand that she is the very righteous person, without whom, according to the proverb, not a village is worth , neither the city nor the whole land is ours.” But the writer uses parcellation, and the phrase becomes much more expressive:« We all lived next to her and did not understand that she was the very righteous person without whom, according to the proverb, the village would not stand.

Neither the city.

Neither the whole land is ours.”

Inversion – deliberate violation of the correct word order. IN modern culture inversion is the norm of poetic speech. It not only allows you to highlight the necessary words, but also radically expands the possibilities of rhythmic plasticity of speech, that is, it makes it possible to “fit” the desired combination of words into a given rhythmic pattern of the verse. Poetry is almost always inverse:

Love, hope, quiet glory

The deception did not endure us for long...

(A.S. Pushkin)

There are a lot of syntactic means of expressiveness; it is physically impossible to talk about them all within the limits of our manual. It is also worth noting paraphrase(description of a concept or phenomenon instead of directly naming it), ellipsis(omission of a necessary linguistic element, for example, “and he rushed to her” instead of “and he rushed to her”), etc.

The writer achieves expressiveness and emotionality of speech not only by selecting suitable words, but also by the structure of sentences and their intonation. Features of syntax determined by the content of the work. In the descriptions, stories about events that unfold slowly, the intonation is calm, complete sentences dominate: “Carts creak, oxen chew, days and nights pass, and Chumatsky songs sound between the high graves. They are spacious, like the steppe, and slow, like the step of oxen. , sad and cheerful, but still more sad, because on every road a tragic adventure could befall the Chumaks "(M. Slaboshpitsky).

Where dynamic events, heated debates, conflicts, and deep experiences of characters are told, short, sometimes incomplete, fragmentary sentences predominate:

Mom, where are you? It's me, Vasily, alive! Ivan was killed, mom, but I’m alive! .. I killed them, mom, about two hundred... Where are you?

Vasily ran up to the yard. There was a courtyard right under the mountain. - Mom, my mom, where are you? My dear, why don’t you meet me? (A. Dovzhenko)

Features of syntax depend on the creative intent of the writer, the author’s attitude to the depicted, the type, type, genre, as well as on how the work is written (in poetry or prose), to whom it is addressed (children or adult readers).

The originality of poetic syntax is determined by the peculiarities of the writer’s talent. V. Stefanik strived for brevity and dynamic narration. His speech is simple, precise, economical: “I will tell you about myself with my white lips in an undertone. You don’t hear any complaint, no sadness, no joy in the words. I went in a white shirt, I’m white, they laughed from my white shirt. They offended me and hurt me. And I walked quietly, like a little white cat... A white birch leaf on the trash "(" My word "). The writer repeats the word “white” several times; it sounds in different tones.

The syntactic unit of language is the sentence. A grammatically correct sentence is one in which the main members are placed in in direct order: the subject group is in first place, the predicate group is in second place. In our language, this rule is not mandatory; it is not always observed, especially by writers.

Figures provide intonation-syntactic originality in a work of art. Stylistic figures come in different types.

Inversion (lat. Inversio - rearrangement). With inversion, the direct order of words in a sentence is violated. The subject group can stand after the predicate group: “/ the noise of the spring noise is a wide path, majestically and easily rising above the boundless freedom that has become silent before awakening” (M. Stelmakh).

A common type of inversion is the postpositive placement of adjectives: adjectives come after nouns. For example:

I'm going up the steep cream mountain

I will lift a heavy stone.

(Lesya Ukrainka)

Ellipsis, ellipse (Greek Elleirsis - omission, deficiency) is an omission in a sentence of a word or phrase that is understandable from a specific situation or context. Ellipsis provides the language with brevity and emotional intensity:

A wild one will blow there,

How the brother will speak.

(T. Shevchenko)

Unfinished, broken sentences are called breaks. The breaks convey the speaker’s excitement:

Go... they're measuring... Andrei stared at her.

She couldn’t speak, she pressed her hand to her heart and was breathing heavily...

Go ahead and measure...

Who measures? What?

Gentlemen, oh! They came, they will divide the land.

(M. Kotsyubinsky)

Sometimes sentences are broken because the one who speaks does not dare to say everything. The heroine of the poem “The Maid” cannot tell her son Mark that she is his mother:

"I am not Anna, not a maid,

And she became numb.

The incompleteness of a sentence to convey the emotion of the language is called aposiopesis (Greek Aposiopesis - default). Aposiopesis performs the following functions:

1. conveys the character's excitement.

And I was already thinking about getting married,

And have fun and live,

He praises people and the Lord,

But I had to...

(T. Shevchenko)

2. aposiopesis reveals the character’s mental incompetence. The heroine of Mikhail Kotsyubinsky’s short story “The Horses Are Not to Blame” begins her remarks and does not express any thoughts: “I think that...”, “I probably forgot that...”, “As for me, I...”.

3. aposiopesis indicates confusion actor, tries to hide the reasons for the corresponding behavior. Gsrrry comedy by Ivan Karpen-ka-Kary “Martin Borulya” Stepan says: “You know: not because that..., but because... that, that there was no time, a short vacation.”

4. Sometimes the heroes do not say that what is generally known to everyone: “The people are hungry, but no one cares..., one is enjoying, and the other...” (“Fata morgana” by M. Kotsyubinsky).

5. Often aposiopesis is designed for the reader to continue the thought: “I’ve already been driving for several hours, then it’s unknown what...” (“The Unknown” by M. Kotsyubinsky).

Anakoluth (Greek Anakoluthos - inconsistent) is a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence. A textbook example of anacoluth is the Chkhiv phrase: “Approaching the station and looking at nature through the window, my head flew off.” Anacoluth creates a comic effect. The hero from the comedy of the same name by M. Kulish “Mina Mazailo” says: “Not a single schoolgirl wanted to go out - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo! They didn’t hire a tutor - Mazailo! They didn’t accept me for service - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo!

With the help of anacoluth you can convey the emotions of a character; it is used to enhance the expression of poetic language.

Close to anacoluth - eileps (Greek Syllepsis) - a figure of avoidance. Sileps is a union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination: “We love fame and drown riotous minds in a glass. (A. Pushkin).” "Kumushka's eyes and teeth flared up" (I. Krylov).

Non-union (Greek Asyndeton - lack of union) is a stylistic figure consisting of the omission of conjunctions connecting individual words and phrases. The lack of union gives the story brevity and dynamism: “The regiment was then advancing in the mountains on the northern bank of the Danube. An uninhabited gloomy land. Bare helmets of hills, dark tracts of forests. Precipice. Abyss. Blurred heavy rains roads" (O. Gonchar).

Polyunion (Greek Polysyndeton from polys - numerous and syndeton - connection) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of identical unions. Polyunion is used to highlight individual words, it provides the language with triumph:

And they take him by the arms,

And they take him to the house,

And Yarinochka greets,

Like a brother.

(T. Shevchenko)

To enhance the expressiveness of speech, syntactic parallelism is used.

Parallelism (Greek Parallelos - walking side by side) is a detailed comparison of two or more pictures, phenomena from different spheres of life by similarity or analogy. Parallelism is used in folk songs; it is associated with folk poetic symbolism.

Chervona viburnum bent down.

Why is our glorious Ukraine depressed?

And we will raise this red viburnum.

And we will make our glorious Ukraine gay, gay, and cheerful.

(Folk song)

In addition to direct parallelism, there is an objection to parallelism. It is built on negative comparison. For example: “It was not the gray-haired cuckoo that forged, // But it was not a small bird that chirped, // The pine tree did not rustle near the forest, // So the poor widow in her house // spoke to her children...” (People's Duma).

Antithesis (Greek: Antithesis - opposite) is a figure of speech in which opposing phenomena, concepts, and human characters are contrasted. For example:

It's even hard to tell

What kind of trouble has become in the region -

People suffered like hell

The gentleman was comforted as if in heaven.

(Lesya Ukrainka)

An antithesis, reinforced by verbal or root repetition, is called antimetabole (Greek: Antimetabole - using words in the opposite direction).

As in a nation there is no leader,

Then its leaders are poets.

(E. Rice and shock)

Antimetabola acts as a chiasmus (rearrangement of the main members of the sentence). This is reverse syntactic parallelism.

There was no era for poets yet, but there were poets for eras.

(Lina Kostenko)

In order to highlight the desired word or expression, repetition is used. The repetition of the same word or a word similar in meaning or sound is called a tautology (Greek Tdutos is precisely logos - word). The synonyms characteristic of folk art are tautological. For example: early early, down in the valley.

Kill enemies, thieves of thieves,

kill without regret

(P. Tychina)

Development, development, nightingale,

My tight one.

(Grabovsky)

Anaphora (Greek Anaphora - I take it to the mountain, I highlight) - repetition of the same sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence or poetic line, stanza. There are lexical, strophic, syntactic, and sound anaphora.

Lexical:

Without the wind, rye will not give birth,

Without wind, the water makes no noise,

You can't live without a dream,

You can't love without a dream.

Strophic: in B. Oliynyk’s poem “Mother sowed sleep,” the stanzas begin with the phrase “Mother sowed sleep, flax, snow, hops.”

Sound: “I compose songs for our little beloved: // Darling, love, love, little darling” (Lyubov Golota).

Syntactic: “And you are somewhere beyond the evening, // And you are somewhere beyond the sea of ​​silence” (Lina Kostenko).

Epiphora (Greek Epiphora - transfer, assignment, etc.) is a stylistic figure based on a combination of the same words at the end of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. For example:

Your smile is the only one

Your torment is the only one

Your eyes are alone.

(V. Simonenko)

Symploka (Greek Symphloke - plexus) is a syntactic construction in which anaphora is combined with epiphora. Symploka is often used in folklore.

Wasn’t it the same Turkish sabers that cut me down as you?

Didn't the same janissary stunners shoot me as they did you?

Tomorrow on earth Other people will walk, Other people will love, Kind, affectionate and evil.

(V. Simonenko)

In addition to the term "symploka", there is also the term "complexity" (Latin Complegio - combination, totality, complektor - I embrace).

Joint, (collision), anadiplosis (Greek Anadiplosis - doubling), epanastrdfa (Greek Epanastrephe - going back) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next.

Why was my stylus the stiletto? And the stylus was a stiletto.

(S. Malanyuk)

A junction is also called a pick-up, because each new line picks up, strengthens, and expands the content of the previous one.

Poetic ring (Greek epistrophe - torsion) - repetition of the same words at the beginning and end of a sentence, paragraph or stanza.

We think about you on fine summer nights,

On frosty mornings and in the evenings,

Both on noisy holidays and on working days

We are thinking about you, great-grandchildren.

(V. Simonenko)

Anastrophe (Greek Anastrophe - rearrangement) - repetition of a phrase.

I embrace you. Hugs to you.

(M. Vingranovsky)

Refrain (Greek: Refrain - chorus) - repetition of one line at the end of a stanza or sentence. The refrain expresses an important idea. In P. Tychina’s poem “The Ocean is Full,” the line “the ocean is full” is repeated after each stanza.

Pleonasm (Greek Pleonasmos - redundancy, exaggeration) is a stylistic phrase that contains words with the same or similar meanings: quietly, us Yatai-don’t forget, storm-bad weather.

Paronomasia (Greek Para - around, circle, nearby and onomazo - I call)

A stylistic figure built on a comical convergence of consonant words that have different meanings: vote - make noise, experienced

Educated.

Love the blade of grass and the animal and the sun of tomorrow.

(Lina Kostenko)

Paronomasia is used to create puns: “How is your draft power, dragging anything? - Dragging! For two days I took chickens to the steppe” (A. Klyuka, “Telephone Conversation”).

Vocal type of paronomasia: words differ only in sounds: howl - branches, trap - emptiness.

The metathetical type of paronyms is formed by rearranging consonants or syllables: voice - logos.

Palindrome is associated with paronomasia (Greek Palindromeo - running back, werewolf or cancer). These are words, phrases, verses that, when read from left to right and vice versa, have the same meaning: flood. Here is Velichkovsky's cancerous poem:

Anna asks us, I'm a girl's mother,

Anna is the gift of this world.

Anna we have and and we are semolina.

Close to werewolf and metathetic paronomasia is an anagram (Greek Ana - erases and gramma - letter). This is a rearrangement of letters in a word, which gives a word with new content: ash - vine, summer - body. Ukrainian folklorist Simonov chose the pseudonym Nomis, derived from the abbreviated surname Simon. A related metagram with an anagram is a change in the first letter of a word, due to which the content changes. In Anna's poem "Let's get organized" there are the following lines:

The writers created the MUR, the journalists will have the ZHUR The theater unites in the TOUR - There is an echo all around: gur-gur! The rats are already squeaking from their kennels: we are united like a wall, and let’s call that union the Rat.

Gradation (lat. Gradatio - increase, strengthening, gradus - step, step) is a stylistic figure in which each subsequent homogeneous word means strengthening or weakening of a certain quality. There are two types of gradation: increasing and decreasing. Increasing indicates a gradual increase, increasing quality of the depicted phenomenon. The gradation is ascending: “And your only child withers, dries, dies, perishes” (T. Shevchenko). The type of grace is built on the strengthening of meanings called straight, ascending or climax (Greek Klimax - ladder):

Anyway,

it comes out to one thing,

the executioner should have learned by heart long ago:

you can shoot the brain,

that gives birth to a soul,

You can’t drive thoughts in!

(V. Simonenko)

A descending, descending gradation, which reproduces a gradual decrease in the quality highlighted by the author in the subjects of the image, is called reverse, descending, or Anti-climax. In Anticlimax there is a softening of semantic tension:

I look: the king is approaching

To the eldest... and in the face

How it will be flooded! ..

The poor fellow licked his lips;

And less in the belly

It’s almost gone!., Otherwise

Even less an ace

In the back; then less

And less than small.

And then small ones.

(T. Shevchenko)

The gradation in which the increase changes into a narrowing and decline is called a broken climax. An example of a broken climax is given in A. Tkachenko’s textbook “The Art of Words. Introduction to Literary Studies”:

The clouds are already washing over my shoulders,

I'm already standing in the sky,

Already chest-deep in the sky, already waist-deep,

I can already see all of Ukraine,

Both the world and the Universe, full of mystery,

And everything is blessed in life

Waiting with open arms,

So that I can jump up to him below!

And I jumped up... And the woman laughed

A transparent insult to me,

That I didn’t jump up for her either

From the stack of gold to the stubble.

(M. Vingranovsky)

Amplification (lat. Atrifsayo - increase, spread). This is a stylistic device that consists in the accumulation of synonyms, homogeneous expressions, antitheses, and homogeneous members of a sentence to enhance the emotional impact of poetic language.

I will tear those wreaths that were woven together in a difficult day, trample them, scatter them into ashes, into dust, into trash.

(V. Chumak)

Prepositions are sometimes repeated:

By the clear laughter of a child,

By the young singing happy,

But the glorious work is hot.

Forward, strict shelves,

Under the flag of freedom

For our clear stars,

For our quiet waters.

(M. Rylsky)

An amplification may consist of individual sentences that are repeated:

I'm still so small, I can only see

I want to see my mother as a cheerful mother,

I want to see the sun in a golden hat,

I want to see the sky in a blue scarf,

I don’t yet know what Virtue smells like,

I still don’t know what Meanness tastes like,

What color is Envy, whose dimensions are Trouble,

Which is salted by Melancholy, which is indestructible Love,

Which blue-eyed Sincerity, which flickering Cunning,

I still have all the schedules on the shelves...

Amphiboly (Greek Amphibolia - duality, ambiguity) is an expression that can be interpreted ambiguously. The perception of amphiboly depends on the pause:

And I hit the road - to welcome a new spring,

And I’m setting off on a new journey - to welcome spring.

(M. Rylsky)

Depending on the pause (comma), the expression: “execution cannot be pardoned” can be interpreted differently.

Allusion (lat. Allusio - joke, hint) - an allusion to a well-known literary or historical fact. V. Lesin, A. Pulinet, I. Kachurovsky consider allusion to be a rhetorical, stylistic figure. According to A. Tkachenko, this is “the principle of meaningful interpretation of the text, comparable to its allegorical one. Sometimes it is used as a type of allegory: “Pyrrhic victory” (accompanied by great sacrifices and was equivalent to defeat), Homer’s And such (homeland). The sources of allusion are myths (“Augean stables”), literary works (“The Human Comedy” by O. Balzac).

An aphorism (Greek: Aphorismos - short saying) is a generalized opinion expressed in a laconic form, which is marked by the expressiveness and surprise of the judgment. Proverbs and sayings belong to aphorisms.

A proverb is a figurative expression that formulates a certain life pattern or rule and is a generalization of social experience. For example: without asking for a ford, do not go into the water. All that glitters is not gold. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

A proverb is a stable figurative expression that characterizes a certain life phenomenon. Unlike a proverb, a saying does NOT formulate a life pattern or rule. A proverb states events, phenomena, facts, or indicates a permanent feature of an object. For example: there was no sadness, so I bought a pig. Every dog ​​has his day. The fifth wheel in the cart. Seven Fridays a week.

Literary aphorisms are distinguished:

2) according to the method of expression (definitive - close to definitions, and slogan - appealing)

M. Gasparov calls anonymous literary aphorisms by the Greek term "gnome" (Greek Gnomos - thought, conclusion) and the Latin "sentence", author's - by the Greek term "apophegma". In the ancient tragedy of the dwarves, tragedy ended. Today, gnomes call condensed poems with an aphoristic thought: rubai, quatrains.

Sentence (lat. Sententia - thought, judgment) is an expression of aphoristic content. It is common in works of instructive content (tales) and meditative lyrics. In L. Glebov's fable "Tit" there is the following maxim:

Never boast until you've really done the job.

Apophegma (Greek Apoph and thegma - summary, exact word) - a story or remark of a sage, artist, witty person, gained popularity in polemical and instructive oratorical literature. A. Tkachenko finds an example of apothegm from Lina Kostenko: “we eat fruits from the tree of ignorance.”

An aphorism of moral direction is also called a maxim.

Maxima (lat. Maxima regula - the highest principle) is a type of aphorism, a maxim that is moralistic in content, expressed in the form of a statement of fact or in the form of a teaching: “Conquer evil with evil.”

A. Tkachenko proposes to divide aphorisms into three groups:

2) anonymous (gnome)

3) transferable (khriya).

Chria (Greek Chreia from chrad - I inform). According to M. Gasparov’s definition, this is a short anecdote about a witty or instructive aphorism, an act of a great man: “Diogenes, seeing a boy who behaved badly, beat his teacher with a stick.”

A kind of aphorism is a paradox. Paradox (Greek Paradoxos - unexpected, strange) is a poetic expression that expresses an unexpected judgment, at first glance contradictory, illogical: just punishment is mercy. There is an elderberry in the garden, and there is a man in Kyiv. If you don't want your enemy to know, don't tell your friend. “Don’t trust me, I don’t know how to lie, // Don’t wait for me, I’ll come anyway” (V. Simonenko).

Traditional poetics do not consider forms of bringing previous texts into one’s own, in particular paraphrase (a), reminiscence, figurative analogy, stylization, travesty, parody, borrowing, reworking, imitation, quotation, application, transplantation, collage. A. Tkachenko believes that they should be classified as interliterary and intertextual interactions.

Paraphrase (a) (Greek Paraphasis - description, translation) - retelling in your own words someone else's thoughts or texts. Parodies and imitations are built on paraphrase. This stylistic figure is essentially a transfusion of the previous form factor into a new one. L. Timofeev and S. Turaev identify paraphrase with periphrase. Often prose is translated into poetry, and poetry into prose is shortened or expanded. For example, there is a translation for children of “1001 Nights”, in an abbreviated form of the novel by F. Rabelais “Gargantua and Pantagruel”.

Reminiscence (lat. Reminiscencia - mention) is an echo in a work of art of images, expressions, details, motifs from a well-known work of another author, a roll call with him. Borrowed words and expressions are rethought, acquiring new meaning. Platon Voronko’s poem “I am the one who tore the dams” is based on reminiscences from Lesya Ukrainsky’s “Forest Song”:

I'm the one who broke the dams

I didn't live under a rock.

The one who breaks the dams, and

The one sitting in the rock is the characters from “The Forest Song”.

Application (lat. Applicatio - accession) - inclusion in a literary text of quotations, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fragments of a work of art in a modified form. A work assembled from other people's poetic texts is called a centbn (Latin cento - patchwork clothing). I. Kachurovsky uses the term "Kenton". In the "Literary Dictionary-Reference Book" a centon is understood as a stylistic device, "which consists of introducing fragments from the works of other authors to the main text of a certain author without reference to them." Yuri Klen in the poem "Ashes of Empires" introduces lines from M. Zerov's sonnet "Pro domo", Drai-Khmary - from the sonnet "Swans", Oleg Olzhich - "There Was a Golden Age". In addition to the term "centon", the French term "collage" is used (French Collage - gluing).

In addition to the creative use of other people's texts, there is uncreative use, devoid of originality - compilation (Latin Compilatio - rake) or plagiarism (Latin Plagio - steal).

Among the figures forgotten by literary scholars, A. Tkachenko recalls imprecation (curse). it was successfully used by A. Dovzhenko in “The Enchanted Desna”: “As he hangs that little carrot from the damp earth, pulls it out, O Queen of Heaven, and twist his little arms and bottoms, break his fingers and joints, holidays to the Lady.”

Artistic speech requires attention to its shades and nuances. “In poetry, any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech”158.

The imagery of literary speech depends not only on the choice of words, but also on how these words are combined in a sentence and other syntactic constructions, with what intonation they are pronounced and how they sound.

The figurative expressiveness of speech is facilitated by special techniques for constructing phrases and sentences, called syntactic figures.

Figure (from Latin figura - outline, image, appearance) (rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) is a generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. Their identification and classification began with ancient rhetoric. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual “practical” use and are aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. Since figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important.

Syntactic figures individualize speech and give it emotional overtones. We can talk about the organizational role of syntactic figures in a particular fragment of a work of art and even in the whole text. There are various classifications of syntactic figures. Nevertheless, with all the variety of approaches to their identification, two groups can be defined: 1)

figures of addition (decrease), which are associated with an increase (decrease) in the volume of the text and carry a certain semantic load; 2)

figures of strengthening, which are associated with increased emotionality and expansion of semantic content. Within this group, one can distinguish such subgroups as “pure” figures of amplification (gradation), rhetorical figures, figures of “displacement” (inversion), figures of “opposition” (antithesis).

Let's look at the figures of addition (decrease). These include all types of repetitions that serve to highlight and emphasize important points and links in the subject-speech fabric of the work.

R.O. Jacobson, referring to the ancient Indian treatise “Natyashastra”, where repetition, along with metaphor, is spoken of as one of the main figures of speech, argued: “The essence of poetic fabric consists of periodic returns”1. All kinds of returns to what has already been said and indicated are very diverse in lyrical works. Replicates were examined

V.M. Zhirmunsky in his work “Theory of Verse” (in the section “Composition of Lyrical Works”), because repetitions of various types are of great importance in the strophic composition of the poem, in creating a special melodic intonation.

Repetitions are very rare in business speech, frequent in oratorical and artistic prose, and quite common in poetry. Yu.M. Lotman, citing the lines of B. Okudzhava:

Do you hear the drum roaring,

Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her...

writes: “The second verse does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice. Depending on the intonation of the reading, it can mean: “Soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, and “the chud is already leaving”” or “Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever...” But never: “Soldier, say goodbye to her, once again say goodbye to her." Thus, doubling a word does not mean a mechanical doubling of the concept, but a different, new, complicated content of it"159.

The word “contains its material content plus an expressive halo, more or less strongly expressed. It is obvious that when repeating the content, the material (subject, conceptual, logical) does not change, but the expression noticeably increases, even neutral words become emotional<...>a repeated word is always more expressively stronger than the previous one, creates the effect of gradation, emotional intensity, so important in the composition of both the whole lyric poem and its parts”160.

Repetition at a precisely fixed place in the poem has even greater compositional and expressive meaning. It's about about such types of repetitions as refrain, anaphora, epiphora (they will be discussed below), junction or pickup, pleonasm, etc.

Repeating elements can be nearby and follow one another (constant repetition), or they can be separated by other text elements (distant repetition).

The general form of constant repetition is the doubling of the concept: It's time, it's time! Horns are blowing (A. Pushkin); For everything, for everything I thank you... (M. Lermontov); Every house is alien to me, every temple is empty to me, and it doesn’t matter, and everything is one (M. Tsvetaeva).

Ring, or prosapodosis (Greek rgovarosiosis, lit. - super increase) - repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning and end of the same verse or column: Horse, horse, half a kingdom for a horse! (W. Shakespeare); The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy! (A. Pushkin).

Joint (pickup), or anadiplosis (Greek apasіірІозіБ - doubling) - repetition of a word (group of words) of a verse at the beginning of the next line:

Oh, spring, without end and without edge -

An endless and endless dream!

and at the end of the verse at the beginning of the next:

Why are you, little ray of light, not burning clearly?

Are you not burning clearly, are you not flaring up?

IN book poetry the junction is rare:

I caught the departing shadows with my dreams.

The fading shadows of the fading day...

(K. Balmont)

Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary both for semantic completeness and for stylistic expressiveness (adult man, path-road, sadness-longing). The extreme form of pleonasm is called tautology.

Amplification (lat. amplificatio - increase, distribution) - strengthening an argument by “piling up” equivalent expressions, excessive synonymy; in poetry it is used to enhance the expressiveness of speech:

Floats, flows, runs like a rook,

And how high above the ground!

(I. Bunin)

You are alive, you are in me, you are in my chest,

As a support, as a friend and as an opportunity.

(B. Pasternak)

Anaphora (Greek anaphora - carrying out) - unity of beginning - repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several verses, stanzas, columns or phrases:

The circus shines like a shield.

The circus squeals on its fingers,

The circus is howling on the pipe,

It hits the soul.

(V. Khlebnikov)

Daytime thoughts

Day showers - away:

Daytime thoughts have stepped into the night.

(V. Khodasevich)

Examples of verbal anaphora were given above, but it can also be sound, with the repetition of individual consonances:

Open the prison for me,

Give me the shine of the day

The black-eyed girl

Black-maned horse.

(M. Lermontov)

Anaphora can be syntactic:

We won't tell the commander

We won't tell anyone.

(M. Svetlov)

A. Fet in the poem “I came to you with greetings” uses anaphora at the beginning of the second, third, fourth stanzas. He starts like this:

I came to you with greetings,

Tell me that the sun has risen

That it fluttered through the sheets with hot light.

Tell that the forest has woken up;

Tell me that with the same passion,

Like yesterday, I came again,

Tell me that fun is blowing at me from everywhere.

The repetition of the verb “tell”, used by the poet in each stanza, allows him to smoothly and almost imperceptibly move from a description of nature to a description of the feelings of the lyrical hero. A. Fet uses anaphoric composition, which is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech and the development of a thematic image.

An entire poem can be built on anaphora:

Wait for me and I will come back,

Just wait a lot

Wait for the yellow rains to make you sad,

Wait for the snow to blow

Wait for it to be hot

Wait when others are not waiting,

Forgetting yesterday.

(K. Simonov)

V. Khlebnikov’s quatrain is filled with deep philosophical meaning:

When horses die, they breathe,

When the grasses die, they dry up,

When the suns die, they go out,

When people die, they sing songs. E p i f o r a (from the Greek epiphora - additive) - repeat words or groups of words at the end of several poetic lines, stanzas:

Dear friend, even in this quiet house the fever strikes me.

I can’t find peace in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire.

The number of steppes and roads is not over:

No account found for stones and rapids.

(E. Bagritsky)

Epiphora can also be found in prose. In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” the “golden word” of Svyatoslav, who addresses the Russian princes with the idea of ​​unification, ends with a repetition of the call: Let us stand for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, dear Svyatoslavich! A.

S. Pushkin, with his characteristic irony, in the poem “My Genealogy” ends each stanza with the same word tradesman, varying it in different ways: I am a tradesman, I am a tradesman, / I, thank God, a tradesman, / Nizhny Novgorod tradesman.

Another type of repetition is a refrain (in translation from French - chorus) - a word, verse, or group of verses rhythmically repeated after a stanza, often differing in their metrical features (verse size) from the main text. For example, every sixth stanza of M. Svetlov’s poem “Grenada” ends with the refrain: Grenada, Grenada, / My Grenada! B.

M. Zhirmunsky in his article “Composition of Lyric Poems” defined the refrain as follows: these are “endings that are isolated from the rest of the poem in metrical, syntactic and thematic terms”1. In the presence of refrains, the thematic (compositional) closure of the stanza is enhanced. It is also strengthened by dividing the verse into stanzas, they are more clearly separated from each other; if the refrain is not in each stanza, but in a pair or three, then it thereby creates a larger compositional unit. Masterfully used the refrain in the ballad “The Triumph of the Winners” by V.A. Zhukovsky. After each stanza he gives different quatrains, “isolated” in metrical and thematic terms. Here are two of them:

The trial is over, the dispute is resolved; Happy is the one whose radiance The struggle has ceased; Being preserved

Fate fulfilled everything: He who is given to taste

The great city was crushed. Goodbye to my dear homeland!

But in “Song of the Wretched Wanderer” by N.A. Nekrasov, at the end of each stanza, two refrains are repeated alternately: It’s cold, wanderer, cold and Hungry, wanderer, hungry. They determine the emotional mood of the poem about the difficult life of the people.

M. Svetlov simultaneously uses several types of repetitions in one of his poems:

All jewelry stores -

they are yours.

All birthdays, all name days - they are yours.

All the aspirations of youth are yours.

And all happy lovers' lips - they are yours.

And all the military bands' trumpets are yours.

This whole city, all these buildings - they are yours.

All the bitterness of life and all the suffering are mine.

The poem by A.S. is also based on repetitions. Kochetkova “Don’t part with your loved ones!”:

Don't be separated from your loved ones!

Don't be separated from your loved ones!

Don't be separated from your loved ones!

Grow into them with all your blood -

And every time say goodbye forever!

And every time say goodbye forever,

When you leave for a moment!

Anaphoric connection is not external, it is not a simple decoration of speech. “Structural connections (repetitions of syntactic, intonation, verbal, sound) express and strengthen the semantic connections of poems and stanzas; it is they, in the initial composition, that make us understand that this is not a simple kaleidoscope of individual images, but the harmonious development of the theme, that the subsequent image follows from the previous one, and does not simply coexist with it”1. The repetition of a word or phrase can also be in prose. The heroine of Chekhov's story "The Jumper" Olga Ivanovna exaggerates her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky. This is emphasized by the repetition in her improperly direct speech of the word “influence”: But this, she thought, he created under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed greatly for the better. Her influence is so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, he may perhaps die.

The expressiveness of speech also depends on how conjunctions and other function words are used. If sentences are constructed without conjunctions, then speech speeds up, and a deliberate increase in conjunctions makes speech slower and smoother, therefore polysyndeton is considered an addition figure.

Polysyndeton, or polyunion (Greek polysyndetos - multi-connected) - a structure of speech (mainly poetic) in which the number of conjunctions between words is increased; pauses between words emphasize individual words and enhance their expressiveness:

And the shine, and the noise, and the talk of the waves.

(A. Pushkin)

And deity and inspiration,

And life, and tears, and love.

(A. Pushkin)

I carved out the world with flint and saw,

And I brought a shaky smile to my lips,

And the house was lit up with smoke and haze,

And he lifted up the sweet smokiness of the former.

(V. Khlebnikov)

Decrease figures include asyndeton, default, ellipse (is).

Asyndeton, or non-union (Greek asyndeton - unconnected) is a structure of speech (mainly poetic) in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. This is a figure that gives speech dynamism.

A.S. Pushkin uses it in “Poltava”, since he needs to show a quick change of actions during the battle:

Drumming, clicks, grinding,

The thunder of guns, stomping, neighing, groaning...

With the help of non-union N.A. Nekrasov in the poem “ Railway» enhances the expressiveness of the phrase:

Straight path, narrow embankments,

Columns, rails, bridges.

M. Tsvetaeva conveys a whole range of feelings with the help of non-union:

Here's the window again

Where they don't sleep again.

Maybe they drink wine

Maybe that's how they sit.

Or simply two people can’t separate their hands.

In every home, friend,

There is such a window.

Silence is a figure that makes it possible to guess what could be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.

The lines of I. Bunin awaken many thoughts:

I do not love, O Rus', your timid

Thousands of years of slavish poverty.

But this cross, but this white ladle...

Humble, dear features!

Bunin's view of Russian national character was due to the dual nature of Russian people. In “Cursed Days” he defined this duality this way: There are two types among the people. In one, Rus' predominates, in the other - Chud, Merya. Bunin loved ancient Kievan Rus to the point of oblivion - hence the figure of silence in the above lines gives rise to so many thoughts.

An example of the use of this figure in prose is the dialogue between Anna Sergeevna and Gurov in Chekhov’s “The Lady with the Dog.” The silence here is completely justified by the fact that both heroes are overwhelmed with feelings, they want to say a lot, and the meetings are short. Anna Sergeevna recalls herself in her youth: When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I told myself, another life. I wanted to live! To live and live... And curiosity burned me...

Gurov wants to be understood: But understand, Anna, understand... - he said in an undertone, in a hurry. - I beg you, understand...

Elli p s (is) (from the Greek eIeіrviz - omission, loss) - the main type of decreasing figures, based on the omission of an implied word, easily restored in meaning; one of the types of default. With the help of ellipsis, dynamic and emotional speech is achieved:

Whisper, timid breathing,

The trill of a nightingale,

Silver and the swaying of the Sleepy Brook...

Ellipse expresses the deformation of general language syntax. Here is an example of missing an implied word: ... and looked for the last [time] at how the legitimate [husband] lay, pressing the lapel [of his jacket] with his hand... (B. Slutsky).

In artistic literature, ellipsis acts as a figure with the help of which special expressiveness is achieved. Artistic ellipsis is associated with colloquial expressions. Most often, the verb is omitted, which makes the text dynamic:

Let... But chu! This is not the time to go for a walk!

To the horses, brother, and your foot in the stirrup,

My saber is out and I'll cut it! God gives us a different feast.

(D. Davydov)

In prose, ellipsis is mainly used in direct speech and in narration on behalf of the narrator. Maxim Maksimych in “Bel” talks about one episode from the life of Pechorin: Grigory Alexandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; the gun out of the case, and there I go with it.

Let us turn to the figures of intensification (gradation, rhetorical figures, inversion, antithesis).

“Pure” figures of amplification include gradation.

Gradation (lat. gradatio - gradual increase) is a syntactic construction in which each subsequent word or group of words strengthens or weakens the semantic and emotional meaning of the previous ones.

There is a distinction between ascending gradation (climax) and descending gradation (anti-climax). The first is used more often in Russian literature.

K l i m a s (from the Greek klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, suggesting the arrangement of words or expressions related to one subject in ascending order: I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry (S. Yesenin) ; And where is Mazepa? Where is the villain? Where did Judas run in fear? (A. Pushkin); Neither call, nor shout, nor help (M. Voloshin); I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I cried, but you didn’t descend (A. Blok).

Anti-climax (Greek anti - against, klimax - ladder) is a stylistic figure, a type of gradation in which the significance of words gradually decreases:

He promises him half the world,

And France only for yourself.

(M. Lermontov)

All sides of feelings

All edges of truth have been erased

In worlds, in years, in hours.

(A. Bely)

like a bomb

like a razor

double-edged

like a rattlesnake

at twenty stings

two meters tall.

(V. Mayakovsky)

A multifaceted gradation lies in the composition of Pushkin’s “Tales of the Fisherman and the Fish,” built on the growing desires of an old woman who wanted to become a noblewoman, a queen, and then “the mistress of the sea.”

Strengthening figures include rhetorical figures. They give artistic speech emotionality and expressiveness. G.N. Pospelov calls them “emotional-rhetorical types of intonation”1, because in artistic speech no one answers emotional-rhetorical questions, but they arise to create emphatic intonation. The definition of “rhetorical” fixed in the names of these figures does not indicate that they developed in oratorical prose, and then in literary literature.

Rhetorical question (from Greek.

GleShe - speaker) - one of the syntactic figures; such a structure of speech, mainly poetic, in which a statement is expressed in the form of a question:

Who gallops, who rushes under the cold darkness?

(V. Zhukovsky)

And if this is so, then what is beauty?

And why do people deify her?

She is a vessel in which there is emptiness,

Or a fire flickering in a vessel?

(N. Zabolotsky)

In the above examples, rhetorical questions introduce an element of philosophy into the text, as in verses 3. Gippius:

The world is rich in triple bottomlessness.

Triple bottomlessness is given to poets.

But don't the poets say

Only about this?

Only about this?

Rhetorical exclamation increases emotional tension. With its help, concentration of attention on a specific subject is achieved. This or that concept is affirmed in the form of an exclamation:

How poor is our language!

(F. Tyutchev) -

Hey, watch out! don't play around under the forests... -

We know everything ourselves, shut up!

(V. Bryusov)

Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of feeling in a message:

1 Introduction to literary criticism / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. | \"How good, how fresh the roses were

In my garden! How they seduced my gaze!

(I. Myatlev)

Rhetorical appeal, being an appeal in form, is conditional in nature and gives poetic speech the necessary author’s intonation: intonation of anger, cordiality, solemnity, irony.

A writer (poet) can address readers, the heroes of his works, objects, phenomena:

Tatiana, dear Tatiana!

With you now I shed tears.

(A. Pushkin)

What do you know, boring whisper?

Reproach or murmur

My lost day?

What do you want from me?

(A. Pushkin)

Someday, lovely creature,

I will become a memory for you.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Of the two functions inherent in an address - inviting and evaluative-characterizing (expressively expressive) - the latter predominates in rhetorical appeal: Mistress of the Earth! I bowed my forehead to you (V. Solovyov).

A rhetorical exclamation, a rhetorical question, a rhetorical appeal can be combined, which creates additional emotionality:

Youth! Oh my! Has she left?

You are not lost - you are dropped.

(K. Sluchevsky)

Where are you, my cherished star,

Crown of heavenly beauty?

(I. Bunin)

O cry of women of all times:

My dear, what have I done to you?!

(M. Tsvetaeva)

In artistic speech there is a rhetorical statement: Yes, there were people in our time -

A mighty, dashing tribe...

(M. Lermontov)

Yes, to love as our blood loves,

None of you have been in love for a long time!

and rhetorical negation:

No, I'm not Byron

I am different.

(M. Lermontov)

Rhetorical figures are also found in epic works: And what Russian doesn’t like driving fast? Is it his soul, striving to get dizzy, to go on a spree, to sometimes say “damn it all!” - Is it his soul not to love her?<...>Eh, three! Bird-three, who invented you? You know, you could only have been born among a lively people, in that land that does not like to joke, but has spread out smoothly across half the world, and go ahead and count the miles until it hits your eyes.

Is it not so for you, Rus', that you are rushing along like a brisk, unstoppable troika? Where are you going? Give an answer. Does not give an answer (N.V. Gogol).

In the above example there are rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations, and rhetorical appeals.

Figures of reinforcement include figures of “opposition”, which are based on a comparison of opposites.

Antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition). This term in “Literary encyclopedic dictionary“two concepts are designated: 1) a stylistic figure based on a sharp contrast of images and concepts; 2) the designation of any meaningfully significant contrast (which can be intentionally hidden), in contrast to which the antithesis is always demonstrated openly (often through layer-antonyms)1:

I am a king - I am a slave. I am a worm - I am a god!

(G. Derzhavin) You won’t be left behind. I am a prison guard.

You are a guard. There is only one destiny.

(A. Akhmatova)

Antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the sharp opposition of concepts or phenomena. A convincing example is Lermontov’s poem “Duma”:

And we hate and we love by chance,

Without sacrificing anything, neither anger nor love.

And some secret cold reigns in the soul,

When fire boils in the blood.

The contrast can also be expressed descriptively: He once served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to resign and settle in a poor town, where he lived both poorly and wastefully: he always walked on foot, in a worn black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his lunch consisted of two or three dishes prepared by a retired soldier, but the champagne flowed like a river (A.S. Pushkin).

In the examples given, antonyms are used. But the antithesis is not based simply on the use opposite meaning words, but also on a detailed opposition of characters, phenomena, properties, images and concepts.

S.Ya. Marshak, translating an English folk song, emphasized in a humorous form two principles that distinguish boys and girls: mischievous, prickly in the former and tender, soft in the latter.

Boys and girls

What are boys made of?

From thorns, shells

And green frogs.

This is what boys are made of.

What are girls made of?

From sweets and cakes,

And all kinds of sweets.

This is what girls are made of.

The emergence of the concept of “antithesis” is associated with ancient times, when people began to realize the difference between such concepts as land/water, earth/sky, day/night, cold/heat, sleep/reality, etc.

The first antitheses are found in myths. Suffice it to recall the antipodean heroes: Zeus-Prometheus, Zeus-Typhon, Perseus-Atlas.

From mythology, the antithesis passed into folklore: into fairy tales (“Truth and Falsehood”), epics (Ilya Muromets - Nightingale the Robber), proverbs (Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness).

IN literary works, where moral and idealistic problems are always comprehended (Good and Evil, Life and Death, Harmony and Chaos), antipodean heroes are almost always present (Don Quixote and Sancho Panzo in Cervantes, Merchant Kalashnikov and oprichnik Kiribeevich in M. Lermontov , Pontius Pilate and Yeshua Ha-Nozri by M. Bulgakov). In many works, the antithesis is already present in the titles: “The Wolf and the Lamb”, I. Krylova, “Mozart and Salieri” by A. Pushkin, “Wolves and Sheep” by A. Ostrovsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I. Turgenev, “Crime and Punishment” "F. Dostoevsky, "War and Peace" by L. Tostoy, "Thick and Thin" by M. Chekhov.

A type of antithesis is an oxymoron (oksimoron) (from the Greek oxymoron - witty-silly) - a stylistic device of combining words with opposite meanings for the purpose of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept or idea. This figure is often used in Russian literature, for example, in the titles of works (“The Living Corpse” by L. Tolstoy, “Dead Souls” 11. Gogol, “Optimistic Tragedy” by V. Vishnevsky).

On the one hand, an oxymoron is a combination of antonymous

a) noun with adjective: I love nature’s lush withering (A.S. Pushkin); Poor luxury of attire (N.A. Nekrasov);

b) a noun with a noun: peasant young ladies (A.S. Pushkin);

c) adjective with adjective: bad good man(A.P. Chekhov);

d) a verb with an adverb and a participle with an adverb: It’s fun for her to be sad so elegantly naked (A. Akhmatova).

On the other hand, the antithesis, brought to the point of paradox, aims to enhance the meaning and emotional tension:

Oh, how painfully happy I am with you!

(A. Pushkin)

But their beauty is ugly

I soon comprehended the mystery.

(M. Lermontov)

And the impossible is possible

The long road is easy.

Sometimes “displacement” figures include inversion.

Inversion (lat. shuegeyu - rearrangement, turning over) is a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech.

Words placed in unusual places attract attention and acquire greater meaning. Rearranging parts of a phrase gives it a unique expressive tone. When A. Tvardovsky writes The battle is on, holy and right..., the inversion emphasizes the rightness of the people waging a war of liberation.

A common type of inversion is the placement of an emotional definition (epithet) in the form of an adjective (or adverb) after the word it defines. It is used by M. Lermontov in the poem “Sail”:

The lonely sail is white

In the blue sea fog!

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What is he looking for in his native land?

There are adjectives at the end of each verse. And this is no coincidence - they are the ones who determine the main semantic and emotional mood of M. Lermontov’s work. In addition, the author used another feature related to the verse in general: the end of the verse has an additional pause, which allows the word at the end of the verse to be especially highlighted.

In some cases, inversion means that words in a sentence are swapped, but those that should be next to each other are separated, and this gives the phrase semantic weight:

Where the light-winged one changed my joy.

(A. Pushkin)

Using inversion, poet A. Zhemchuzhnikov creates a poem in which tragic reflections about his homeland sound:

I know that country where the sun is already without power,

Where the shroud is waiting, the cold earth is waiting, And where the sad wind is blowing in the bare forests, -

Either my native land, or my fatherland.

There are two main types of inversion: anastrophe (rearrangement of adjacent words) and hyperbaton (separating them to highlight them in a phrase): And by the death of a land alien to this land, the guests were not calmed down (A. Pushkin) - that is, guests from a foreign land who were not even calmed down in death.

Many stylistic devices since Antiquity have raised doubts about whether they should be considered figures or tropes. Such techniques also include parallelism - a stylistic device of parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas.

Parallelism (Greek paga11yo1oz - located, or going nearby) is an identical or similar arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text, which, when correlated, create a single poetic image161. Usually it is built on a comparison of actions, and on this basis - persons, objects, circumstances.

Figurative parallelism arose in oral syncretic creativity, which was characterized by parallels between relationships in nature and human life, because people were aware of the connection between nature and human life. Nature has always been in first place, human actions in second. Here is an example from a Russian folk song:

Don't tangle, don't tangle the grass with the dodder,

Don't get used to it, don't get used to the girl.

There are several types of figurative parallelism. “Psychological”162 was widely used in oral folk art:

It is not a falcon that flies across the sky,

It is not the falcon that drops its gray wings,

Well done galloping along the path,

Bitter tears flow from clear eyes.

This technique is also found in prose. For example, in two episodes from the novel by L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" describes an oak tree (in the first - old, gnarled, in the second - covered with spring foliage, awakening to life). Each of the descriptions turns out to be correlated with the state of mind of Andrei Bolkonsky, who, having lost hope of happiness, returns to life after meeting Natasha Rostova in Otradnoye.

In Pushkin's novel Eugene Onegin, human life is closely connected with nature. In it, one or another landscape painting serves as a “screensaver” for a new stage in the life of the novel’s heroes and an expanded metaphor of his mental life. Spring is defined as “the time of love,” and the loss of the ability to love is compared to the “cold storm of autumn.” Human life is subject to the same universal laws as the life of nature; Constant parallels deepen the idea that the life of the novel’s heroes is “inscribed” in the life of nature.

Literature has mastered the ability not directly, but indirectly to correlate the mental movements of characters with one or another state of nature. However, they may coincide or not. Thus, in Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons,” Chapter XI describes the melancholy mood of Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov, who seems to be accompanied by nature and therefore he... was unable to part with the darkness, with the garden. With a feeling fresh air on his face and with this sadness, with this anxiety... Unlike Nikolai Petrovich, his brother was not able to feel the beauty of the world: Pavel Petrovich reached the end of the garden, and also became thoughtful, and also raised his eyes to the sky. But his beautiful dark eyes reflected nothing but the light of the stars. He was not born a romantic, and his foppishly dry and passionate, in the French way, misanthropic soul did not know how to dream...

There is parallelism built on opposition:

From others I receive praise - what ashes,

From you and blasphemy - praise.

(A. Akhmatova)

Negative parallelism (antiparallelism) is distinguished, in which the negation emphasizes not the difference, but the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Frost the voivode goes around his possessions on patrol.

(N. Nekrasov)

A.N. Veselovsky noted that “psychologically one can look at a negative formula as a way out of parallelism”163. Antiparallelism is often found in oral folk poetry and less often in literature. It cannot serve as an independent means of substantive representation, the basis for constructing an entire work, and is usually used at the beginning of works or in individual episodes.

Another type of parallelism - inverted (inverted) parallelism is designated by the term chiasmus (from the Greek sShaBtoe), in which the parts are arranged in the sequence AB - BA "A": Everything is in me, and I am in everything (F. Tyutchev); usually with the meaning of antithesis: We eat to live, and do not live to eat.

Parallelism can be based on the repetition of words (“verbal” parallelism), sentences (“syntactic” parallelism) and adjacent columns of speech (isocolons)164.

Syntactic parallelism, i.e., a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena given in similar syntactic constructions, belongs to syntactic figures and in its function is similar to comparison:

The stars shine in the blue sky,

The waves splash in the blue sea.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Where the wind blows in the sky,

The obedient clouds rush there too.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

An equal number of adjacent columns of speech is designated by the term isocolon (from the Greek isokolon).

N.V. Gogol in “Notes of a Madman” in the first phrase creates an isocolon of two members, in the second - of three: Save me! take me! give me three horses as fast as a whirlwind! Sit down, my coachman, ring my bell, soar, horses, and carry me from this world!

The area of ​​poetic syntax includes deviations from standard linguistic forms, expressed in the absence of grammatical connection or its violation.

Solecism (Greek soloikismos from the name of the city of Sola, whose inhabitants spoke uncleanly in Attic) is an incorrect linguistic turn as an element of style (usually “low”): the use of a non-literary word (dialectism, barbarism, vulgarism). The difference between solecism and figure is that figures are usually used to create a “high” style. Example of solecism: I am ashamed as an honest officer (A. Griboedov).

A special case of solecism is the omission of prepositions: Bowed hand; I'm flying through the window (V. Mayakovsky).

Enallaga (Greek ennalage - rotation, movement, substitution) - the use of one grammatical category instead of another:

Having fallen asleep, the creator will arise (instead of “having fallen asleep, he will arise”)

(G. Batenkov)

Enallaga has two meanings: 1) a type of solecism: incorrect use of grammatical categories (parts of speech, gender, person, number, case): There can be no talk of taking a walk (instead of: taking a walk); 2) type of metonymy - transfer of the definition to a word adjacent to the defined one:

A half-asleep flock of old men (instead of: “half-asleep”)

(N. Nekrasov)165

Sylleps (Greek syllepsis - capture) - stylistic figure: the union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination; syntactic alignment of heterogeneous members:

Don't wait for Sunday from the grave,

Substances lying in the dirt,

Hungering for fun in her And aloof from the deity.

(G. Batenkov)

Here are examples of sylleps with syntactic heterogeneity: We love fame, and drown profligate minds in a glass (A. Pushkin) - here: the additions expressed by a noun and an infinitive are combined; with phraseological heterogeneity: The gossip's eyes and teeth flared up (I. Krylov) - here: phraseological unit eyes flared up and the extra-phraseological word teeth; with semantic heterogeneity: Full of both sounds and confusion (A. Pushkin) - here: mental state and its cause166. Anakoluth (Greek anakoluthos - incorrect, inconsistent) - syntactic inconsistency of parts or members of sentences:

Who recognizes the new name,

Wearing seals, he is resurrected (instead of: “will rise again”) with the Myrrh-streaming head.

(O. Mandelstam)

Neva all night

Longing for the sea against the storm,

Without overcoming them (instead of: “her”) violent foolishness.

(A. Pushkin)

Anacoluth is one of the means of characterizing a character’s speech. For example, Smerdyakov’s phrase - This is so that it could be, sir, so, on the contrary, never at all, sir... (“The Brothers Karamazov” by Dostoevsky) - indicates uncertainty, inability to express thoughts, and the character’s poor vocabulary. Anacoluth is widely used as a means of satirical depiction: Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off (A.P. Chekhov).