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Collective discussion of the problem. Collective discussion of problems

Brainstorm

Brainstorm is one of the new methods of problem solving, allows you to consider a maximum of ideas in a short time. It allows for a creative approach to a problem, flights of fancy, unexpected ideas and angles, and any criticism is not acceptable in it. Brainstorming should be carried out in certain conditions. It is better to take into the group workers who do not have strictly established stereotypes about the organization (i.e., little experience in the company); it is not advisable to mix them too much different ages, but you can mix men and women and periodically update the composition of the group so that there is no stagnation of ideas.

Note 1

Brainstorming helps solve all types of problems in which several possible solutions are possible. It cannot solve problems that are too general and abstract, as well as problems with one solution or a limited number of solutions.

Brainstorming gave birth to such problem solving techniques as:

brainwriting (when participants express their ideas exclusively in writing and then exchange sheets of ideas);
brainstorming on boards (when a board is placed in the room on which you can attach sheets of ideas that may spontaneously come to mind during the day);
Japanese brainstorming (when ideas are based on a single approach to defining a problem, which narrows the range of possible options);
multi-stage brainstorming (when 2 groups are created, the first generates ideas, the second evaluates them).

Force field analysis

Force field analysis allows you to present the problem clearly and is based on an analytical approach to the problem. Can be used in different situations; there are no restrictions on the number of possible solutions (one or many). Every problem is seen as a balance between two systems of forces acting in opposite directions. driving forces strive to change the situation for the better, restraining forces strive to change the situation for the worse. Schematically the process looks like this:

Picture 1.

When applying the method, all factors that resist solution and help solve the problem are recorded in writing. Once all the factors are recorded, they are ranked using the following scale:

Figure 2.

Then the forces that can or cannot be changed are determined, then they determine which forces to focus on. After this, a plan to solve the problem is developed.

Delphi method

Definition 1

The Delphi method is a process in which participants express their opinions through discussion or on paper and reach a consensus.

It helps if participants have many different opinions on an issue. They can use information from their opponents, which helps them rethink the problem and reach agreement on one of the solution alternatives. The method is especially effective in solving technological problems.

The discussion participants write down their ideas for solving the problem on paper, then the sheets are collected and compiled. common list decisions. Participants then rate the importance of the decision on a predetermined scale (usually out of 10, with 1 being the most important decision and 10 being the least important). Then sheets with assessments are collected, the assessments are summarized in a common table. If the majority of participants give the same score to one of the alternatives, then the problem is considered solved. If there is no agreement, then the evaluation process continues according to a similar system (the alternatives closest in terms of the number of ratings are identified and the ranking is carried out again). When the assessments become more homogeneous, they identify several priority options and focus on them.

Opinion exchange

Opinion exchange is used when during the discussion the participants are divided into two or more camps and do not want to change positions. The method allows you to better understand the point of view of your opponents. Each of the camps prepares a presentation of its position and selects arguments. Then presentations are held where participants present their points of view. Each camp then prepares a presentation on the opposing point of view as if it were their own opinion (i.e., without negative judgment). After the second type of presentation, each group criticizes its opponents. Thus, the group itself selects arguments against its original opinion. After this, the results are summarized and a discussion is held. As a result of the discussion, there is a high probability of finding a consensus, since the participants consider the problem from all possible positions.

Collages and fantasies

Collages and fantasies- used when a problem or opinion about alternatives is difficult to formulate verbally, both in a group and in dialogue with outsiders. The method activates visual perception instead of verbal, it involves creating illustrations based on available information.

The easiest way to create a collage is from printed materials, since drawing requires more time. Various newspapers and magazines are collected (of different genres, not just business ones). The group then creates two types of collages: one depicting a real situation, the other an ideal picture of a solution to a problem. After creating two collages, the group prepares a verbal presentation of what is depicted. Afterwards, the presentations are analyzed.

This method quite controversial due to a strong creative approach to solving the problem. Therefore, it does not always help to find a solution; sometimes it does not justify itself.

In group educational and cognitive activities, each student actively participates in solving the problem posed. At the same time, he interacts with other subjects of activity, communicates with them, shows a rational and emotional attitude, realizing his intellectual potential. In such a situation, the student turns into an actively acting, thinking subject of activity.

According to psychologists, in small groups (3–7 people), students receive a greater amount of knowledge; a well-organized and cohesive group is more productive than the same number of people working alone. Participation in group forms of training brings a feeling of satisfaction. Making hypotheses, listening and critically evaluating the opinions of others, making compromises

and collaborating with each other, students gain experience in decision-making and professional communication, while they develop the necessary qualities of a future specialist.

(lectures, practical and seminars) each student individually perceives the material presented by the teacher, individually solves educational problems, and makes “his own” report.

Coursework and diploma projects are carried out purely individually. With frontal-individual learning, the capabilities of the student body and collective (joint) cognitive activity are not used, the educational significance of the learning process is reduced, and organized communication between students in the learning process is not implemented.

To eliminate these shortcomings, in the learning process it is necessary to use various forms and methods of collective work of students in classroom and extracurricular activities: group problem solving, brainstorming, analysis of specific situations, discussions, business games, group execution coursework etc. Since the implementation of these methods involves the search activity of students, in teaching practice these methods are called heuristic.

Group problem solving. First, the teacher determines the topic and goals of the lesson, reveals the meaning of the issues being studied; using various methods, repeats lecture material, then the academic group is divided into subgroups of 3–7 people. The composition of the subgroups should be heterogeneous (each subgroup includes strong, average and weak students). Each subgroup, headed by a leader (leader), solves a problematic problem through joint cognitive activity (subgroups can solve the same problem or different problems of the same class). After a collective discussion and solution of the problem, one of the subgroup members reports the result. Other subgroups are invited to discuss it. When there is disagreement between subgroups or individual students, a discussion arises. Results teamwork are given by the teacher.

Brainstorming method. The method arose in the 1930s as a way of collectively producing new ideas. History is rich in examples of how sometimes quite complex problem unamenable to decision traditional ways, unexpectedly found an original way out during a brainstorming session.

The scope of application of this method is quite wide - from scientific, technical, economic and managerial problems to social, psychological, pedagogical and even ethical situations.

IN general view The brainstorming procedure consists of the following stages.

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1. Formulation of the problem that needs to be solved; justification of the problem to find a solution. Determining the conditions of a specific work, issuing to participants the rules for finding a solution and behavior during the brainstorming process. Formation of working groups

and an expert group whose responsibilities will include the development of criteria, assessment and selection best ideas.

2. Training session-warm-up. Exercises in quickly finding answers to questions and tasks of the training session. The task of this stage is to help participants free themselves as much as possible from the influence of psychological barriers (awkwardness, shyness, isolation, stiffness, etc.).

3. “Brainstorm” the problem posed. The task at hand is first clarified once again and the rules of conduct during the solution are reminded. Generating ideas in working groups.

4. Evaluation and selection of the best ideas. Experts select the best ideas based on the selected criteria. Report on the results of the brainstorming session. Discussion of the results of the groups’ work, evaluation of the best ideas, their justification and public defense. Making a collective decision.

The success of applying the method largely depends on the teacher (session leader). He must skillfully direct the course of collective mental activity, successfully pose stimulating questions, provide hints, additions, etc. The duration of brainstorming varies from 15 minutes to an hour. The effectiveness of a brainstorming session (process) depends on compliance with the following rules:

1. Brainstorming requires complete liberation of thought

and freedom of imagination: the more unexpected and unusual the idea, the more reason to expect success.

and intermediate assessments - they interfere with the construction and formulation of new ideas.

3. “Brainstorming” does not tolerate stereotyped thinking; Complete liberation from the captivity of stereotypes, standards and traditions is the most important condition for the success of creative search.

4. The more proposals put forward, the greater the likelihood of a new idea emerging.

5. During the session, additions and improvements are allowed

and development of ideas proposed by you or other participants in the brainstorming session.

6. You are allowed to ask questions to colleagues for clarification.

and development of their ideas; the question should not contain an assessment or your attitude to the idea.

7. Formulate your thoughts carefully but briefly; don't be upset if they don't understand you. Try to present your idea again.

8. If the problem as a whole cannot be solved, try to break it down into its component elements and think about each of them separately.

9. Use a method of combining techniques, solutions, sub-accounts, estimates: try to construct some system, seemingly from parts “alien” to each other.

10. Feel free to arbitrarily change the parameters in the problem posed - reduce or increase the cost, timing, dimensions, distances, etc. If an idea for a solution is found, it can be refined to the level of the boundaries established by the conditions of the problem.

Analysis of a specific situation (situational method).A specific situation is understood as events that include a contradiction or come into conflict with environment. As a rule, this is a deviation in social, economic, organizational, managerial, technological and other processes.

Situational analysis is carried out according to the following methodology. Study group is divided into several subgroups. Each of them receives a folder with descriptions of specific situations. The teacher determines the range of tasks for subgroups. Group work on a situation consists of analyzing it, identifying the problem, finding ways to solve it, and discussing solution options. Then these options are put forward for general discussion. As a result of the discussion and the final conversation, a collective judgment about the situation or a solution to the problem is developed.

Group discussion as a method of collective discussion and problem solving, it is used to activate the cognitive activity of students, teach them to express their point of view (opinion) and listen to others’ opinions, communicate and interact in a group, analyze complex production situations, accept collective solution.

Group discussion is conducted according to the following methodology. The topic of discussion (problem) is formulated and brought to the attention of students in advance (one to two weeks before class). Each student must come prepared (with their own ideas, suggestions). In class, after an introductory word from the teacher (statement of the problem, its actualization), a free discussion begins. Each participant in the discussion, within the allotted time (3–7 minutes), expresses his point of view (opinion) regarding the issues under discussion. At the end of the discussion, the teacher sums up the results and summarizes the proposals put forward.

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Group discussion can be combined with role-playing. At the same time, the teacher introduces students to the problem situation and suggests distributing the roles of participants (specialists) among themselves to solve the problem. Each participant is given instructions on how to perform a particular role. It describes the position that this person takes in this situation, his assessment of the current problem, his interests and goals. The lesson is conducted in the form of a meeting under the guidance of the student who plays the role of a senior (manager) in this situation. The subject of the meeting is a joint solution to a problem situation. In the final part of the lesson, students discuss the outcome and progress of solving the problem, evaluate everyone’s behavior in this situation.

Method of heuristic questions. This method is also known as the “key question” method. It is advisable to use it for collecting additional information in a problematic situation or organizing existing information in the very process of solving a creative problem. In addition, heuristic questions serve as an additional incentive and form new strategies and tactics for solving a creative problem. The American mathematician and educator D. Polya paid a lot of attention to heuristic issues.

The heuristic question method is based on:

On problematicity and optimality (through skillfully posed questions, the problematic nature of the problem is reduced to an optimal level);

Fragmentation of information (heuristic questions allow you to break down a task into subtasks);

Goal setting (each new heuristic question forms a new strategy - the goal of the activity).

and to do this, ask yourself the following questions: what is unknown? what is given? what is the condition? Is it possible to satisfy the condition? Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown? or not enough? or excessive? or contradictory? Make a drawing. Enter a suitable designation. Divide the condition into parts. Try to write them down.

When searching for a solution idea and drawing up a solution plan, answer the questions: How to find a connection between the data and the unknown? Do you know of any related problem? is it possible

5.4. Project method

use it? Is it possible to use a method to solve it? Shouldn't we introduce some auxiliary element to take advantage of the previous task? Is it possible to formulate the problem differently, more simply? Is it possible to come up with a more accessible task? more general? more private? similar task? Is it possible to solve part of the problem, satisfy part of the condition? Is it possible to extract anything useful from the data? have you used all the data and conditions? Have all the concepts contained in the problem been taken into account?

When implementing a solution plan, control your every step. Is it clear to you that the step you have taken is the right one? Can you prove that he is correct? Control and self-control of the resulting solution. Is it possible to check the result? Is it possible to check the progress of the solution? Is it possible to get the same result differently? Is it possible to check the correctness of the result obtained? Is it possible to use the result obtained in some other problem? Is it possible to solve the inverse problem of this?

The advantage of the heuristic question method is its simplicity and effectiveness for solving any problem. Heuristic questions especially develop intuition of thinking, a general logical scheme for solving creative problems.

The disadvantages and limitations of this method are that it does not provide particularly original ideas and solutions and, like other heuristic methods, does not guarantee absolute success in solving creative problems.

Project method

The project method was first developed by the outstanding American philosopher and teacher J. Dewey (1859–1952), who proposed building learning on an active basis through expedient cognitive and project activities of the student, in accordance with his personal interest. The ideas of the humanistic approach to education by J. Dewey and his project method have found widespread use in Western countries and have gained great popularity due to their rational combination theoretical knowledge and their practical application to solve specific problems of the surrounding reality. The essence of the method is to stimulate students’ interest in the issues being studied, which involve the study and assimilation of a certain system of knowledge, and through project activities involving the solution of one or more problems, show practical use acquired knowledge.

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The project method is a set of techniques and cognitive actions of students to master a certain system of knowledge, abilities, skills through independent project activities aimed at solving a practical task (problem). The method involves a rational combination of theoretical knowledge from various areas science (disciplines studied) and their practical application to solve specific problems in the joint activities of students. As an example of using the project method in educational process One can cite the performance by a group of students of the tasks that they perform during a course or diploma project. The fundamental difference between the project method is that the project is not carried out individually, but through the joint activities of students.

The project method is focused on solving a problem, which involves, on the one hand, the use of various techniques and teaching aids, and on the other, the integration of knowledge and skills from various fields of science, engineering and technology.

For effective application of the project method, the following requirements must be met:

1. The presence of a creatively significant problem that requires integrated knowledge and research to solve it (for example, research demographic problem, problems of unemployment, crime, drug addiction, ecology, etc.).

2. Practical, theoretical or cognitive significance of the intended results.

3. Independent (individual, pair or group) activities of students.

4. Structuring the content of the project (indicating the stages of work and results).

5. The use of research methods - defining the problem, the research tasks arising from it, putting forward a hypothesis for their solution, choosing research methods, developing a project, analyzing the data obtained, summing up, conclusions.

The results of completed projects must be “tangible”, i.e. if this theoretical problem, then its specific solution, if practical - a specific result, ready for implementation.

The project method is based on the development of students’ cognitive, creative interests, the ability to independently construct their knowledge, the ability to navigate the information space, and the development of critical thinking. The project method is always focused on the independent activities of students (individual, pair or group), carried out during

5.4. Project method

a certain period of time. It is organically combined with the method of teaching in cooperation, problem-based and research teaching methods.

Work on the project is carefully planned by the teacher and discussed with students. At the same time, a detailed structuring of the substantive part of the project is carried out, indicating stage-by-stage results and deadlines for presenting the results to the “public”, i.e. other group members, experts or, for example, external Internet users who are not directly related to the learning process.

Currently, it is customary to distinguish seven main stages of work on a project:

Organizational;

Selection and discussion of the main idea, goals and objectives of the future project;

Discussion of methodological aspects and organization of student work;

Structuring the project with the allocation of subtasks for certain groups of students, selection necessary materials;

Project work;

Summing up, presentation of results;

Project presentation.

The forms of organizing students’ joint activities on a project are determined based on the characteristics of the topic, the goals of joint activities, and the interests of the project participants. The main thing is that in any case it is different types independent activities of students. The success of students’ project activities depends to a large extent on the organization of work within the group, on the clear distribution of responsibilities and the definition of forms of responsibility for the part of the work being performed.

Projects can be varying degrees difficulties. The topics of the projects may relate to some theoretical issue curriculum in order to deepen students' knowledge on this issue and differentiate the learning process. More often, however, the topics of projects relate to some issue that is relevant to practical life and requires the involvement of students’ knowledge not in one subject, but from different areas, as well as creative thinking and research skills. In this way, a natural integration of knowledge is achieved.

Many educational projects are based on the research teaching method. All student activities focus on the following stages:

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Defining the problem and the research tasks arising from it;

Proposing a hypothesis for their solution;

Discussion of research methods;

Conducting data collection;

Analysis of the received data;

Registration final results;

Summing up, adjusting, drawing conclusions (using the method of “brainstorming”, “round table” during joint research, statistical methods, creative reports, presentations, etc.).

A variation of the project method is method of telecommunication projects. An educational telecommunications project is understood as a joint educational, cognitive, creative or gaming activity of partner students, organized on the basis of computer telecommunications, having a common goal, agreed upon methods, methods of activity, aimed at achieving a common result.

Telecommunications projects are justified pedagogically in cases where their implementation provides for:

Multiple, systematic, one-time or long-term observations of one or another natural, physical, social

and other phenomena that require data collection in different regions to solve the problem;

Comparative study, research of a particular phenomenon, fact, event that has occurred or is taking place in various places to identify a certain trend or make a decision, develop proposals;

A comparative study of the effectiveness of using one

and the same or different (alternative) ways of solving one problem, one task to identify the most effective solution acceptable for any situation, i.e. to obtain data on the objective effectiveness of the proposed method of solving the problem;

Joint creative creation, any practical development (for example, creating new technology or technology, magazines, newspapers, plays, etc.);

Conducting exciting adventure joint games and competitions.

In the course of working on telecommunications projects, there may be a need not only for the usual exchange of ideas, thoughts, opinions on a particular subject, but also the need

5.4. Project method

V quick search solving a problem, searching for ideas. In this case, a method such as “brainstorming” has proven itself well.

When planning telecommunications projects, it is also necessary to think through the forms of organizing the work of participants. These forms can be different:

Individual projects (within a larger project);

Paired projects, when partners work on one project

Group projects, when groups from both sides or even groups from several regions take part in the project.

Projects can be conducted using email, teleconferences, or webquests.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Define the concept of “teaching method”.

2. By what criteria and how are teaching methods classified?

3. Reveal the essence of problem-based learning.

4. What are the advantages of group teaching methods?

5. What are the features of the project method?

Chapter 6

PEDAGOGICAL TECHNOLOGIES

Eristics is a set of research techniques, a technique for asking questions and solving them; teaching method using leading questions; the science of winning arguments.

Eristic methods are based on principles that determine the strategy and tactics of decision makers when solving poorly defined and uncertain problems. They stimulate creative thinking in the decision-making process, allow you to generate new ideas, the use of which makes it possible to increase the efficiency of solving management problems. Let us briefly outline the eristic methods most often used in decision-making practice.

Group work methods

1. Brainstorming method. There are situations when it is difficult for the decision maker to find a solution. In this case, you can use the brainstorming method. It allows you to identify and compare individual judgments, a range of ideas for solving a problem, and then make a decision.

There are several varieties of this method: direct brainstorming, reverse brainstorming, competition of ideas, etc. Let’s look at the first and second varieties.

1.1. Direct brainstorming a form of collective generation of ideas to solve a creative problem. Its purpose is to select ideas.

Rules for participants:

participants sit at the table facing each other;
Disputes, criticism, and evaluations of what is said are prohibited;
speaking time for a participant - 1-2 minutes;
any ideas are expressed, even crazy ones;
The number of ideas is more important than their quality.

ideas should be welcomed;
it is necessary to believe in the solvability of the problem;
it is allowed to ask questions that develop the idea;
one should strive to solve the problem raised;
all participants have equal rights;
no need to think about the consequences of what was said;
the group is not given a specific task, but the problem is characterized in general;
Exchanging glances, whispering, and gestures that distract attention from solving the problem are undesirable.

The manager must:

guide the discussion, ask stimulating questions;
give hints, use jokes, remarks that create an informal atmosphere.

Restrictions and conditions:

number of participants - 4-15;
different levels of their education and specialization are desirable;
it is necessary to maintain a balance in the level of activity and temperament;
operating time - from 15 minutes. up to 1 hour

Ideas are selected by specialists - experts who carry out assessments in two stages: first, the most original and rational ideas are selected, and then the optimal ones, taking into account the problem and the purpose of its solution.

1.2. Reverse brainstorming. The technology of this form of collective interaction does not involve the generation of new ideas, but the criticism of existing ones.

Rules for participants:

Each idea is criticized, discussed and evaluated according to the following criteria: compliance with initial requirements, the possibility of its implementation or lack thereof; implementation at cost, applicability in another area;
criticism is presented concisely and positively. Ideas that require a long time to discuss are considered later;
Everyone can perform many times, but it’s better in a circle;
duration of performance - 15-20 minutes;
It is advisable to hold the event in the first half of the day, in a calm environment.

A reverse brainstorming can be carried out immediately after a forward one, when counter-ideas are formed after the collective generation of ideas. In this case the following are produced:

systematization and classification of ideas, as well as their grouping according to characteristics expressing general approaches to solving a problem;
assessing ideas for feasibility and searching for obstacles to this;
evaluation of critical comments, selection of ideas and counter-ideas that have withstood criticism.

It is advisable to divide all participants into groups:

idea generators (when a direct brainstorming is carried out);
analyzing a problem situation and evaluating ideas;
generators of counter-ideas.

This method is based on the principles:

interaction in the process of finding a solution;
trust in each other's creativity and abilities;
an optimal combination of intuitive and logical (the prohibition of criticism, critical analysis of ideas leads to inhibition of the left hemisphere processes of the brain and stimulation of the right hemisphere).

Advantages of the method:

the ability to use all the specialists available in the management apparatus;
improvement of socio-psychological intragroup processes.

Disadvantages of the method:

allows you to find an idea in general form, without guaranteeing its thorough development;
inapplicable when solving a problem that requires cumbersome calculations;
requires a well-prepared leader who has the skills to organize mental-technical and psychotechnical processes in a group;
It is not always possible to overcome the inertia of thinking (a consequence of the law of inertia).

1.3. Key question method. It is advisable to use the technology for its implementation to collect additional information in a problematic situation or to streamline what is already available when solving a problem. Asked questions serve as a stimulus for the formation of strategy and tactics for solving a problem, develop intuition, form thinking algorithms, guide a person to an idea for a solution, and encourage the correct answers.

It is known that even in ancient Rome, politicians were recommended to collect more complete information about the event, ask yourself a series of questions and answer them: Who? What? For what? Where? How? How? When?

Fundamental requirements for using the method:

problematic and optimal. Skillfully posed questions need to reduce the problematic nature of the problem to an optimal level or reduce the uncertainty of the problem;
fragmentation of information. Using questions, try to divide the problem into sub-problems;
goal setting. Each new question should form a strategy, a model for solving the problem.

should stimulate thought rather than suggest an idea for solving a problem;
questions should contain minimal information;
When posing a series of questions, it is necessary to: 1. reduce the level of problematic nature of the task; 2. ask questions that are logically linked, interesting in form, and encourage the emergence of unexpected views on the problem being solved;
it is necessary to stimulate both empirical, analytical (axiomatic) and dialectical (creative) thinking;
The problem should be divided into subproblems and solution stages.

remember the most typical questions and try to systematize them;
ask yourself questions: 1. simplifying the problem; 2. allowing you to comprehend it from a new unexpected side; 3. stimulating the use of existing knowledge and developed skills; 4. dividing the problem into subproblems; 5. encouraging self-organization and self-control.

Sequencing. You need to find out:

what is unknown;
what is given;
what is the condition;
is it possible to satisfy the condition;
whether the condition is sufficient to determine the unknown (or not, or excessive, or contradictory);
make a drawing (drawing);
enter suitable notations;
divide the condition into parts;
try to write them down.

Formation of an idea and development of a solution plan:

how to find connections between data and unknowns;
whether any related problem is known;
Is it possible to use it?
is it possible to use a method for solving it;
whether some auxiliary element should be introduced to take advantage of the previous task;
Is it possible to formulate the problem differently, more simply;
Is it possible to come up with a more accessible task, more general, more specific, similar;
Is it possible to solve part of the problem, satisfy part of the condition;
whether anything useful can be extracted from the data;
whether all data and conditions have been used;
whether all the concepts contained in the problem are taken into account.

Implementation of the plan. When implementing a solution plan, control your steps:

is it clear to you that the plan undertaken is correct;
can you prove that it is correct?

Control and self-control of the resulting solution. Is it not possible:

check the result;
check the progress of the solution;
get the same result differently;
check the correctness of the result obtained;
use the result obtained in some other task;
solve the inverse problem of this one.

2. Free association method. It is noted that at the stage of generating ideas, when using new associations, the effectiveness of creative activity increases due to the emergence of new ideas. In the process of the emergence of associations, extraordinary connections are established between the elements of the problem being solved and the previous experience of individuals involved in collective work. This method and the technology for its implementation take into account the peculiarities of the activity of the human brain, which develops new ideas when new associative connections arise. So, if group members propose a word or concept, then it can become the basis for establishing associative connections.

For example, for some people, a word heard by chance, someone’s image, a picture, a melody gives rise to an idea that helps solve a problem.

do not rush to solve the problem (problem), but try to reformulate it repeatedly, look at it from the other side;
propose a word, a concept, try to “evoke” some image that can become a stimulus for the formation of unexpected free associations that contribute to the emergence of an idea for solving a problem;
on initial stages generating ideas based on the formation of associations, criticism is prohibited;
the change of words, concepts, pictures that form associations must occur quickly.

express, demonstrate everything that directly or indirectly causes the emergence of associations and ideas;
record any ideas that arise from colleagues;
after generating ideas, systematize and classify them;
through critical analysis, select the best ideas.

3. Inversion method. When searching for an idea, a solution to a problem can often be found by changing the direction of the search to the opposite, contrary to the prevailing traditional views dictated by logic and common sense. Often in situations in which logical techniques and thinking procedures turn out to be fruitless, the opposite solution alternative is optimal.

A classic example of inversion is the invention of the rocket by K. Tsiolkovsky. He decided that he had invented a cannon, but a flying cannon, with thin walls and releasing gases instead of nuclei. The method and technology of its implementation are based on the principle of dualism (duality), the optimal use of opposite (direct and reverse) procedures of creative thinking, and a dialectical approach to the analysis of the object of study.

encourage (stimulate) group members to repeatedly reformulate the problem in order to comprehend;
Along with the direct task, put forward inverse ones;
achieve dialectics of analysis and synthesis of reasoning;
invite group members to use opposite procedures when solving a problem.

remember that inversion is a search for ideas in directions opposite to traditional views, beliefs, common sense, formal logic;
start solving a problem by trying to reformulate it;
look for a counter-idea to every idea;
When solving problems, try to use opposite procedures and means.

The method and this psychotechnology allow:

develop dialectics of thinking;
find a way out of hopeless situations;
find original solutions of varying levels of difficulty.

The use of this form of working with people requires developed creative abilities, basic knowledge, skills and abilities.

4. Synectics method. It makes it possible to obtain the most original ideas by “training” participants to use the methods of analogy, intuition, abstraction, free thinking, the use of unexpected metaphors, and game elements during the “brainstorming” process, which allows a familiar problem in an unusual situation to be solved unexpectedly and in an original way.

Conditions and requirements:

the problem is formulated in a general (figurative) form;
the discussion should begin not with the problem, but with its analysis common features characterizing the current situation;
It is not recommended to stop at just one, even original idea solutions;
if there are difficulties in solving a problem, you should return to the analysis of the situation in which the problem arose;
the promotion of ideas and their selection depend on the skill, tact, resourcefulness of the leader, and his ability to stimulate the creative thinking of participants.

It is best to critically select and evaluate ideas for solving a problem in stages:

analysis of each idea put forward;
grouping and classification of ideas;
critical analysis of the ideas put forward;
selection of original, optimal solutions.

all recommendations of the methods of “brainstorming”, analogy, inversion, free association, etc. are applied;
the optimal composition of the group is 3-15 people with different abilities, professional interests and training;
it is necessary to encourage group members to repeatedly reformulate the problem;
You shouldn’t be complacent when you get a successful idea;
use questions like: “So what?”, “How do you imagine this?”, “What’s new here?”, “What if we do the opposite?”

make maximum use of personal experience, knowledge, and skills;
do not resort to premature, hasty formulations;
when putting forward ideas, use analogies, metaphors, inversion, game elements, reasoning out loud;
analyze an object from various positions: external and internal, scientific and everyday, in various situations.

5. Method 635. A group of six participants analyzes and formulates a given (problem) situation. Each participant enters three proposals for solving the problem into the form (within 5 minutes) and passes the form to his neighbor. The person filling out the form takes into account the proposals of his predecessor, and below them, in three fields, he makes three more proposals of his own. These suggestions may be used to further develop the recorded solutions, but new ones may be put forward. The process ends when participants have processed all forms. Conditions: the recommended number of participants is 6. The time for the rotation phase may increase in subsequent phases. The technology allows you to receive up to 108 (6 x 3 x 6) proposals.

6. Delphi method. Externally, the method is implemented as a multi-level survey procedure with processing and reporting the results of each round to experts working in isolation from each other. They are offered questions and worded answers without argumentation. For example, answers may contain numerical estimates of parameters. The resulting scores are processed to obtain average and extreme scores. The experts are informed of the results of processing the first round of the survey, indicating the location of each rating. If the assessment deviates from the average value, the expert gives reasons for it.

Later (in the second round), experts change their assessment, explaining the reasons for the adjustment. The results are processed and reported to experts. When ratings deviate from the average, experts comment on them. The rounds are repeated until the scores become stable.

An iterative survey procedure with the reporting of processing results and their argumentation encourages experts to critically reflect on their judgments. During the survey, the anonymity of the experts' answers is maintained, which eliminates conformism (suppression of one opinion by another, more authoritative one).

Individual work techniques

1. Technique “Waiting for inspiration”. When solving difficult problems, when it is not possible to concentrate efforts, it is advisable to alternate intense intellectual work with relaxation, disconnecting consciousness from the task. However, before going to bed, you should remember the task again and think about it until you fall asleep. In the morning or even at night, sometimes unconsciously, when you wake up, you can get up and solve a difficult problem. The technique is based on “drowsy states” that occur during the period of falling asleep (E. Coue’s method) and allow you to “set tasks” for your brain. Psychotechnology takes into account that with the transition to natural sleep and the “turning off” of consciousness, a person’s unconscious is, as it were, programmed to solve some important (urgent) problem.

2. Thinking technology: “Metchet’s method”. It is recommended to use the following "modes of thinking" to create, control and apply a way of thinking when solving a problem:

strategic schemes (act in accordance with the strategy, create it);
images (represent the problem in the form of diagrams, drawings);
in parallel planes (observe your thoughts as they intersect);
With different points vision;
in basic elements (options of decisions, judgments, concepts, tactics, relationships, obstacles).

Technology can be used to organize the individual thinking of a decision maker, as well as to improve the efficiency of his collaboration with staff.

3. Analytical technique: “Method of eliminating hopeless situations”. Using this method, it is possible to simulate the adoption of various management decisions, consistently eliminating factors leading to undesirable predicted consequences. This is achieved by varying solutions: adapt, modify, strengthen, weaken, replace, remake, combine, use something differently.

A method that helps to identify the truth through a comparison of different views, to find correct solution problems, discussion (sometimes discussion is considered a form of collective discussion of problems). Psychologists view a discussion as a discussion of some issues with people who are really or imaginary involved in the process of deliberation. During such a discussion, different positions are revealed, and the emotional-intellectual impulse awakens the desire to think actively. The choice of topic for discussion largely determines the effectiveness of the discussion. Of course, it is difficult to formulate it better. If the topic of discussion is too complex, it is advisable to make a short introduction so that it is easier for participants to decide on the main concepts. As a rule, 15-20 minutes are allotted for such an introduction, and 3-5 minutes for a speech.

There are certain requirements for the behavior of discussion participants. First, they must prepare to discuss the topic and be willing to present their position. Secondly, everyone must listen carefully to others and hear what they are saying. Thirdly, it is desirable for everyone to behave in accordance with generally accepted ethical standards of behavior. The discussion should not be turned into an argument; you should not interrupt the speaker or make comments about the personal qualities of the participants.

During the discussion, many different opinions are often born, sometimes polar ones (from the extreme left to the extreme right). And then the participants begin to gravitate towards those people whose opinions are close to them. In this case, certain groups arise, most often the so-called “minority” and “majority”. Sometimes it is believed that the truth belongs to the “majority”, and the “minority” is perceived as a destabilizing factor. However, progressive thought often belongs to the “minority”, and it is the “minority” that stimulates

the “majority” to look at the problem from a different angle causes creative activity among those present.

When preparing and conducting a discussion, it is necessary to take into account certain ethical and psychological requirements for it. If the participants in the discussion have the same motivation, they will strive to find answers to the questions that concern them. If they are not well informed about the subject under discussion, they will not waste time discussing blind spots. At the same time, if they have exhaustive information on the issue, then the discussion makes no sense. The greater the interest, the more everyone will benefit from the discussions. If the discussion takes place in an atmosphere of goodwill and respect, then the participants will leave with a feeling of satisfaction from the work done.

In order for the discussion to be useful and contribute to the effective consideration of the issue raised, certain rules should be followed:

Do not provoke a state of passion, anger, or irritation in your opponent in order to weaken his position or provoke logical errors;

Do not humiliate the opponent’s dignity, show respect for him;

Do not distract from the subject of discussion;

Avoid making accusations against your opponent;

Do not use psychological pressure on your opponent;

Don't use "no", especially when your opponent says "yes";

Do not openly rejoice over your opponent's defeat.

The effectiveness of the discussion can be said when the participants formed a definite opinion on the issue under discussion or confirmed the views that they had before the start of the collective discussion. If, under the influence of the discussion, the attitudes of some of the participants changed, this means that the “persuasion effect” took effect. It will be there even when some people have only certain doubts about the correctness of their views. A “zero effect” of a discussion occurs when the views and opinions of the majority of people have not changed. Of course, this may be a consequence of a passive attitude towards the discussion and due to a lack of preparation for it. If during the discussion some people develop views opposite to those that the organizers wanted to form, then this means a “boomerang effect,” that is, a negative result of the discussion.

Sometimes the discussion of a problem turns from a discussion into an argument and managers have to take part in it. In this case, a communication conflict arises. A dispute is a clash of different opinions, during which each side defends only its own position. Participants enter into an argument to achieve three goals: justifying their thoughts, refuting their opponent’s opinions, and obtaining additional information. According to the stated goal, disputes are considered as a means of seeking the truth or persuading the other side; there are arguments for the sake of victory or the ability to provide evidence; There are even disputes for the sake of argument itself, or disputes as a game. Differences in dispute may have deep roots, and if they are opposite for those people arguing, then the dispute turns into meaningless and aimless attacks.

Should you always enter into an argument, especially when it has opened up? If so, then it is more advisable to evade it, and if this cannot be done, then one should treat it “as in war” - that is, take part and expose dishonest or false evidence using logical techniques. You cannot label the participants in the dispute. They believe that respect for other people's beliefs is not only a sign of respect for another person, but also a sign of a developed mind. Of course, essential elements of a culture of argument are the ability to listen and speak while respecting ethical norms and rules. The philosopher M. Montaigne believed that expressing irritation when discussing a problem is detrimental not only to the mind, but also to a person’s conscience. And images during a dispute should be prohibited and punished. In ancient India, for example, there were special procedures to determine whether a person had the moral qualities and skills necessary to conduct an honest and cognitively oriented debate. Only with such qualities and skills was a person trusted to manage others.

An effective method used by experienced managers to find a way out of problematic situations is brainstorming. This is a method of organizing and increasing the effectiveness of the joint, creative activity of a small group of people, designed to improve quality and productivity, especially when solving complex, creative problems that are beyond the mind and efforts of one person. The method was proposed back in the 40s of the last century by the American psychologist A. Osborne, and now it has become generally known and is very popular. There are certain features of communication using this method: free expression of any ideas; how more ideas, all the better; inadmissibility of criticism of expressed ideas; exchange of opinions and their combinations.

Organizing brainstorming, a manager should proceed from the fact that only a respectful attitude towards each other contributes to the development of a person and the ability to generate new ideas. During the discussion, its participants must work “as one brain,” aimed at generating new ideas. The ideas expressed are reviewed and the best, most correct or effective is selected. Each participant focuses on finding new approaches rather than criticizing the ideas expressed by others. And then all participants can calmly express their thoughts, knowing that they will be called funny or inappropriate.

The brainstorming process involves two stages: in the first, as many ideas or solutions to a problem as possible are introduced, in the second, ideas are analyzed and the best and most suitable for further processing are selected. Participation in communication using this method greatly changes people and significantly increases their intellectual potential. An example of "brainstorming" is the game "What? Where? When?" When the game participants were asked why they had been participating in the game for more than 25 years, they replied that they could no longer do without such intellectual stimulation and that it was necessary for the development of their intellect.

In order for such communication to be effective, it is advisable to consider only one problem. In terms of the number of participants, the optimal group will be from 7 to 13 people. It is important to place the participants in a circle so that they can clearly see each other and have equal rights. The psychological barrier in such a group disappears faster if the composition of the participants is more or less homogeneous. It is also necessary to limit the time of discussion (ranging from 15 minutes to 1:00), because lack of time stimulates brain activity.

Brainstorming as a discussion method is used to identify bottlenecks or find perspectives. World-famous managers readily use it. This was written, in particular, by Lee Iacocca, who widely applied this method when resolving the issue of reorganization of the Chrysler company. The disadvantage of this method is that it allows you to find creative ideas in a general form, but does not provide detailed development of them.

To search for ideas, they also use the association of representatives of various fields of activity into production groups - decision making (the so-called synectics). The method was developed by V. Gordon. In synectic groups, each group member, firstly, perceives discussions as competitions and, secondly, introduces a previously thought-out idea in his own interpretation. Such groups work in a long-term mode and provide an opportunity to consider a problem from all its possible sides. The effectiveness of the method has been proven in developing solutions to particularly complex problems.

There is also a morphological method proposed by Frank Zwicky, which allows you to consider all possible alternative options, forecasting methods (among them: the scenario method and the Delphi method), which help determine how various factors- political, technical, social, etc. - Can affect the activities of the organization. Thus, the scenario method provides for a qualified and scientifically grounded desire to make a forecast based on the certain degree of reliability inherent in it, using extrapolation methods that have justified themselves. The Delphi method is somewhat reminiscent of a “court of elders,” that is, it involves the desire to unite the opinions of experts on a particular problem. The method of using input-output tables, developed by V. Leontiev, is also widely known, which helps to identify the relationships between individual parts of the whole.

These and other methods of communication make it possible to generate ideas, enrich the creative activities of the organization, and allow the manager to quickly introduce innovations.

According to psychologists, in small groups of 3-7 people, employees gain a greater amount of knowledge; a well-organized and cohesive group is more productive than the same number of people working alone. Participation in group learning brings a sense of satisfaction. By putting forward hypotheses, listening and critically evaluating the opinions of others, making compromises and collaborating with each other, employees gain experience in decision-making and professional communication, while developing the necessary qualities of a future specialist.

The introduction of group forms and methods for solving educational and cognitive problems is also aimed at overcoming the contradiction between the frontal-individual form of organizing the educational process and the collective form of activity of specialists in production. It is known that work activity in production is predominantly collective in nature, where each specialist is required to implement such qualities as collectivism, tact, mutual understanding, sociability, respect for other people’s opinions, etc. In an educational institution or college, a student’s cognitive activity is mainly of an individual nature. When organizing the front-line educational work of students (lectures, practical and seminar classes), each student individually perceives the material presented by the teacher, individually solves educational problems, and makes “his own” report. Coursework and diploma projects are carried out purely individually. With frontal-individual learning, the capabilities of the student body and collective (joint) cognitive activity are not used, the educational value of the learning process is reduced, and organized communication between students in the learning process is not implemented.

To eliminate these shortcomings, in the learning process it is necessary to use various forms and methods of collective work of students in classroom and extracurricular activities: group problem solving, brainstorming method, focal object method, analysis of specific situations, discussions, business games, group completing coursework, etc.

Group problem solving

First, the teacher determines the topic and goals of the lesson, reveals the meaning of the issues being studied; using various methods, repeats lecture material, then the academic group is divided into subgroups of 3-7 people. The composition of the subgroups should be heterogeneous (each subgroup includes strong, average and weak employees). Each subgroup, headed by a leader (leader), solves a problematic problem through joint cognitive activity (subgroups can solve the same problem or different problems of the same class). After a collective discussion and solution of the problem, one of the subgroup members reports the result. Other subgroups are invited to discuss it. When there is disagreement between subgroups or individual students, a discussion arises. The results of the collective work are summed up to the teachers.

Brainstorming method

The brainstorming method emerged in the 1930s as a way to collectively produce new ideas. History is rich in examples of how, sometimes, a rather complex problem that could not be solved by traditional methods unexpectedly found an original solution in a brainstorming session.

The scope of application of this method is quite wide - from scientific, technical, economic and managerial problems to social, psychological, pedagogical and even ethical situations.

In general, the brainstorming procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Formulation of the problem that needs to be solved; justification of the problem to find a solution. Determining the conditions of a specific work, issuing rules to participants for finding a solution and behavior during the brainstorming process. Formation working group and an expert group whose responsibilities will include developing criteria, evaluating and selecting the best ideas.

2. Training session-warm-up. Exercises in quickly finding answers to questions and tasks of a training session. The task of this stage is to help participants free themselves as much as possible from the influence of psychological barriers (awkwardness, shyness, isolation, stiffness, etc.).

3. “Brainstorm” the problem posed. The task is first clarified once again and the rules are reminded
behavior during the decision. Generating ideas in a work group.

4. Evaluation and selection of the best ideas. Experts select the best ideas based on the criteria they have collected.

5. Report on the results of the brainstorming session. Discussion of the results of the groups’ work, evaluation of the best ideas, their justification and public defense. Making a collective decision.

The success of applying the method largely depends on the session leader. He must skillfully direct the course of collective mental activity, successfully pose stimulating questions, provide hints, additions, etc. The number of session participants is usually a group of 4 to 15 people. The duration of brainstorming varies from 15 minutes to an hour. The effectiveness of a brainstorming session (process) depends on compliance following rules:

1. Brainstorming requires complete emancipation of thought and freedom of imagination: the more unexpected and unusual the idea, the more reason to expect success.

4. The more proposals put forward, the greater the likelihood of a new idea emerging.

5. During the session, additions, improvements and developments of ideas proposed by you or other brainstorming participants are allowed.

6. It is allowed to ask questions to colleagues in order to clarify and develop their ideas; the question should not contain an assessment or your attitude to the idea.

7. Formulate your thoughts carefully but briefly; don't be upset if they don't understand you. Try to present your idea again.

8. If the problem as a whole cannot be solved, try to break it down into its component elements and think about each of them separately.

9. Use a method of combining techniques, decisions, calculations, estimates: try to construct some system from parts that seem “alien” to each other.

10. Feel free to arbitrarily change the parameters in the problem posed - reduce or increase the cost, deadlines, sizes, distances, etc. If an idea for a solution is found, it can be refined to the level of the established conditions of the boundary problem.

Analysis of a specific situation (situational method)

A specific situation is understood as events that involve a contradiction (conflict) or come into conflict with the environment. As a rule, this is a deviation in social, economic, organizational, managerial, technological and other processes.

Situational analysis is carried out according to the following methodology. The study group is divided into several subgroups. Each of them receives a folder with descriptions of specific situations. The teacher determines the range of tasks for subgroups. Group work on a situation consists of analyzing it, identifying the problem, finding ways to solve it, and discussing solution options. These options are then put forward for general discussion. As a result of the discussion and the final conversation, a collective judgment about the situation or a solution to the problem is developed.

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