Entente colonies. Triple Alliance and Entente

The Entente (from the French Entente, Entente cordiale - cordial agreement) - an alliance of Great Britain, France and Russia (Triple Entente), took shape in 1904-1907 and united more than 20 states during the First World War (1914-1918) against the coalition of the Central Powers , including the USA, Japan, Italy.

The creation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion of a Russian-French alliance in 1891-1893 in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882) led by Germany.

The formation of the Entente is associated with the delimitation of the great powers in late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, caused by a new balance of forces in the international arena and the aggravation of contradictions between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy on the one hand, France, Great Britain and Russia, on the other.
A sharp intensification of Anglo-German rivalry caused by the colonial and trade expansion of Germany in Africa, the Middle East and other areas, the race naval weapons, prompted Britain to seek an alliance with France and then with Russia.

In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russo-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente.

Russia and France were allies bound by mutual military obligations determined by the military convention of 1892 and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. The British government, despite contacts between the British and French general staffs and the naval commands established in 1906 and 1912 did not assume specific military obligations. The formation of the Entente softened the differences between its participants, but did not eliminate them. These differences were revealed more than once, which Germany took advantage of in an attempt to tear Russia away from the Entente. However strategic calculations and Germany's aggressive plans doomed these attempts to failure.

In turn, the Entente countries, preparing for war with Germany, took steps to separate Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance. Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance before the outbreak of World War I, the ties of the Entente countries with it strengthened, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the Entente side.

After the outbreak of the First World War, in September 1914 in London, an agreement was signed between Great Britain, France and Russia on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, replacing the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement, which in August 1914 declared war on Germany.

During the war, new states gradually joined the Entente. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which withdrew from the war after the October Revolution of 1917) included Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua , Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan.

The main participants of the Entente - Great Britain, France and Russia, from the first days of the war entered into secret negotiations on the goals of the war. The British-French-Russian agreement (1915) provided for the transfer of the Black Sea straits to Russia, the London Treaty (1915) between the Entente and Italy determined the territorial acquisitions of Italy at the expense of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania. The Sykes-Picot Treaty (1916) divided Turkey's Asian possessions between Great Britain, France and Russia.

During the first three years of the war, Russia drew off significant enemy forces, coming quickly to the aid of the Allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West.

After the October Revolution of 1917, Russia’s withdrawal from the war did not disrupt the Entente’s victory over the German bloc, because Russia fully fulfilled its allied obligations, unlike England and France, who more than once broke their promises of help. Russia gave England and France the opportunity to mobilize all their resources. The struggle of the Russian army allowed the United States to expand its production power, create an army and replace Russia, which had emerged from the war - the United States officially declared war on Germany in April 1917.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the Entente organized an armed intervention against Soviet Russia— On December 23, 1917, Great Britain and France signed a corresponding agreement. In March 1918, the Entente intervention began, but the campaigns against Soviet Russia ended in failure. The goals that the Entente set for itself were achieved after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, but the strategic alliance between the leading Entente countries, Great Britain and France, remained in the following decades.

The general political and military leadership of the bloc's activities in various periods was carried out by: Inter-Allied Conferences (1915, 1916, 1917, 1918), the Supreme Council of the Entente, the Inter-Allied (Executive) Military Committee, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces, the main headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, commanders-in-chief and headquarters at individual theaters of military operations. Such forms of cooperation were used as bilateral and multilateral meetings and consultations, contacts between commanders-in-chief and general staffs through representatives of the allied armies and military missions. However, the difference in military-political interests and goals, military doctrines, an incorrect assessment of the forces and means of the opposing coalitions, their military capabilities, the remoteness of the theaters of military operations, and the approach to the war as a short-term campaign did not allow the creation of a unified and permanent military-political leadership of the coalition in the war.

The material was prepared based on information from RIA Novosti and open sources

The Entente and the Triple Alliance are military-political associations, each of which pursued its own interests; they were opposing forces during the First World War.

Entente - political union of three friendly states - Russia, England and France, created in 1895.

Unlike the Triple Alliance, which was a military bloc even before the Entente, it became a full-fledged military association only when gun shots thundered over Europe in 1914. It was in this year that England, France and Russia signed an agreement under which they committed themselves not to enter into agreements with their opponents.

The Triple Alliance emerged from Austria-Hungary in 1879. A little later, namely in 1882, they were joined by Italy, which completed the process of formation of this military-political bloc. He played a significant role in creating the situations that led to the outbreak of the First World War. In accordance with the clauses of the agreement, signed for a five-year period, the countries participating in this agreement pledged not to participate in actions directed against one of them and to provide all possible support for each other. According to their agreement, all three parties were to serve as so-called “backers.” In the event of an attack on Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary became its reliable defense. In the case of Germany, its supporters, Italy and Austria-Hungary, who were a trump card in the event of Russian participation in military operations.

The Triple Alliance was concluded on a secret basis and with minor reservations on the part of Italy. Since she did not want to enter into conflict relations with Great Britain, she warned her allies not to count on her support if any of them were attacked by Great Britain.

The creation of the Triple Alliance served as an impetus for the formation of a counterweight in the form of the Entente, which included France, Russia and Great Britain. It was this confrontation that led to the outbreak of the First World War.

The Triple Alliance lasted until 1915, since Italy already participated in military operations on the side of the Entente. This redistribution of forces was preceded by the neutrality of this country in relations between Germany and France, with which it was not beneficial for the “native” to spoil relations.

The Triple Alliance was eventually replaced by a Quadruple Alliance, in which Italy was replaced by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

The Entente and the Triple Alliance were extremely interested in the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, the Near Peninsula and Germany wanted to capture part of France and its colonies; Austria-Hungary needed control of the Balkans; England pursued the goal of weakening Germany's position, securing a global market monopoly, and also maintaining naval power; France dreamed of returning the territories of Alsace and Lorraine taken away during the Franco-Prussian War; Russia wanted to take root in the Balkans and seize the western

Largest quantity contradictions were associated with the Balkan Peninsula. Both the first and second blocs wanted to strengthen their positions in this region. The struggle began with peaceful diplomatic methods, accompanied by parallel preparation and strengthening of the countries' military forces. Germany and Austria-Hungary actively took up the modernization of troops. Russia was the least prepared.

The event that served and prompted the start of hostilities was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Serbia by a student. A shot at a moving car hit not only Ferdinand, but also his wife. On July 15, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia...

Entente countries

Entente

Entente (fr. "Entente cordiale" - "Hearty consent") - a military bloc that included Great Britain, France and Russia. The West has long been negotiating with Russia on this matter. More 24 DK 1893 a Franco-Russian military alliance was concluded. 20 MAY 1902 the visit began president France's Emile Loubet Petersburg. England and France 8 AP 1904 concluded a military treaty, which received unofficial name"Cordial consent" (Entente), and in 1907 - England signed a similar agreement with Russia. 31 AB 1907 the new Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A.P. Izvolsky, a strong supporter of orientation towards France and rapprochement with England, achieved the signing of an Anglo-Russian agreement on delimitation spheres influence in Iran, Afghanistan and other areas of Asia.

Russia's sphere of influence remained Northern Iran, England's - South-East. The exclusive sphere of the English interests Afghanistan was recognized. The agreement paved the way for the final formation of the Entente consisting of England, France and Russia. This step of Russian diplomacy meant that Russia considers the European, in particular the Balkan, direction foreign policy most importantly, agreeing to maintain the status quo in Central Asia and in the Far East. Russia tried to maintain good economic relations with the states of the Triple Alliance. 15 IL 1904 The Russian-German trade agreement was renewed. Blok performed in First world war against the Triple Alliance led by Germany. During wars 23 joined the Entente states. Already 12 DK 1916 followed by a note from Germany to the Entente countries about the readiness of the Central European states for negotiations. Russia 26 OK 1917 with the adoption of the Decree and the world actually left coalition.

The leading role in the Entente by 1917 belonged to Great Britain, France and the USA; Japan had significant armed forces in the Far East. The main coordinating centers of the Entente are political and military conferences, as well as the Supreme Council, which consisted of the Prime Minister ministers Western European powers, representatives of the French, English, American and Italian General Staffs. After the First World War, the bloc of victorious states in the First World War, which in 1918-1920 acted as the main organizer of the armed interventions against Soviet Russia. Political leaders Entente in 1918-1920 - Lloyd George, Clemenceau J., Wilson T.V. Commander-in-Chief with AP 1918 Allied forces in Europe were Marshal Foch F. 23 NY 1918 Entente troops landed in Novorossiysk, Sevastopol and Odessa ( 23 AB 1919).

Soviet poster calling for armed vigilance

Only 16 JAN 1920 this blockade was lifted and a decree followed ( 16 JAN 1920) Supreme Union Council of the Entente countries on the resumption of trade relations with Soviet Russia. 14 IN 1919 Entente recognized Kolchak A.V.. as supreme ruler. A resolution was adopted by the Supreme Union Council Entente countries on the resumption of trade relations from the Soviet Russia. Exacerbation of contradictions m. participants The Entente led it to collapse.

Great Britain's choice was the German naval program and Germany's colonial claims. In Germany, in turn, this turn of events was declared an “encirclement” and served as a reason for new military preparations, positioned as purely defensive.

The confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance led to the First World War, where the enemy of the Entente and its allies was the Central Powers bloc, in which Germany played a leading role.

Key dates

The full composition of the anti-German coalition

Some states did not declare war on the Central Powers, limiting themselves to breaking diplomatic relations.

After the victory over Germany in 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government”, organizing the post-war order, but the failure of the Entente’s policy towards Russia and Turkey revealed the limit to its power, undermined by internal contradictions between the victorious powers. In this political capacity of a “world government,” the Entente ceased to exist after the formation of Ukraine on March 3, 1918. The Entente declared non-recognition of this agreement, but never began military action against the Soviet government, trying to negotiate with it. On March 6, a small English landing party, two companies of marines, landed in Murmansk to prevent the Germans from seizing a huge amount of military cargo delivered by the Allies to Russia, but did not take any hostile actions against the Soviet government (until June 30). In response to the killing of two Japanese citizens, two companies of Japanese and half a company of British landed in Vladivostok on April 5, but they were returned to their ships two weeks later.

The aggravation of relations between the Entente countries and the Bolsheviks began in May 1918. Then Germany demanded that Soviet Russia strictly comply with the conditions of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty - in particular, to intern, that is, completely disarm and imprison in concentration camps, all military personnel of the Entente countries and its allies located on Soviet territory. This led to the uprising of the Czechoslovak corps, the landing of 2,000 British troops in Arkhangelsk in August 1918, and the advance of the Japanese in Primorye and Transbaikalia.

Japan continued until the Treaty of Versailles, which formalized Germany's defeat in the war. After which the help of the Western allies White movement gradually ceases. Emperor Wilhelm II in his memoirs states that in fact the Entente bloc took shape back in 1897, after the signing of a tripartite agreement between England, America and France, known as the “Gentleman’s Agreement”.

In the book "The problem of Japan" anonymous author, published in 1918 in The Hague, allegedly written by an ex-diplomat from Far East, are excerpts from the book by Roland Asher, a history professor at the University of Washington in St. Louis. Asher just like him former colleague, Professor at Columbia University in New York, John Bassett Moore, was often engaged by the State Department in Washington as an adviser on foreign policy, for he was a great expert in international issues, which also concerned the United States, of which there are not many in America. Thanks to a book published in 1913 by Roland Usher, a professor of history at the University of Washington, the contents of a prisoner became known for the first time in the spring of 1897. "Agreement" or "Treat"(agreement or treaty) of a secret nature between England, America and France. This agreement established that if Germany, or Austria, or both together started a war in the interests of “pan-Germanism,” the United States would immediately side with England and France and provide all its funds to assist these powers. Professor Asher further cites all the reasons, including those of a colonial nature, that forced the United States to take part in the war against Germany, the imminence of which he predicted back in 1913. - Anonymous author "The problem of Japan" compiled a special table of points of the agreement concluded in 1897 between England, France and America, dividing them into separate headings, and thus depicting in a visual form the extent of mutual obligations. This chapter of his book is read with extreme interest and gives a good idea of ​​the events that preceded the world war, and of the preparations for it of the Entente countries, which, not yet acting under the name "Entente cordiale", already then united against Germany. The ex-diplomat notes: here we have an agreement concluded, according to Professor Usher, back in 1897 - an agreement that provides for all stages of the participation of England, France and America in future events, including the conquest of the Spanish colonies and control over Mexico and Central America, and the use of China, and the annexation of coal plants. However, Professor Usher wants to convince us that these events were only necessary to save the world from “Pan-Germanism.” It is unnecessary to remind Professor Asher, the ex-diplomat continues, that even if we were to admit the existence of the specter of “pan-Germanism,” then in 1897, of course, no one had heard of it, because by that time Germany had not yet put forward its big maritime program, published only in 1898. Thus, if England, France, and the United States really cherished those general plans which Professor Usher ascribes to them, and if they entered into an alliance for the implementation of these plans, it will hardly be possible to explain both the origin of these plans and their execution on such a weak pretext like, like the successes of “pan-Germanism”. So says the ex-diplomat. This is truly amazing. The Gauls and Anglo-Saxons with the aim of destroying Germany and Austria, and eliminating their competition in the world market in the situation complete peace, without the slightest remorse, they conclude a real division agreement directed against Spain, Germany, etc., worked out to the smallest detail. This treaty was concluded by the united Gallo-Anglo-Saxons 17 years before the outbreak of the World War, and its objectives were systematically developed during this period. Now we can understand the ease with which King Edward VII could carry out his policy of encirclement; The main actors had already sung and were ready for a long time. When he christened this union "Entente cordiale"

cordial consent" (from the French Entente cordiale), - the imperialist bloc of England, France and Tsarist Russia (otherwise known as the “Triple Entente”), which took shape in 1904-07 and during the First World War 1914-18, grouped against the Germans. coalition of a number of states, including the United States (together with members of A. 25 states). After Oct. Revolution A., together with the United States, organized a counter-revolution. intervention against the Soviets. state Aggravation of international contradictions in pre-imperialist and imperialistic periods associated with the struggle for the division and repartition of the world led at the end of the 19th - beginning. 20th centuries to the formation of opposing military-political. groupings of powers. Germany, whose role in Europe increased significantly after the Frankfurt Peace of 1871, concluded an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879 (see Austro-German Treaty of 1879), and Italy joined in 1882, which marked the beginning of the Triple Alliance of 1882. The first response to the creation of an aggressive bloc led by Germany was the Franco-Russian alliance of 1891-93. During the 80-90s. 19th century and at the very beginning of the 20th century. England continued to adhere to its traditions. foreign policy course of “brilliant isolation” (Splendid isolation) and remained aloof from the blocs, hoping to achieve their goals by playing on the contradictions between both unions, etc. retain its role as an international arbitrator However, the change in the balance of forces that occurred during the era of imperialism made the Anglo-Germans the main ones. contradictions that pushed into the background the clashes of interests of England with France and Russia on the basis of colonial rivalry. The rise of Anglo-German. antagonism and failure of English attempts. diplomacy in 1898-1901 to achieve a compromise agreement with Germany prompted England to rapprochement with France, and then, after the Russian-Japanese. war of 1904-05, and with Russia, which resulted in the signing of the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 and the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907, which actually formalized the creation of A. However, unlike the Triple Alliance, which in the initial stage represented a close military-political. bloc with certain military. obligations for all its participants, A. due to the position taken by the English. pr-vom, was a military-political. grouping - “consent”, in which not all countries had specific military forces. obligations. Russia and France were allies bound by mutual wars. obligations defined by the military. convention of 1892, and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. At the same time, English pr-in, despite contacts between the English. and French general staffs and naval command, established respectively in 1906 and 1912, refused to accept certain military orders. obligations. A.'s education softened the differences between its participants, but did not eliminate them. These disagreements have been revealed more than once (such as, for example, friction between England and Russia in Iran at the beginning of the 20th century, between England and France, on the one hand, and Russia, on the other, during the Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 and the Balkan wars 1912-13, etc.), which Germany took advantage of in an attempt to tear Russia away from Africa (see Bjork Treaty of 1905, Potsdam Agreement of 1911). However, financial the dependence of the tsarist government on France and the invaders. German plans imperialism towards Russia doomed these German attempts to failure. In turn, the countries of Austria, preparing for war with Germany and its allies, took steps to separate Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance (see Barrera-Prinetti agreement of 1902). Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance before the outbreak of World War I, the ties of the countries of A. with it grew stronger, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the side of A. Since the beginning of World War I, unleashed by Germany, the countries of A. together. On Sept. 1914 in London, an agreement was signed between England, France and Russia on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, replacing the allied war. contract In Oct. Japan joined this agreement in 1915, back in August. 1914 declared war on Germany. During the war. actions against weapons. Austro-German forces bloc's real participation, the size of the casualties suffered in the war and the significance of the military. The efforts for a victorious outcome of the war by the member countries of Azerbaijan were different. The hardships of the war fell most heavily on Russia, as well as on France and the territory. of which the main ones were deployed. military operations. Rus. the army played decisive role in the crash of the German plan for a fleeting war (see Schliefen plan) and helped prevent war. defeat of France (see East Prussian operation of 1914, Breakthrough of the Austro-German front of 1916). During the war, new states gradually joined Armenia. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which withdrew from the war after the October Revolution) included: England, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Greece, Honduras, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru , Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Siam, USA, France, Uruguay, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan. A. became a general designation for states that fought against Germany and its allies. Just as Germany and its allies developed an imperialist program for the redivision of the world, the main participants of A. - England, France and Russia, from the first days of the war, also entered into secret negotiations on the goals of the war, which were in direct contradiction with the official. statements about defense nature of the war and were aimed at seizing foreign territories. The Anglo-Franco-Russian agreement of 1915, which provided for the transfer of the Black Sea straits to tsarist Russia, the London Treaty of 1915 between Africa and Italy, which determined the territory. the acquisition of Italy at the expense of Austria, Turkey and Albania, the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 on the division of the Asian possessions of Turkey between England, France and Russia and certain other agreements determined the carefully hidden but real imperialist. war program of participants A. After Vel. Oct. socialist imperialist revolutions circles of the countries of Azerbaijan and the USA organized weapons. intervention against the Soviets. state with the goal of overthrowing the Soviets. power, the dismemberment of Russia and its transformation into a colony of imperialists. It's already December 23rd. 1917 England and France signed an agreement on joint intervention against the Soviet Union. Russia and its subsequent division. In March 1918, A.'s intervention began; The USA and a number of other states actively participated in it, together with the countries of Azerbaijan proper. However, A.'s campaigns against the Sov. state (see Civil War and foreign military intervention in the USSR 1918-20) were defeated by the Soviets. people led by the Communist. party. The failure of the Antis. Azerbaijan's policies deepened the contradictions of capitalism and led Azerbaijan to complete collapse. In the vast bourgeois The historiography of A., with many shades, two directions are clearly visible. The first of these directions, represented by German. memoirists and historians (B. Bülow, Likhnovsky, Tirpitz, Erzberger, Hartung, Oncken, Brandenburg, Rachfal, Plen, etc.) and some Amer. Historians (S. Fey, Langer, etc.), seeking to rehabilitate Germany and relieve it of responsibility for the outbreak of the World War in 1914, have a negative attitude towards Austria, seeing in it a means of “encircling Germany.” The second direction - Ch. arr. French memoirists and historians (R. Poincaré, J. Caillot, Paleologue, Deschanel, Pinon, Renouvin, etc.) and English. publicists and historians (E. Gray, Buchanan, Lloyd George, G. Nicholson, etc.) - on the contrary, blaming Germany, trying to justify the creation of A. by the aggressiveness of the Germans. ruling circles. Truly scientific. coverage of the issue of history. the role of A. is given in the works of V.I. Lenin. Sov. ist. science gave scientific development of a number of problems related to the history of Armenia and its influence on the development of international. relations at the end of the 19th century - the beginning. 20th centuries Publ.: International relations in the era of imperialism. Documents from the archives of the Tsarist and Provisional Governments of 1878-1917, M., 1931-40; Sat. agreements between Russia and other states. 1856-1917, (M.), 1952; Doc-you ext. politics of the USSR (vol. 1-3), M., 1957-59; British documents on the origins of the war 1898-1914, ed. by G. P. Gooch and H. Temperley, v. 1-11, L., 1926-38; Documents diplomatiques fran?ais (1871-1914), ser. 1-3, P., 1929-60; Die grosse Politik der Europ?ischen Kabinette 1871-1914, Bd 1-40, V., 1922-27. Lit.: Lenin V.I., Letters from Afar. Letter 4. How to achieve peace?, Works, 4th ed., vol. 23; his, Letter to the workers of Europe and America, ibid., vol. 28; his, Report at the II All-Russian Congress of Communist Organizations of the Peoples of the East on November 22, 1919, ibid., vol. 30; his, Political Report of the Central Committee on December 2 (at the VIII All-Russian Conference of the RCP (b) on December 2-4, 1919), ibid.; History of diplomacy, vol. 2-3, M. - L., 1945; Tarle E.V., Europe in the era of imperialism 1871-1919, Soch., vol. 5, M., 1958; Yerusalimsky A.S., Ext. German politics and diplomacy imperialism at the end of the 19th century, M. - L., 1948; Manfred A.Z., Ext. politics of France 1871-91, M., 1952; Romanov B. A., Essays on diplomatic issues. stories Russo-Japanese War 1895-1907, 2nd ed., M. - L., 1955; Stein B. E., “The Russian Question” at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920), (M.), 1949; Renouvin P., Rr?clin E., Hardy G., La paix arm?e et la grande guerre (1871-1919), P., 1947. A. Z. Manfred. Moscow.