Poetic syntax. Artistic speech, its specificity
The writer achieves expressiveness and emotionality of speech not only by selecting suitable words, but also by the structure of sentences and their intonation. Features of syntax determined by the content of the work. In the descriptions, stories about events that unfold slowly, the intonation is calm, complete sentences dominate: “Carts creak, oxen chew, days and nights pass, and Chumatsky songs sound between the high graves. They are spacious, like the steppe, and slow, like the step of oxen. , sad and cheerful, but still more sad, because on every road a tragic adventure could befall the Chumaks "(M. Slaboshpitsky).
Where dynamic events, heated debates, conflicts, and deep experiences of characters are told, short, sometimes incomplete, fragmentary sentences predominate:
Mom, where are you? It's me, Vasily, alive! Ivan was killed, mom, but I’m alive! .. I killed them, mom, about two hundred... Where are you?
Vasily ran up to the yard. There was a courtyard right under the mountain. - Mom, my mom, where are you? My dear, why don’t you meet me? (A. Dovzhenko)
Features of syntax depend on the creative intent of the writer, the author’s attitude to the depicted, the type, type, genre, as well as on how the work is written (in poetry or prose), to whom it is addressed (children or adult readers).
The originality of poetic syntax is determined by the peculiarities of the writer’s talent. V. Stefanik strived for brevity and dynamic narration. His speech is simple, precise, economical: “I will tell you about myself with my white lips in an undertone. You don’t hear any complaint, no sadness, no joy in the words. I went in a white shirt, I’m white, they laughed from my white shirt. They offended me and hurt me. And I walked quietly, like a little white cat... A white birch leaf on the trash "(" My word "). The writer repeats the word “white” several times; it sounds in different tones.
The syntactic unit of language is the sentence. A grammatically correct sentence is one in which the main members are placed in in direct order: the subject group is in first place, the predicate group is in second place. In our language, this rule is not mandatory; it is not always observed, especially by writers.
Figures provide intonation-syntactic originality in a work of art. Stylistic figures come in different types.
Inversion (lat. Inversio - rearrangement). With inversion, the direct order of words in a sentence is violated. The subject group can stand after the predicate group: “/ the noise of the spring noise is a wide path, majestically and easily rising above the boundless freedom that has become silent before awakening” (M. Stelmakh).
A common type of inversion is the postpositive placement of adjectives: adjectives come after nouns. For example:
I'm going up the steep cream mountain
I will lift a heavy stone.
(Lesya Ukrainka)
Ellipsis, ellipse (Greek Elleirsis - omission, deficiency) is an omission in a sentence of a word or phrase that is understandable from a specific situation or context. Ellipsis provides the language with brevity and emotional intensity:
A wild one will blow there,
How the brother will speak.
(T. Shevchenko)
Unfinished, broken sentences are called breaks. The breaks convey the speaker’s excitement:
Go... they're measuring... Andrei stared at her.
She couldn’t speak, she pressed her hand to her heart and was breathing heavily...
Go ahead and measure...
Who measures? What?
Gentlemen, oh! They came, they will divide the land.
(M. Kotsyubinsky)
Sometimes sentences are broken because the one who speaks does not dare to say everything. The heroine of the poem “The Maid” cannot tell her son Mark that she is his mother:
"I am not Anna, not a maid,
And she became numb.
The incompleteness of a sentence to convey the emotion of the language is called aposiopesis (Greek Aposiopesis - default). Aposiopesis performs the following functions:
1. conveys the character's excitement.
And I was already thinking about getting married,
And have fun and live,
He praises people and the Lord,
But I had to...
(T. Shevchenko)
2. aposiopesis reveals the character’s mental incompetence. The heroine of Mikhail Kotsyubinsky’s short story “The Horses Are Not to Blame” begins her remarks and does not express any thoughts: “I think that...”, “I probably forgot that...”, “As for me, I...”.
3. aposiopesis indicates confusion actor, tries to hide the reasons for the corresponding behavior. Gsrrry comedy by Ivan Karpen-ka-Kary “Martin Borulya” Stepan says: “You know: not because that..., but because... that, that there was no time, a short vacation.”
4. Sometimes the heroes do not say that what is generally known to everyone: “The people are hungry, but no one cares..., one is enjoying, and the other...” (“Fata morgana” by M. Kotsyubinsky).
5. Often aposiopesis is designed for the reader to continue the thought: “I’ve already been driving for several hours, then it’s unknown what...” (“The Unknown” by M. Kotsyubinsky).
Anakoluth (Greek Anakoluthos - inconsistent) is a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence. A textbook example of anacoluth is the Chkhiv phrase: “Approaching the station and looking at nature through the window, my head flew off.” Anacoluth creates a comic effect. The hero from the comedy of the same name by M. Kulish “Mina Mazailo” says: “Not a single schoolgirl wanted to go out - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo! They didn’t hire a tutor - Mazailo! They didn’t accept me for service - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo!
With the help of anacoluth you can convey the emotions of a character; it is used to enhance the expression of poetic language.
Close to anacoluth - eileps (Greek Syllepsis) - a figure of avoidance. Sileps is a union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination: “We love fame and drown riotous minds in a glass. (A. Pushkin).” "Kumushka's eyes and teeth flared up" (I. Krylov).
Non-union (Greek Asyndeton - lack of union) is a stylistic figure consisting of the omission of conjunctions connecting individual words and phrases. The lack of union gives the story brevity and dynamism: “The regiment was then advancing in the mountains on the northern bank of the Danube. An uninhabited gloomy land. Bare helmets of hills, dark tracts of forests. A cliff. An abyss. Roads washed out by heavy rains” (O. Gonchar).
Polyunion (Greek Polysyndeton from polys - numerous and syndeton - connection) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of identical unions. Polyunion is used to highlight individual words, it provides the language with triumph:
And they take him by the arms,
And they take him to the house,
And Yarinochka greets,
Like a brother.
(T. Shevchenko)
To enhance the expressiveness of speech, syntactic parallelism is used.
Parallelism (Greek Parallelos - walking side by side) is a detailed comparison of two or more pictures, phenomena from different areas life by similarity or analogy. Parallelism is used in folk songs; it is associated with folk poetic symbolism.
Chervona viburnum bent down.
Why is our glorious Ukraine depressed?
And we will raise this red viburnum.
And we will make our glorious Ukraine gay, gay, and cheerful.
(Folk song)
In addition to direct parallelism, there is an objection to parallelism. It is built on negative comparison. For example: “This is not a gray-haired cuckoo forged, // But not small bird chirped, // The pine tree was noisy near the forest, // So the poor widow in her house // spoke to her 3 children..." (People's Duma).
Antithesis (Greek: Antithesis - opposite) is a figure of speech in which opposing phenomena, concepts, and human characters are contrasted. For example:
It's even hard to tell
What kind of trouble has become in the region -
People suffered like hell
The gentleman was comforted as if in heaven.
(Lesya Ukrainka)
An antithesis, reinforced by verbal or root repetition, is called antimetabole (Greek: Antimetabole - using words in the opposite direction).
As in a nation there is no leader,
Then its leaders are poets.
(E. Rice and shock)
Antimetabola acts as a chiasmus (rearrangement of the main members of the sentence). This is reverse syntactic parallelism.
There was no era for poets yet, but there were poets for eras.
(Lina Kostenko)
In order to highlight the desired word or expression, repetition is used. The repetition of the same word or a word similar in meaning or sound is called a tautology (Greek Tdutos is precisely logos - word). The synonyms characteristic of folk art are tautological. For example: early early, down in the valley.
Kill enemies, thieves of thieves,
kill without regret
(P. Tychina)
Development, development, nightingale,
My tight one.
(Grabovsky)
Anaphora (Greek Anaphora - I take it to the mountain, I highlight) - repetition of the same sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence or poetic line, stanza. There are lexical, strophic, syntactic, and sound anaphora.
Lexical:
Without the wind, rye will not give birth,
Without wind, the water makes no noise,
You can't live without a dream,
You can't love without a dream.
Strophic: in B. Oliynyk’s poem “Mother sowed sleep,” the stanzas begin with the phrase “Mother sowed sleep, flax, snow, hops.”
Sound: “I compose songs for our little beloved: // Darling, love, love, little darling” (Lyubov Golota).
Syntactic: “And you are somewhere beyond the evening, // And you are somewhere beyond the sea of silence” (Lina Kostenko).
Epiphora (Greek Epiphora - transfer, assignment, etc.) is a stylistic figure based on a combination of the same words at the end of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. For example:
Your smile is the only one
Your torment is the only one
Your eyes are alone.
(V. Simonenko)
Symploka (Greek Symphloke - plexus) is a syntactic construction in which anaphora is combined with epiphora. Symploka is often used in folklore.
Wasn’t it the same Turkish sabers that cut me down as you?
Didn't the same janissary stunners shoot me as they did you?
Tomorrow on earth Other people will walk, Other people will love, Kind, affectionate and evil.
(V. Simonenko)
In addition to the term "symploka", there is also the term "complexity" (Latin Complegio - combination, totality, complektor - I embrace).
Joint, (collision), anadiplosis (Greek Anadiplosis - doubling), epanastrdfa (Greek Epanastrephe - going back) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next.
Why was my stylus the stiletto? And the stylus was a stiletto.
(S. Malanyuk)
A junction is also called a pick-up, because each new line picks up, strengthens, and expands the content of the previous one.
Poetic ring (Greek epistrophe - torsion) - repetition of the same words at the beginning and end of a sentence, paragraph or stanza.
We think about you on fine summer nights,
On frosty mornings and in the evenings,
Both on noisy holidays and on working days
We are thinking about you, great-grandchildren.
(V. Simonenko)
Anastrophe (Greek Anastrophe - rearrangement) - repetition of a phrase.
I embrace you. Hugs to you.
(M. Vingranovsky)
Refrain (Greek: Refrain - chorus) - repetition of one line at the end of a stanza or sentence. The refrain expresses an important idea. In P. Tychina’s poem “The Ocean is Full,” the line “the ocean is full” is repeated after each stanza.
Pleonasm (Greek Pleonasmos - redundancy, exaggeration) is a stylistic phrase that contains words with the same or similar meanings: quietly, us Yatai-don’t forget, storm-bad weather.
Paronomasia (Greek Para - around, circle, nearby and onomazo - I call)
A stylistic figure built on a comical convergence of consonant words that have different meanings: vote - make noise, experienced
Educated.
Love the blade of grass and the animal and the sun of tomorrow.
(Lina Kostenko)
Paronomasia is used to create puns: “How is your draft power, dragging anything? - Dragging! For two days I took chickens to the steppe” (A. Klyuka, “Telephone Conversation”).
Vocal type of paronomasia: words differ only in sounds: howl - branches, trap - emptiness.
The metathetical type of paronyms is formed by rearranging consonants or syllables: voice - logos.
Palindrome is associated with paronomasia (Greek Palindromeo - running back, werewolf or cancer). These are words, phrases, verses that, when read from left to right and vice versa, have the same meaning: flood. Here is Velichkovsky's cancerous poem:
Anna asks us, I'm a girl's mother,
Anna is the gift of this world.
Anna we have and and we are semolina.
Close to werewolf and metathetic paronomasia is an anagram (Greek Ana - erases and gramma - letter). This is a rearrangement of letters in a word, which gives a word with new content: ash - vine, summer - body. Ukrainian folklorist Simonov chose the pseudonym Nomis, derived from the abbreviated surname Simon. A related metagram with an anagram is a change in the first letter of a word, due to which the content changes. In Anna's poem "Let's get organized" there are the following lines:
The writers created the MUR, the journalists will have the ZHUR The theater unites in the TOUR - There is an echo all around: gur-gur! The rats are already squeaking from their kennels: we are united like a wall, and let’s call that union the Rat.
Gradation (lat. Gradatio - increase, strengthening, gradus - step, step) is a stylistic figure in which each subsequent homogeneous word means strengthening or weakening of a certain quality. There are two types of gradation: increasing and decreasing. Increasing indicates a gradual increase, increasing quality of the depicted phenomenon. The gradation is ascending: “And your only child withers, dries, dies, perishes” (T. Shevchenko). The type of grace is built on the strengthening of meanings called straight, ascending or climax (Greek Klimax - ladder):
Anyway,
it comes out to one thing,
the executioner should have learned by heart long ago:
you can shoot the brain,
that gives birth to a soul,
You can’t drive thoughts in!
(V. Simonenko)
A descending, descending gradation, which reproduces a gradual decrease in the quality highlighted by the author in the subjects of the image, is called reverse, descending, or Anti-climax. In Anticlimax there is a softening of semantic tension:
I look: the king is approaching
To the eldest... and in the face
How it will be flooded! ..
The poor fellow licked his lips;
And less in the belly
It’s almost gone!., Otherwise
Even less an ace
In the back; then less
And less than small.
And then small ones.
(T. Shevchenko)
The gradation in which the increase changes into a narrowing and decline is called a broken climax. An example of a broken climax is given in A. Tkachenko’s textbook “The Art of Words. Introduction to Literary Studies”:
The clouds are already washing over my shoulders,
I'm already standing in the sky,
Already chest-deep in the sky, already waist-deep,
I can already see all of Ukraine,
Both the world and the Universe, full of mystery,
And everything is blessed in life
Waiting with open arms,
So that I can jump up to him below!
And I jumped up... And the woman laughed
A transparent insult to me,
That I didn’t jump up for her either
From the stack of gold to the stubble.
(M. Vingranovsky)
Amplification (lat. Atrifsayo - increase, spread). This is a stylistic device that consists in the accumulation of synonyms, homogeneous expressions, antitheses, and homogeneous members of a sentence to enhance the emotional impact of poetic language.
I will tear those wreaths that were woven together in a difficult day, trample them, scatter them into ashes, into dust, into trash.
(V. Chumak)
Prepositions are sometimes repeated:
By the clear laughter of a child,
By the young singing happy,
But the glorious work is hot.
Forward, strict shelves,
Under the flag of freedom
For our clear stars,
For our quiet waters.
(M. Rylsky)
An amplification may consist of individual sentences that are repeated:
I'm still so small, I can only see
I want to see my mother as a cheerful mother,
I want to see the sun in a golden hat,
I want to see the sky in a blue scarf,
I don’t yet know what Virtue smells like,
I still don’t know what Meanness tastes like,
What color is Envy, whose dimensions are Trouble,
Which is salted by Melancholy, which is indestructible Love,
Which blue-eyed Sincerity, which flickering Cunning,
I still have all the schedules on the shelves...
Amphiboly (Greek Amphibolia - duality, ambiguity) is an expression that can be interpreted ambiguously. The perception of amphiboly depends on the pause:
And I hit the road - to welcome a new spring,
And I’m setting off on a new journey - to welcome spring.
(M. Rylsky)
Depending on the pause (comma), the expression: “execution cannot be pardoned” can be interpreted differently.
Allusion (Latin: Allusio - joke, hint) - an allusion to a well-known literary or historical fact. V. Lesin, A. Pulinet, I. Kachurovsky consider allusion to be a rhetorical, stylistic figure. According to A. Tkachenko, this is “the principle of meaningful interpretation of the text, comparable to its allegorical one. Sometimes it is used as a type of allegory: “Pyrrhic victory” (accompanied by great sacrifices and was equivalent to defeat), Homer’s And such (homeland). The sources of allusion are myths ("Augean stables"), literary works("The Human Comedy" by O. Balzac).
An aphorism (Greek: Aphorismos - short saying) is a generalized opinion expressed in a laconic form, which is marked by the expressiveness and surprise of the judgment. Proverbs and sayings belong to aphorisms.
A proverb is a figurative expression that formulates a certain life pattern or rule and is a generalization of social experience. For example: without asking for a ford, do not go into the water. All that glitters is not gold. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
A proverb is a stable figurative expression that characterizes a certain life phenomenon. Unlike a proverb, a saying does NOT formulate a life pattern or rule. A proverb states events, phenomena, facts or indicates constant sign subject. For example: there was no sadness, so I bought a pig. Every dog has his day. The fifth wheel in the cart. Seven Fridays a week.
Literary aphorisms are distinguished:
2) according to the method of expression (definitive - close to definitions, and slogan - appealing)
M. Gasparov calls anonymous literary aphorisms by the Greek term "gnome" (Greek Gnomos - thought, conclusion) and the Latin "sentence", author's - by the Greek term "apophegma". In the ancient tragedy of the dwarves, tragedy ended. Today, gnomes call condensed poems with an aphoristic thought: rubai, quatrains.
Sentence (lat. Sententia - thought, judgment) is an expression of aphoristic content. It is common in works of instructive content (tales) and meditative lyrics. In L. Glebov's fable "Tit" there is the following maxim:
Never boast until you've really done the job.
Apophegma (Greek Apoph and thegma - brief summary, exact word) - a story or replica of a sage, artist, witty person, gained popularity in polemical and instructive oratorical literature. A. Tkachenko finds an example of apothegm from Lina Kostenko: “we eat fruits from the tree of ignorance.”
An aphorism of moral direction is also called a maxim.
Maxima (lat. Maxima regula - supreme principle) - a type of aphorism, a maxim that is moralistic in content, expressed in the form of a statement of fact or in the form of a teaching: “Conquer evil with evil.”
A. Tkachenko proposes to divide aphorisms into three groups:
2) anonymous (gnome)
3) transferable (khriya).
Chria (Greek Chreia from chrad - I inform). According to M. Gasparov’s definition, this is a short anecdote about a witty or instructive aphorism, an act of a great man: “Diogenes, seeing a boy who behaved badly, beat his teacher with a stick.”
A kind of aphorism is a paradox. Paradox (Greek Paradoxos - unexpected, strange) is a poetic expression that expresses an unexpected judgment, at first glance contradictory, illogical: just punishment is mercy. There is an elderberry in the garden, and there is a man in Kyiv. If you don't want your enemy to know, don't tell your friend. “Don’t trust me, I don’t know how to lie, // Don’t wait for me, I’ll come anyway” (V. Simonenko).
Traditional poetics do not consider forms of bringing previous texts into one’s own, in particular paraphrase (a), reminiscence, figurative analogy, stylization, travesty, parody, borrowing, reworking, imitation, quotation, application, transplantation, collage. A. Tkachenko believes that they should be classified as interliterary and intertextual interactions.
Paraphrase (a) (Greek Paraphasis - description, translation) - retelling in your own words someone else's thoughts or texts. Parodies and imitations are built on paraphrase. This stylistic figure is essentially a transfusion of the previous form factor into a new one. L. Timofeev and S. Turaev identify paraphrase with periphrase. Often prose is translated into poetry, and poetry into prose is shortened or expanded. For example, there is a translation for children of “1001 Nights”, in an abbreviated form of the novel by F. Rabelais “Gargantua and Pantagruel”.
Reminiscence (lat. Reminiscencia - mention) - an echo in a work of art of images, expressions, details, motifs from widely famous work another author, a roll call with him. Borrowed words and expressions are rethought, acquiring new meaning. Platon Voronko’s poem “I am the one who tore the dams” is based on reminiscences from Lesya Ukrainsky’s “Forest Song”:
I'm the one who broke the dams
I didn't live under a rock.
The one who breaks the dams, and
The one sitting in the rock is the characters from “The Forest Song”.
Application (lat. Applicatio - joining) - inclusion of quotes, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fragments in a literary text work of art in a modified form. A work assembled from other people's poetic texts is called a centbn (Latin cento - patchwork clothing). I. Kachurovsky uses the term "Kenton". In the "Literary Dictionary-Reference Book" a centon is understood as a stylistic device, "which consists of introducing fragments from the works of other authors to the main text of a certain author without reference to them." Yuri Klen in the poem "Ashes of Empires" introduces lines from M. Zerov's sonnet "Pro domo", Drai-Khmary - from the sonnet "Swans", Oleg Olzhich - "There Was a Golden Age". In addition to the term "centon", the French term "collage" is used (French Collage - gluing).
In addition to the creative use of other people's texts, there is uncreative use, devoid of originality - compilation (Latin Compilatio - rake) or plagiarism (Latin Plagio - steal).
Among the figures forgotten by literary scholars, A. Tkachenko recalls imprecation (curse). it was successfully used by A. Dovzhenko in “The Enchanted Desna”: “As he hangs that little carrot from the damp earth, pulls it out, O Queen of Heaven, and twist his little arms and bottoms, break his fingers and joints, holidays to the Lady.”
Figures of poetic syntax are various techniques for combining words into sentences, the purpose of which is to enhance the effect of what is said.
Let's look at the most common figures of poetic syntax using examples:
Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual word order in an expression. In the Russian language, the order of words is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions “I said it,” “I said it,” and “I said it” have different shades of meaning.
Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of words that end a line) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text structure in which the ending of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. This technique helps to achieve greater cohesion and fluidity of the text. An example is K. Balmont’s poem “I was caught in a dream,” where “fading shadows,” “the steps trembled,” etc. are repeated. Anaphora - repetition initial word or groups of words in each new line of a poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “A rich man fell in love with a poor woman,” where the words “loved” and “don’t love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. IN in this case Words that complete lines or phrases are repeated. An example is a song from the movie “The Hussar Ballad,” each verse of which ends with the words “a long time ago.”
Gradation is the sequential strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to imagine the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Creators” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off...”
Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone in particular, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem “Sail” by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.
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» » Figures of poetic syntax
Poetry is an incredible genre of literature that relies on rhyme, that is, all the lines in a poetic work rhyme with each other. However, poems and various similar works belonging to this genre would not be so impressive if not for the poetic syntax. What it is? This is a system of special speech construction tools that are responsible for improving its expressiveness. Simply put, poetic syntax is the collection of these poetic devices, which are most often called figures. It is these figures that will be discussed in this article - you will learn about different means of expression that can often be found in poetic works.
Repeat
Poetic syntax is very diverse; it includes dozens of means of expression that can be used in certain situations. However, this article will talk only about the most important and common figures of poetic speech. And the first thing without which it is impossible to imagine poetic syntax is repetition. Exists a large number of various repetitions, each of which has its own characteristics. You can find epanalipsis, anadiplosis and much more in poetry, but this article will talk about the two most common forms - anaphora and epiphora
Anaphora
Features of poetic syntax suggest the use of various ones in combination with others, but most often poets use repetitions. And the most popular among them is anaphora. What it is? Anaphora is the repetition of consonances or identical words at the beginning of each line of a poem or part of it.
“No matter how oppressive the hand of fate is,
No matter how much deception torments people...”
This is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech, which can be used to give one or another emphasis to what is said. However, figures of poetic speech can be varied, and even repetitions, as you have already learned, can differ from each other.
Epiphora
What is epiphora? This is also a repetition, but it is different from anaphora. The difference is that in this case the words are repeated at the end of the lines of the poem, and not at the beginning.
"To the steppes and roads
The count is not over;
Stones and rapids
Account not found."
As with the previous figure, epiphora is an expressive device and can give a poem special expression. Now you know what epiphora is, but it doesn’t end there. As mentioned earlier, the syntax of poems is very vast and provides endless possibilities.
Polysindeton
Poetic language is very euphonious precisely because poets use various means of poetic syntax. Among them, polysyndeton is often found, which is also called polyunion. This means of expression, which, due to its redundancy, gives the poem a special tone. Often polysyndeton is used in conjunction with anaphora, that is, repeated conjunctions begin at the beginning of the line.
Asyndeton
The poetic syntax of a poem is a combination of various poetic figures, you already learned about this earlier. However, you still do not know even a small part of the means that are used for poetic expression. You have already read about multi-union - it’s time to learn about non-union, that is, asyndeton. In this case, the lines of the poem appear to have no conjunctions at all, even in those cases where logically they should be present. Most often, this tool is used in long ones, which are ultimately listed separated by commas to create a certain atmosphere.
Parallelism
This means of expression is very interesting because it allows the author to beautifully and effectively compare any two concepts. Strictly speaking, the essence of this technique lies in an open and detailed comparison of two different concepts, but not just like that, but in the same or similar syntactic constructions. For example:
“The day spreads out like grass.
At night I wash myself with tears.”
Anjanbeman
Enjambment is a rather complex means of expression, which is not so easy to use competently and beautifully. If we talk in simple words, then this is a transfer, but far from the most ordinary one. In this case, part of the sentence is transferred from one line to another, but in such a way that the semantic and syntactic part previous one. To better understand what is meant, it is easier to look at an example:
"Into the ground, laughing that first
She stood up, crowned at dawn.”
As you can see, the sentence “Into the earth, laughing that rose first” is one separate part, and “in the dawn crown” is another. However, the word “rose” is moved to the second line, and it turns out that the rhythm is respected.
Inversion
Inversion in poems is very common - it gives them a poetic touch, and also ensures the creation of rhyme and rhythm. The essence of this technique is to change the word order to an atypical one. For example, you can take the sentence “A lonely sail whitens in the blue fog of the sea.” No. Is this a well-constructed sentence with the correct word order? Absolutely. But what happens if you use inversion?
"The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog."
As you can see, the sentence was not composed entirely correctly - its meaning is clear, but the word order does not correspond to the norm. But at the same time, the sentence has become much more expressive, and also now fits into the overall rhythm and rhyme of the poem.
Antithesis
Another technique that is used very often is antithesis. Its essence lies in the contrast of images and concepts used in the poem. This technique adds drama to the poem.
Gradation
This technique is a syntactic construction in which there is a certain set of words arranged in a specific order. This can be either in descending order or in increasing order of the significance and importance of these words. Thus, each subsequent word either strengthens the importance of the previous one or weakens it.
Rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal
Rhetoric in poetry is used very often, and in many cases it is addressed to the reader, but it is often used to address specific characters. What is the essence of this phenomenon? A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer. It is used to attract attention, not to have someone come up with an answer and communicate it. The situation is approximately the same with rhetorical appeal. It would seem that the appeal is used so that the person addressed will respond to it. However, rhetorical appeal, again, is used only as a means of attracting attention.
Artistic speech, its specificity. Poetic syntax and poetic figures of language.
Classifying f., the Roman theorist Quintilian outlined four ways of creating them:
1) addition of components, i.e. different types repetitions (anaphora, anticlimax, climax, polysyndeton, simploca, epistrophe, epiphora);
2) subtraction of components: asyndeton, zeugma, ellipse;
3) rearrangement of components: inversion, chiasmus, etc.;
Adding components
REPEAT - 1) one of the basic principles of organizing poetic speech, carried out at all its structural levels: phonetic, lexical, syntactic, rhythmic; 2) a concept that unites a significant part of syntactic and stylistic figures, called by ancient rhetoric Per adiectionen (addition). It includes amplification, anastrophe, anaphora, anti-climax, epistrophe, epiphora, climax, pleonasm, polysyndeton, simploca, tautology, etc. P. is of exceptional importance in folk poetry.
REFRAIN (French refrain from Latin refrengere - to break, break) - compositional repetition, verbatim or with minor changes, regular repetition in a poetic work of a word, expression, line or stanza in permanent places text (mostly at the end). It can be the bearer of a leitmotif, be associated with the emotional dominant of the poem, etc. Genetically, R. arose from the chorus, with which it is sometimes identified.
ANAPHOR (Greek anaphere - elevation) - unity of beginning, lexical-syntactic figure, repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of adjacent syntactic or rhythmic units. In a broad sense - repetition at the beginning of adjacent units of any level of text (see: Sound anaphora). The opposite figure to A. is epiphora.
EPIPHOR (Greek epiphora - repetition, from epi - after + phoros - bearing) - a lexical-syntactic figure opposite to anaphora, repetition of a word or phrase at the end of adjacent - syntactic or versification - units of text. The combination of anaphora and E. creates one of the variations of simploki.
SYMPLOKA (Greek symploke - plexus) - lexical-syntactic figure, combination of anaphora and epiphora - repetition of initial and final words in the syntactic units of poetic lines or stanzas. Sometimes, as a second option, S. is called repetition of words in the middle of a poetic line.
Black eyes, passionate eyes!
The eyes are burning and beautiful!
How I love you] How I fear you!
You know, I saw you at an unkind hour!
(E. Grebenka)
POLYSYNDETON, or MULTI-UNION (Greek polysyndeton - multi-connected) - a syntactic figure, an excessive, excessive repetition of a union. Contributes to the creation of speech solemnity and coherence of syntactic units. It is a characteristic stylistic feature of the Old and New Testaments and can be used to stylize the living speech of uncultured characters.
a) Oh, summer is red! I would love you
If only it weren't for the heat, the dust, the mosquitoes, and the flies.
(A. Pushkin)
CLIMAX (Greek klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, type of gradation, arrangement of words or expressions in accordance with the increase in their semantic and/or emotional meaning. Often plays the role of a compositional figure, for example, the technique of folklore tripling in Russian fairy tales, in particular, in “Sivka-burka”, the increase in the desires of the old woman in Pushkin’s “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish”, etc.
Examples: lexical K.
Approaches, rapprochements, combustions, -
The azure silence does not accept...
It rolls in from afar.
First, with the thunder of a horse train
Along the pavement. The hum of a draft.
Then the fall of heavy barrels from the cart.
ANTI-CLIMAX (tren, anti - against + klimax - ladder) - a stylistic figure, a type of gradation, arrangement of words or expressions in order of their decreasing meaning. Unlike menopause, it is used quite rarely in poetry. In a broad sense - the compositional order of the semantic phases of a work in descending order.
And if you left for someone else
Or was he just somewhere unknown?
It was enough for me that your
The cloak hung on a nail.
When, our fleeting guest,
You rushed off, looking for a new destiny,
It was enough for me that the nail
Left after the cloak.
The passage of days, the rustle of years, -
Fog, wind and rain...
And in the house there is an event - nothing worse:
A nail was pulled out of the wall!
Fog, and wind, and the sound of rain...
The passage of days, the rustle of years...
It was enough for me that from the nail
There was a small trace left.
When did the nail mark disappear?
Under the old painter's brush, -
I was content with the fact that
The nail was visible - yesterday.
(N. Matveeva)
Subtracting Components
ASINDETON, non-union (Greek asyndeton - unrelated) - a syntactic figure, the absence of necessary conjunctions (for example, with homogeneous members of a sentence). Used to express static phenomena or events, as well as psychological tension.
ELLIPS, ELLIPSIS (Greek elleipsis - omission, loss) - a syntactic figure, an omission of a word or phrase restored by the speech context. Being a syntactically incomplete construction, E. violates the normative grammatical connections between the members of the sentence while maintaining the general semantics of the statement. As a reflection of the general focus of speech on economy, E. is characteristic of colloquial speech(usually the easily implied, supporting parts of the statement are ellipsed, rather than the members of the sentence that nuance its meaning - subject, predicate, object). In literary text it is mainly used to convey physical or psychological excitement.
Either you love me -
and then everything doesn’t matter. And snow
It falls upward, dissolving into the sky-high distance.
Or... [...] Here follows a dash about duty, freedom and gift -
And it remains - to love for two, omitting the details
Heavy flights along the sky in the direction of spring...
(P. Besprozvannaya)
ZEVGMA (Greek zeugma - copula) - syntactic figure, subordination of a number of homogeneous minor members sentences to one, logically uniting them to the main member of the sentence (mainly the verbal predicate).
Gratitude
For everything, for everything I thank you:
For the secret torment of passions,
For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss,
For the revenge of enemies and slander of friends;
For the heat of the soul, wasted in the desert,
For everything I was deceived in life...
Just arrange it so that from now on you
It didn't take me long to thank him.
(M. Lermontov)
BREAK - a stylistic figure, interrupted or incoherent speech. Usually O. indicates the exhaustion of speech reflection, the agitation of the subject of speaking, etc. Most often it is indicated by an ellipsis.
I did not yet know the rolling stream,
From what heights does he need to fall...
And get ready to take the leap!
(S. Marshak)
SILENCE, or APOSIOPESIS (Greek aposiopesis - silence) is a stylistic figure, an expressed concealment of thought. Unlike a break, U. creates the effect of understatement; it contains a hint of the author’s conscious reluctance or indecisiveness to express his thoughts in a speech volume corresponding to his content due to various psychological motivations (hostility, shyness, fear, etc.), thereby it initiates the reader to demand semantic subtext.
I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything, I don't regret anything,
There are no boundaries over my heart,
So why do I suddenly go crazy with just one thought?
That never, never again...
My God, never!..
(A. Galich)
ALLUSION (Latin alludere - to play with someone, joke, refer) - a stylistic figure, an allusion to certain circumstances, a person, an image, etc. with a focus on the reader's memory of them. According to the source of origin, A. are distinguished: mythological (Augean stables), biblical ( global flood), historical (Hannibal's Oath), political and journalistic (Black Hundred), literary.
literary
You're just playing around,
And already from the deck - jump! -
Not a seven, not an ace, not a three.
Damned Queen of Spades!
(A. Galich)
Rearranging components.
TRANSFER, SINAPHIA (Greek sinaphia - contact), or ENJAMBEMAN (French enjambement from enjamber - to step over, jump over) - a syntactic figure, an expressive discrepancy between the syntactic division of poetic speech and its metric division. There are transfers of syllables and even letters. It is used for the author’s emphasis on a word or phrase, which brings P. closer to inversion and other figures of speech accentuation. Widely used in spoken poetry, as well as in blank verse. When pronouncing P., the final pause in the verses must be preserved.
Shining, the clouds pass by
By blue sky. The hill is steep
Illuminated by the autumn sun. River
Runs down the rocks with speed.
(M. Lermontov)
PARTELLATION (lat. pars - part) - syntactic figure, division of a single statement into a series isolated words or phrases. The main methods of such segmentation are auxiliary parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as interjections; in writing P. is often indicated by punctuation marks, and when pronounced - by intonation. P. is used primarily for stylistic purposes - to convey speech emotion, to accentuate each word in a sentence, etc. P. of words is also found.
a) Oh, how big he is in the field!
He is cunning and quick and firm in battle;
But he trembled as he stretched out only his hand
God-rati-on towards him with a bayonet.
(G. Derzhavin)
b) That in response to my love
You lowered your eyelids -
O life! oh forest! oh sunshine!
O youth! oh hopes!
(A.K. Tolstoy)
c) Distance: miles, miles...
We were arranged, seated,
To behave quietly,
At two different ends of the earth.
(M. Tsvetaeva)
d) I should surround her with a blockade of rhymes,
get lost, now turning pale, now blushing,
but a woman! me! thanks!
for being me! man! be gentle with her!
(E. Yevtushenko)
INVERSION (Latin inversio - rearrangement, inversion) is a syntactic figure, a violation of the normative order of the members of a sentence. Relocation of words or phrases ensures their logical and emotional markings, and more broadly, weakens the automaticity of text perception. The most common variation of I. is the castling of the subject-noun and adjective-determiner, which have an increased ability to express the author’s assessment and the author’s modality.
I dreamed of an azure, clear morning,
I dreamed of the vast expanse of my homeland,
The sky is ruddy, the field is dewy,
My irrevocable freshness and youth...
(K. Sluchevsky)
SYNTACTIC PARALLELISM (Greek parallelos - walking side by side) is a lexical-syntactic figure, an identical arrangement of similar members of a sentence in adjacent syntactic or rhythmic segments. Often coincides with psychological parallelism. Ancient rhetoric distinguished speech: by the number of commensurate speech segments (colons) included in it - dicolon, tricolon, etc.; by parallelism of sentence members (isocolon), by structural similarity/dissimilarity of columns (anthopodosis/chiasmus), by consonance (homeotelevton) or dissonance of the endings of columns, by similarity (homeoptoton) or dissimilarity of case endings of columns, etc.
What are you, white birch,
There is no wind, but are you making noise?
What, zealous heart,
There is no grief, but you are in pain?
(Folk song)
Crazy nights, sleepless nights,
Speeches are incoherent, eyes are tired...
Nights illuminated by the last fire,
Autumn's dead flowers are belated!
(A. Apukhtin)
CHIASM (Greek chiasmos from the letter “X” - xi - crosswise arrangement) is a syntactic figure covering two adjacent sentences, phrases, as well as poetic lines in which the same type of sentence members are located in relation to each other in the reverse order ( principle of mirror image).
X. with syntactic parallelism
To a ripe ear - a daring sickle,
For an adult girl - a young groom!
(Ya. Nekrasov)
ANTITHESIS (Greek contrapositum - opposition) is a stylistic figure of bringing together two opposing images, concepts, thoughts. IN oratory and artistic creativity, A. is carried out through the collision of words (antonyms), phrases, sentence segments, verbal micro-images that are similar in formal terms, but opposite in meaning.
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blush like the color of poppies; I am like death, skinny and pale.
(A. Pushkin)
There are two misfortunes in Russia:
Below is the power of darkness,
And above is the darkness of power.
(V. Gilyarovsky)
“Happiness is in effort,” says youth.
“Happiness is in peace,” says death.
“I will overcome everything,” says youth.
“Yes, but it will all end,” says death.
(V. Rozanov)
Poetic liberties.
SOLECISM (or Greek Soloi - colony cities in Asia Minor, whose inhabitants distorted the Greek language) is a grammatically incorrect use of the word. Most often it is explained by the stylization of vernacular or the absence of the morphological form proposed by the author, which he needs to solve a specific stylistic problem. In ancient rhetoric, incorrectly constructed phrases were called S.
I'll leave without asking anything
Because mine pulled out lot,
I didn't think this month was beautiful
So beautiful and disturbing in the sky.
(I. Annensky)
The destiny of things: to rush somewhere into the distance.
Yesterday, in the evening, they gave me a shawl -
in the morning the shawl gets cold and bored,
she can't bear to hug shoulder other.
(B. Akhmadulina)
AMPHIBOLIA (Greek amphibolos - deceptive, ambiguous) - semantic ambiguity of the image.
My long path is empty and smooth...
Only in black villages
The endless is getting sadder,
Like rain, a slanting fence.
(I. Annensky)
ANAKOLUTH (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - a speech figure, syntactic inconsistency of sentence members in a complete statement. A phenomenon common to oral speech, A. in a literary text can be a reproduction of a conversational style, or a method emotional expressiveness, or a consequence of the author's inattention (author's deafness). The terminological synonym for A. is hyperbaton (Greek - transition), denoting a change in its syntactic order during speech, most often the separation of two connected words.
Nature hasn't woken up yet,
But through dwindling sleep
She heard spring
And she involuntarily smiled.
Literary study syntactic features of a work of art is intended to reveal the aesthetic function of syntactic devices, their role in the formation of style in its different volumes (author, genre, national...)
As in the study of vocabulary, facts of deviation from the literary norm are significant here. In Russian literature, the most common syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernaculars.
Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is constructed according to the rules foreign language. Example: “Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off” (Chekhov’s “Book of Complaints”) - obvious gallicism causes a comic effect. Syntactic colloquialisms in the characters’ language serve to realistically reflect the individual speech style and to self-characterize the characters. For this purpose, Chekhov resorted to colloquialisms: “Your dad told me that he was a court councilor, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the Wedding”). The syntactic structure of a character's speech allows readers to judge his attitude to a certain social group, his character traits, and even whether the author shows him experiencing an emotional upsurge or decline in a specific plot situation.
Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures. In ancient theory, paths and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “trope” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” order of words in syntactic construction.
Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another – quantitative or qualitative – differentiating feature. Let us list the particularly significant figures, taking into account 3 factors:
unusual logical or grammatical connection between elements of syntactic constructions
unusual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text
unusual ways of intonation marking of text using syntactic means.
The group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic unities includes the ellipse, anacoluth, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly (figures distinguished by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as gendiadis and ennalaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements)
An ellipse is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, which consists in omitting a word/a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the missing members is easily restored from the general speech context. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of authenticity (close to colloquial speech). In addition, the use of the ellipse may be motivated by the author’s focus on the psychologism of the narrative. Thus, Rodion Raskolnikov often expresses himself in elliptical phrases (ellipses often serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state). Often ellipses also indicate rapid changes in states or actions: “Tatyana ah! And he roars...", "Tatyana into the forest, the bear is behind her..."
Anakoluf - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and control: “The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable” (A. Pisemsky “Sin of Senility”)
Silleps - syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a number of homogeneous members of a sentence: “This sex carried a napkin under his arm and a lot of acne on his cheeks” (I. Turgenev “Strange Story”)
Alogism is a syntactic correlation of semantically unrelated parts of a phrase with the help of its auxiliary elements expressing a certain type of logical connection: “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco “The Bald Singer”)
Amphiboly is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and the direct object, expressed by nouns in similar grammatical forms: “This means that life has defeated death in a way unknown to me” (D. Kharms “Chest”). The ending is unclear for the reader: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and was resurrected.
Gendiadis is a rare figure in Russian literature. The essence of Gendiadis is that compound adjectives are divided into the original component parts: “road, iron melancholy” (A. Blok “On railway"). Here the word “railroad” was split, as a result of which 3 words came into interaction - and the verse acquired additional meaning.
Enallaga - transfer of the definition to a word adjacent to the defined: “Through the fat trenches of meat...” (N. Zabolotsky “Wedding”). In this line, the definition of “fat” became a vivid epithet after being transferred from “meat” to “trenches”.
Figures with unusual relative positions of parts of syntactic constructions include different kinds parallelism and inversion.
Parallelism presupposes the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic segments of text (poetic lines, sentences, parts of a sentence).
Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some characteristic that the first of the related structures possesses.
Thus, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, they distinguish between direct parallelism: “In the blue sky the stars shine, / In the blue sea the waves whip” (A.S. Pushkin) and inverted parallelism: “The waves are playing, the wind is whistling” (Lermontov’s “Sail” "). Inverted parallelism is also called chiasmus (Greek chiasmos - “cruciformity”)
When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, complete and incomplete parallelism are also distinguished. A common name for complete parallelism is isocolon (gr. isokolon - “equivalence”). Example: “The amphorae are emptied, / The baskets are overturned” (F. Tyutchev “The feast is over, the choirs are silent”). Incomplete parallelism: “Pause, pause, evening day, / Last, last, charm” (F. Tyutchev “ last love"). There are other types of parallelism.
Inversion manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order different from the natural one. Inverted words can be positioned differently in a phrase. With contact inversion, the contiguity of words is preserved (“He passed the doorman with an arrow” - Pushkin), with distance, other words are wedged between them (“The old man obedient to Perun alone” - Pushkin “Song of the prophetic Oleg”).
The group of figures that mark an unusual intonation composition of a text or its individual parts includes various types of semantic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.
There are 2 subgroups of repetition techniques. The first ones include techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, the author usually emphasizes a semantically tense place in a phrase. Like inversion, repetition can be contact: “It’s time, it’s time, the horns are blowing” (Pushkin “Count Nulin”) or distant: “It’s time, my friend, it’s time! The heart asks for peace” (Pushkin).
The repetition of one word in different case forms while maintaining its meaning has been identified since ancient times as a special figure - polyptoton: “But a man / Sent a man to anchar with an imperious gaze” (Pushkin “Anchar”). An equally ancient figure is antanaclasis - repetition of a word in the original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning: “The last eagle owl is broken and sawn, / And pinned with a stationery pin / To an autumn branch head down, // Hangs and thinks with his head” (A. Eremenko “In dense metallurgical forests ...”)
Subgroup 2 includes repetition figures that extend not to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. These types of repetition are distinguished by position in the text.
Anaphora (single beginning) - consolidation of speech segments by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: “ Your name- a bird in your hand, / Your name is a piece of ice on your tongue. / One single movement of your lips. / Your name is five letters” (Tsvetaeva)
Epiphora (single-ended), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Festoons, all scallops: a cape of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes of scallops, scallops below, scallops everywhere” (N. Gogol)
Anadiplosis (junction) is a contact repetition that connects the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next one: “I was there too, passerby! / Passerby, stop!” (Tsvetaeva)
Anadiplosis is the opposite of prosapodosis (ring, coverage) - distant repetition, in which the initial element of a syntactic structure is reproduced at the end of the following: August - bunches / Grapes and rowan / Rusty - August! (Tsvetaeva). Prosapodosis can cover a stanza (the poem “You are my Shagane, Shagane...” is built on circular repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night, street, lantern, pharmacy...” by A. Blok)
This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of text - simploca: “In the field there stood a birch tree, / In a field a curly one stood.”
When repeated, it is possible to reproduce not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning separated from the sign. Tautology, or pleonasm, is a figure, the use of which does not necessarily repeat a word, but necessarily duplicates the meaning of a lexical element. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic elements. In A. Eremenko’s poem “Pokryshkin”, the double tautology intonationally highlights the “evil bullet of gangster evil” against the background of the flow of speech of the columns.
In order to intonationally highlight a semantically significant speech segment, annomination is also used - contact repetition of words with the same root: “I think my thoughts...” (N. Nekrasov)
Close to repetition figures is gradation, in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have something in common semantic meaning(sign or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually strengthen or weaken: “By heaven, it is beyond doubt that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful... it is true that you are attractive” (“Love’s Labour’s Lost” by Shakespeare, translated by Yu. Korneev). A graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonation expressiveness)
In addition, the group of means of intonation marking includes polysyndeton (gr. “multi-union”) and asyndeton (gr. “non-union”). Polysyndeton is not only a polyunion, but also a “polysentence”. Its function is either to mark a logical sequence of actions: “And the thoughts in the head are agitated towards courage, And light rhymes run towards them, And fingers ask for the pen” (Pushkin “Autumn”), or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a number of details as a whole image: “And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now the wild / Tungus, and the friend of the steppes, the Kalmyk” (Pishkin “Monument”, no, no, not “Ad Melpomenen”).
With the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized: “The Swede, the Russian stabs, chops, cuts...”, or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world: “Whisper, timid breathing, / The trill of a nightingale, / Silver and the swaying / of a sleepy stream.”
The writer's use of syntactic figures leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style.
